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FOUNDATIONS OF COLLEGE CHEMISTRY This page intentionally left blank FOUNDATIONS OF COLLEGE CHEMISTRY Thirteenth Edition Morris Hein Mount San Antonio College Susan Arena University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign John Wiley & Sons, Inc VP & Publisher: Kaye Pace Associate Publisher: Petra Recter Acquisition Editor: Nicholas Ferrari Project Editor: Jennifer Yee Marketing Manager: Kristine Ruff Production Manager: Dorothy Sinclair Senior Production Editor: Sandra Dumas Art Director: Jeofrey Vita Designer: Amy Rosen Senior Media Editor: Thomas Kulesa Media Editor: Marc Wezdecki Senior Illustration Editor: Anna Melhorn Photo Department Manager: Hilary Newman Photo Editor: Elinor Wagner Production Management Services: Ingrao Associates This book was typeset in 10/12 Minister Light at Preparé and printed and bound by R R Donnelley/Jefferson City The cover was printed by R R Donnelley/Jefferson City The paper in this book was manufactured by a mill whose forest management programs include sustained yield—harvesting of its timberlands Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year does not exceed the amount of new growth This book is printed on acid free paper q Copyright © 2011, 2007, 2004, 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600 Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008 Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative ISBN-13 978-0470-46061-0 ISBN-13 978-0470-55422-7 Printed in the United States of America 10 For Edna Ruth Hein My wife, partner in life, and best friend for over sixty-four years, who typed the manuscript for the first edition of this textbook Edna was sweet, devoted, and a beautiful woman both inside and outside To know her was to love her M H This page intentionally left blank ABOUT THE AUTHORS Morris Hein is professor emeritus of chemistry at Mt San Antonio College, where he regularly taught the preparatory chemistry course and organic chemistry He is the original author of Foundations of College Chemistry and his name has become synonymous with clarity, meticulous accuracy, and a step-by-step approach that students can follow Over the years, more than three million students have learned chemistry using a text by Morris Hein In addition to Foundations of College Chemistry, Twelfth Edition, he is co-author of Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry, Eighth Edition, and Introduction to Organic and Biochemistry He is also co-author of Foundations of Chemistry in the Laboratory, Twelfth Edition, and Introduction to General, Organic and Biochemistry in the Laboratory, Eighth Edition Susan Arena earned a BS and MA in Chemistry at California State UniversityFullerton She has taught science and mathematics at all levels, including middle school, high school, community college, and university At the University of Illinois she developed a program for increasing the retention of minorities and women in science and engineering This program focused on using active learning and peer teaching to encourage students to excel in the sciences She has coordinated and led workshops and progrms for science teachers from elementary through college levels that encourage and support active learning and creative science teaching techniques For several years she was director of an Institute for Chemical Education (ICE) field center in Southern California Susan enjoys reading, knitting, traveling, classic cars, and gardening in her spare time when she is not playing with her grandchildren ix PC-2 PHOTO CREDITS Chapter 11 Page 213: James M Bell/Photo Researchers, Inc Page 220: iStockphoto Page 227: Tom Pantages Page 231: Courtesy IBM Almaden Research Center (left) Page 231: Courtesy Prof Bharat Bhushan, OSU (right) Page 238: Dwayne Newton/PhotoEdit Chapter 12 Page 251: Kees Van Den Berg/Photo Researchers, Inc Page 252: Tom Pantages Page 262: Rita Amaya (left) Page 262: Rita Amaya (center) Page 262: Rita Amaya (right) Page 268: JeanPaul Chassenet/Photo Researchers Page 271: Page 281: Courtesy Alaska Volcano Observatory/USGS (top) Page 281: NASA/Photo Researchers, Inc (bottom) Chapter 13 Page 290: Ingram Publishing/SuperStock Page 293: Charles D Winters /Photo Researchers Page 294: Nature’s Images/Photo Researchers (top) Page 294: Yoav levy/Phototake (bottom) Page 296: Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc Page 302: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs (left) Page 302: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs (right) Page 304: iStockphoto (left) Page 304: Martin Dohrn/Photo Researchers, Inc (right) Page 305: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Page 308: Dana Bartekoske/iStockphoto Page 309: Mitch Kaufman/Courtesy of Southern California Edison (bottom) Page 309: Borderlands/Alamy (top) Chapter 14 Page 316: Photodisc Page 318: Frederic Mikulec/Advanced Materials, 2002, 14, No Jan 4, (Fig 1) By permission of WileyVCH (top) Page 318: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs (bottom) Page 319: Kip Peticolas/Fundamental Photographs Page 321: Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc Page 322: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Page 334: David Young-Woff/PhotoEdit Page 335: Craig Newbauer/Peter Arnold, Inc Page 337: Christine Balderas/iStockphoto Page 338: Dennis Kunkel/Phototake (left) Page 338: Dennis Kunkel/Phototake (center) Page 338: Dennis Kunkel/Phototake (right) Chapter 15 Page 351: Jan Rihak/iStockphoto Page 352: Blend Images/Getty Images, Inc (top) Page 352: Andrew Lambert Photography/ Photo Researchers, Inc (center) Page 352: Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc (bottom) Page 355: Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc Page 357: Prof P Motta/Dept of Anatomy/University La Sapienza , Rome/Photo Researchers (top) Page 357: Tom Pantages (left) Page 357: Tom Pantages (center) Page 357: Tom Pantages (right) Page 365: Courtesy of Wright Patterson Air Force Base Page 366: Leonard Lessin/Peter Arnold, Inc (top) Page 366: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs (left) Page 366: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs (center) Page 366: Fundamental Photographs (right) Page 371: Mark Boulton/Photo Researchers, Inc Page 373: Courtesy of Karmann, Inc Page 374: Kip Peticolas/Fundamental Photographs Page 375: AJPhoto/Photo Researchers, Inc Chapter 16 Page 381: MediaMagnet/SuperStock Page 383: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs (left) Page 383: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs (right) Page 385: Courtesy Frederick C Eichmiller, ADA Paffenberger Research Center Page 389: Grant Heilman Photography/Alamy Page 390: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs Page 402: Charles D Wiinters/Photo Researchers Page 403: Mark E Gibson/Corbis Images Chapter 17 Page 411: Icon SMI/NewsCom Page 413: Tom Pantages Page 415: Tom Pantages Page 421: Yuri Arcurs/Stockphotopro, Inc (left) Page 421: Yuri Arcurs/Stockphotopro, Inc (right) Page 424: Peticolas/Megna/Fundamental Photographs Page 427: James L Amos/Corbis Images Page 429: Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers Chapter 18 Page 441: J Silver/SuperStock Page 442: Eric Schrempp/Photo Researchers Page 449: Courtesy Stanford Linear Accelerator Center Page 450: Rennie Van Munchow/Phototake Page 456: NASA (top) Page 456: Visuals Unlimited (bottom) Page 457: NASA/Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc Page 459: Hank Morgan/Photo Researchers Chapter 19 Page 466: Mauritius/SuperStock Page 470: Courtesy of Joshua Tickell/veggievan.org Page 471: Michael Dalton/Fundamental Photographs Page 479: Roberto A Sanchez/iStockphoto (top) Page 479: Craig Aurness/Corbis Images (bottom) Page 481: steve vanhorn/iStockphoto Page 484: Reuters/Corbis Images Page 489: Mark Wilson/Getty Images, Inc Page 490: David Tietz/PhotoEdit Page 493: Kathleen Pepper/Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc Page 496: Corbis/SuperStock Page 497: Sarah Bossert/iStockphoto Page 498: douglas dickens/iStockphoto Page 499: Corbis/SuperStock (bottom) Page 499: Lyroky/Alamy (top) Chapter 20 Page 508: Digital Vision/SuperStock Page 509: Corbis/SuperStock Page 511: Emilio Ereza/Alamy (top) Page 511: SuperStock (bottom) Page 512: Erika Stoner/Peter Arnold, Inc (top) Page 512: Image Source/Getty Images, Inc (bottom) Page 513: Michael Viard/Peter Arnold, Inc (top) Page 513: Science Source/Photo Researchers (bottom) Page 514: Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold, Inc (top) Page 514: David Silverman/Getty Images, Inc (bottom) Page 516: Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers Page 525: Science Source/Photo Researchers INDEX A Absolute zero, 32, 260 Acetic acid, 63, 134 Acetone, 493 Acetylene, 134, 478–479 Acid anhydrides, 306 Acid-base definitions Arrhenius, 352 Brønsted-Lowry, 352–353 Lewis, 354 Acid-base properties of salt, 401 Acid ionization constant, 395–397 Acid rain, 371–372 Acid-type dry cell battery, 428 Acids See also Electrolytes anion names compared, 113 characteristics of, 352 derived from binary compounds, 109–110 molarities of, 329 naming of, 112–113 neutralization of, 155, 366–367 pH and, 363–366 reaction with bases, 355–356 reaction with carbonates, 355 reaction with metal oxides, 355 reaction with metals, 355 Actinide series, 206 Activated charcoal, 374 Activation energy, 159, 391 Activity series of metals, 154, 423–425 Actual yield, 182 Acute radiation damage, 458–460 Addition, significant figures in, 19–20 Addition reactions, 481 Adsorption, colloids, 374 Aeration, water, 307 Agitation, solid dissolving rate and, 324 Air pollution, 279–282 Air pressure measurement, 255 Alanyltyrosylglycine, 520 Alcohols, 487–490 ethanol, 489 methanol, 488–489 primary, 488 secondary, 488 tertiary, 488 Aldehydes, 493–494 Alkali metals compound formulas formed by, 225 halide solubility and, 320 periodic table and, 48, 204 Alkaline earth metals, 48, 204 Alkaline-type dry cell battery, 428 Alkanes, 469–477 naming of, 474–477 structural formulas and, 471–473 Alkenes addition reaction and, 481 classification of, 478–479 naming of, 479–480 unsaturated hydrocarbons and, 469 Alkyl groups, 474–475 Alkyl halides, 486–487 Alkynes classification of, 478–479 naming of, 479–480 unsaturated hydrocarbons and, 469 Allotropes, 280 Alpha-particle scattering, 88 Alpha particles, 442, 445–446 Aluminum atomic structure and, 202 chromate, 103 fluoride formation, 222 specific heat of, 68 Amino acid residues, 519 Amino acids, 517–521 Ammonia, gaseous, 389 Ammonium phosphate, 103 Amorphous solids, 5–6 Amphoteric hydroxides, 356 Anhydrides, 306–307 Anhydrous crystals, 302 Anions acid names compared, 113 compounds and, 53 formation of, 87, 105 naming of, 85, 102 Anodes, 425 Antarctica ozone hole, 281 Argon, 202 Aromatic compounds, 482–485 disubstituted benzenes, 483–484 monosubstituted benzenes, 483 naming of, 483–485 tri- and polysubstituted benzenes, 485 unsaturated hydrocarbons and, 469 Aromatic hydrocarbons, 482 Arrhenius, Svante, 84–85, 352 Arrhenius acid and base solutions, 352 Arsenic contamination, 309 Artificial radioactivity, 450 Artificial sweeteners, 300 Atmospheric mass, 44–45 Atmospheric pressure, 254, 293 Atomic bomb, 455–456 Atomic clocks, 200 Atomic mass, 91–93 Atomic numbers, 89 Atomic properties, 214–217 Atomic radius, 214–215, 221 Atomic structures of first eighteen elements, 200–203 Atomic theory and structure See also Modern atomic theory atomic mass and, 91–93 atomic numbers of the elements, 89 compound composition and, 83–84 Dalton’s model of atom, 82–83 early thoughts on, 82 electrical charge and, 84 element isotopes and, 89–90 ion discovery, 84–85 nuclear atom, 87–89 subatomic particle arrangement, 88–89 subatomic parts of atom, 85–87 Atomic weight, 91 Atoms definition of, 44 Lewis structures of, 217–218 neutron determination and, 93 Automobile storage battery, 429 Avogadro, Amadeo, 123 Avogadro’s law, 269–270 Avogadro’s number, 123 B Baking soda, 355 Balanced chemical equations, 145–149, 169 Barium chloride dihydrate, 302 Barometers, 254 Bases See also Electrolytes acids reaction with, 355 amphoteric hydroxides and, 356 characteristics of, 352 NaOH and KOH reactions, 356 neutralization of, 155, 366–367 pH and, 363–366 reaction with acids, 356 Basic anhydrides, 306 Becquerel, Henri, 87, 442 Beef insulin, 521 Benzenes addition reactions and, 482 disubstituted benzenes, 483–484 empirical and molecular formulas, 134 monosubstituted benzenes, 483 tri- and polysubstituted benzenes, 485 I-1 I-2 INDEX Benzoic acid, 496 Beryllium, 202 Beta particles, 442, 446 Binary acids, 109–110 Binary compounds acids derived from, 109–110 containing two nonmetals, 108 flow chart for naming, 110 with metal forming one type of cation, 105–106 with metals forming two or more types of cations, 106–108 naming of, 105–110 Biochemistry amino acids and proteins, 517–521 carbohydrates, 509–513 DNA and genetics, 527–528 enzymes, 522–523 lipids, 513–517 living organisms and, 509 nucleic acids, 523–526 Biodiesel, 470 Black, Joseph, 68 Blood sugar, 510 Bohr, Niels, 101, 197 Bohr atom, 196–198 Boiling point elevation constants, 333–335 liquids, 294–295 Bond angle, 305 Bond length, 304 Boron, 202 Boron trifluoride, 237 Boyle’s law, 257–260 Breeder reactor, 455 Bromides, 225 Bromine, 134 Brønsted, J N., 352 Brønsted-Lowry proton transfer, 352–353 Brown, Robert, 374 Brownian movement, 374 Büchner, Eduard, 522 Buckminsterfullerene, 231 Buckyballs, 231 Buffer solutions, 401–403 Butane naming of, 475 structural formula for, 472–473 Butyric acid, 496 C C-terminal residue, 519–520 Calcium chloride, 335 Calcium precipitation, 308 Calculations, significant figures and, 18–21 Calories, heat measurement and, 68 Capillary action, liquids and, 294 Carbohydrates, 509–513 digestion and metabolism of, 513 disaccharides, 511–512 monosaccharides, 509–511 polysaccharides, 512–513 Carbon atom, 468–469 atomic structure and, 202 footprints, 161 isotope half-life, 443 protons and electrons and, 89 tetrahedral structure of, 468 Carbon dioxide in atmosphere, 160–161 covalently bonded molecules and, 226 for dry cleaning, 498 empirical and molecular formulas, 134 geometric shape of, 237 oxygen exchange in blood, 402 Carbon monoxide poisoning, 152 Carbon tetrachloride, 230, 239 Carbonates, 355 Carbonic acid, 355 Carbonyl group, 486, 493 Carboxyl group, 495 Carboxylic acids, 495–496 Catalysts, effect on equilibrium, 391 Cathode rays, 85–86 Cathodes, 425 Cations compounds and, 53 formation of, 87, 102 ion discovery and, 85 Cavities, 385 Cellular genetic information process, 526 Cellulose, 513 Celsius scale, 30–32 Cerebroside, 516 Chadwick, James, 86 Chain reaction, 453 Charcoal, 374 Charles, J A C., 260 Charles’ law, 260–263 Chemical calculations limiting reactant calculations, 177–182 mass-mass calculations, 176–177 mole-mass calculations, 174–175 mole-mole calculations, 171–174 yield calculations, 182–184 Chemical changes energy in, 71 properties of substances and, 64–66 Chemical equations calculations from, 168–184 combination reactions, 151–152 decomposition reactions, 153 double-displacement reactions, 154–155 general format and, 144 global warming and, 160–161 information in, 150–151 molecular representations of, 65 single-displacement reactions, 153–154 stepwise sequences and, 146–149 stoichiometry and, 169–171 symbols commonly used in, 145 types of, 151–157 writing and balancing, 145–149 Chemical equilibrium acid-base properties of salt, 401 buffer solutions and, 401–403 catalysts effect on, 391 concentration effect on, 386–388 equilibrium constants, 391–393 ion product constant for water, 393–395 ionization constants, 395–397 Le Châtelier’s principle, 384–385 pH control, 401–403 rates of reaction, 382–383 reversible reactions, 382 solubility product constant, 398–400 temperature effect on, 390 volume effect on, 388–389 Chemical formulas, 53–55 Chemical kinetics, 382–383 Chemical properties, 62 Chemisthesis, 357 Chemists, Chernobyl nuclear accident, 454 Chlorides, 225 Chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs), 487 Chlorination, 487 Chlorine atomic structure and, 202 electron arrangements and, 219 empirical and molecular formulas, 134 gas, 226 oxy-anions and oxy-acids of, 111 p electron pairing in, 227 physical properties of, 63 relative radii of, 220 sodium atoms reacting with, 219 Chlorobenzene, 482 Chlorofluorocarbon propellants, 280 Chloroform, 487 Cholesterol, 516–517 Chromosomes, 528 Coal, 72 Coins, modern technology and, 133 Colligative properties of solutions, 333–335, 362 Colloids, 372–375 adsorption, 374 applications of, 374–375 Brownian movement and, 374 INDEX characteristics of, 372–373 dialysis and, 375 dispersion types, 373 properties of, 376 Tyndall effect and, 374 Combination reactions, 151–152 Combined gas laws, 264–266 Common ion effect, 400 Complex Lewis structures, 235–236 Compounds anions and, 52–53 cations and, 53 composition of, 83–84 containing polyatomic ions, 236–237 elements that combine to give more then one, 84 ions and, 52 Lewis structures of, 231–235 molar mass of, 126–129 molecules and, 52 percent composition of, 129–132 quantitative composition of, 121–138 registered, 53 sodium chloride, 53 water, 53 Concentrated solutions, 319, 325 Concentration effect on equilibrium, 386–388 Condensation, 292 Conservation of energy, 71 Constant pressure, gas, 261 Copolymers, 498 Copper atoms, 85 isotopes of, 92 mass of, 92 silver nitrate reaction and, 157 specific heat of, 68 Copper oxide formation, 64–65 Corrosion, metal, 365 Cotton, 513 Covalent bonds, 226–227 Crick, Francis H C., 525 Critical mass, 453 Crookes, William, 85 Crystal of table salt, Crystalline solids, 5–6 Crystals surface area, 323 Cubic meters, 29 Curie, Marie, 442 Curie, Pierre, 442 Curie (Ci), 451 Currency, manufacturing of, 63 D Dalton’s atomic model, 82–83 Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 267–269 Damaged art revival, 50 de Broglie, Louis, 197 Decomposition reactions, 153 Degrees in temperature measurement, 32 Demineralization, water, 308 Density, 34–37 comparison of masses of equal volumes, 35 comparison of volumes of equal masses, 35 gases and, 270–271 liquids and solids, 35 selected materials and, 35 specific gravity and, 36 Desalinization plants, 308–309 Dialysis, 375 Diatomic elements, 127–128 Diatomic molecules, 51–52, 100 Diborane, 134 Dichlorobenzenes, 483–484 Diffusion, gases and, 253 Dilute solutions, 325 Dilution problems, 332 Dimensional analysis, 23–26 Dioxin, 310 Dipeptides, 517 Dipoles, 228–229 Disaccharides, 511–512 Disinfection, water, 307 Dissociation, electrolytes, 358–359 Distillation, water, 308 Disubstituted benzenes, 483–484 Division, significant figures in, 18–19 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 524–526 genetics and, 527–528 replication of, 527 structure of, 525–526 transcription and, 526 Dry air, 254 Dry cell batteries, 428 Dry cleaning, 498 E Earth’s mass, 44–45 Effusion, gases and, 253 Electrical charge, 84 Electrolysis, 64–66 Electrolytes, 357–358 See also Acids; Bases; Salts colligative properties of, 362 dissociation of, 358–359 ionization of, 359 strong and weak, 360–361 Electrolytic cells, 425–430 Electromagnetic field, 445 Electromagnetic radiation, 195–196 Electromagnetic spectrum, 196 Electronegativity, 227–230 dipoles and, 228–229 I-3 nonpolar covalent bonds and, 228–230 relating bond types to, 230 three-dimensional representation of, 228 Electrons arrangements in noble gases, 218 configurations of, 201, 203 electrical charge of, 87 energy levels of, 198–200 pair arrangement and, 241 periodic table and, 203–208 properties of, 86 relative mass of, 87 Electroplating of metals, 427 Elements See also Periodic table arranging by sublevel being filled, 206 atomic numbers of, 89 atomic structures of first eighteen, 200–203 atoms and, 44 broad categories of, 51 collecting, 204 combining to give more than one compound, 84 compounds, 52–53 definition of, 44 as diatomic molecules, 51–52 distribution of, 44–46 inorganic compounds and, 99–103 isotopes of, 87–88 liquid and gaseous, 45 mass in Earth’s crust, seawater, and atmosphere, 44–45 mass in human body, 46 names of, 46 natural states and, 50 periodic table and, 48–50 symbols of, 46–47 transmutation of, 449–450 Empirical formulas calculating, 134–138 molecular formulas compared, 132–133 Endothermic reactions, 158 Energy chemical changes and, 71 conservation of, 71 definition of, 67 in real world, 72 Engine coolant, 334 Enriched uranium, 455 Enzymes, 522–523 Equilibrium See Chemical equilibrium Equilibrium constants, 391–393 Esterification, 497 Esters, 496–497 Ethane, 471, 473 Ethanol, 487, 489 Ethers, 491–492 I-4 INDEX Ethyl alcohol physical properties of, 295 specific heat of, 68 vapor pressure-temperature curves for, 295 Ethyl chloride, 295 Ethyl ether, 295 Ethylene, 134, 478–479, 499 Ethylene glycol, 489 Evaporation, 291–292 Exothermic reactions, 158, 391 Experimental data, percent composition from, 132 F Fahrenheit scale, 30–32 Falling water, conversion to electrical energy, 67 Fallout, 456 Families, periodic table and, 204 Faraday, Michael, 84–85, 482 Fat cells, 514 Fats and oils, 513–517 Fatty acids, 515 Fermentation, 522 Fission process, 451–453 Fission products, 451 Flocculation, water, 307 Fluorescence, 196 Fluorine atomic structure and, 201–202 hydrogen bonding and, 299 number of neutrons in, 93 Foam cars, 373 Food irradiation, 452 Formaldehyde, 134, 493 Formalin, 493 Formic acid, 496 Formulas equation, 368 percent composition from, 130–131 writing from ionic compound names, 105–106 Fossil fuels consumption of, 160–162 hydrocarbons and, 469 Freezing point depression constants, 333–335 Freezing points, 32, 296–297 Freons, 280 Frequency, waves and, 195 Fructose, 511 Functional groups, 469 Fusion reactions, 456–457 G Galactose, 510–511 Galactosemia, 511 Galvanic cells See Voltaic cells Gamma rays, 442, 446–447 Gas formation, 155 Gas stoichiometry, 275–279 mass-volume calculations, 275–277 mole-volume calculations, 275–277 volume-volume calculations, 277–278 Gaseous elements, 45 Gases Avogadro’s law and, 269–270 Boyle’s law and, 257–260 Charles’ law and, 260–263 combined gas laws, 264–266 common materials in, Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 267–269 density of, 35, 270–271 diffusion and, 253 effusion and, 253 gas stoichiometry, 275–279 Gay-Lussac’s law and, 263–264 general properties of, 252 ideal gas, 252, 270–271 kinetic-molecular theory and, 252–253 mole-mass-volume relationships of, 270–271 physical properties of, pressure measurement, 254–255 pressure of, 255–256 real gases, 279–282 solubility in water, 321 standard conditions and, 264–265 temperature and, 261 Gasoline combustion, 67 Gastronomy, molecular, 3–4 Gay-Lussac, J L., 263 Gay-Lussac’s law, 263–264, 269–270 Geiger counter, 450 Geiger-Müller detecting tube, 450 Genes, 528 Genetic effects, radiation and, 460 Glassware, volume measurements and, 30 Global warming, 160–162, 281 Glucose, 134, 510, 513 Glutamate, 522 Glycerol, 489 Glycogen, 513 Glycolipids, 516 Glycosuria, 510 Glycylglycine, 519 Gold, 68 Goldstein, Eugen, 86 Graham, Thomas, 253 Graham’s law of effusion, 253 Gray, Theodore, 204 Greenhouse effect, 160–162 Ground state, energy levels and, 197 Groups, periodic table and, 204 H Haber, Fritz, 388 Haber process, 388 Hahn, Otto, 451 Half-life, 443 Halogenation, 486 Halogens, 48, 204 Halothane, 487 Hazardous waste disposal, 310 Heat in chemical reactions, 157–160 of fusion, 297 qualitative measurement and, 68–70 of reaction, 159 of vaporization, 297 Heating curves, 297 Helium, 45, 201 Heredity, 527–528 Heterogenous matter, Heterogenous mixtures, Holoenzymes, 522 Homogenous matter, 8–9 Homogenous mixtures, Homologous series, 470 Hot packs, 322 Human body, mass percent of elements in, 46 Hydrates, 301–303 Hydrazine, 134 Hydrocarbons aromatic, 482 derivatives, 486 fossil fuels and, 158 names and formulas for, 72 saturated, 469 unsaturated, 469 Hydrochloric acid, 109, 426 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 487 Hydrogen bonds, 298–301 empirical and molecular formulas, 134 energy release and, 71 isotopes of, 90 molecule, formation of, 226 number of neutrons in, 93 Hydrogen atom Bohr model of, 197 line spectrum of, 197 modern concept of, 200 orbitals for, 198 principle energy levels in, 198 Hydrogen carbonate-carbonic acid buffer, 403 Hydrogen chloride, 109, 134 Hydrogen compounds, 299 Hydrogen fuel cells, 54 Hydrogen peroxide, 83, 153 Hydrogenation, 515 INDEX Hydrolysis, 401 Hydronium ion, 353 Hydroxides, amphoteric, 356 Hypothesis, scientific method and, I Ice, specific heat of, 68 Ice and water in equilibrium, 303–304 Ice cream, 337 Ideal gas, 252, 273–274 Immiscible liquids, 318–319 Induced radioactivity, 450 Industrial dumps, 310 Inner transition elements, 206 Inorganic compounds common and systematic names and, 99 elements and ions, 99–103 ionic compound formulas and, 103–104 naming acids, 112–113 naming binary compounds, 105–110 naming compounds containing polyatomic ions, 111–112 Insoluble precipitate formation, 155 Intermolecular bonds, 299 International System (SI), 21–23 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), 99, 474 Inverse PV relationship of gas, 257 Iodine, 134 Ion product constant for water, 393–395 Ionic bonds, 218–224 Ionic compounds characteristics of, 52–53 predicting formulas of, 224–225 writing formulas from, 103–104 Ionic-electron method for balancing oxidation-reduction reactions, 419–420 Ionic equations, writing, 368–369 Ionic redox equations, balancing, 419–423 Ionization constants, 395–397 Ionization energy, 216–217 Ionization of water, 362–363 Ionizing radiation, 450, 458 Ions anions, 102 cations, 102 discovery of, 84–85 ion exchange, 308 ionic bond formation, 228–229 ionic radii, 229 metals and nonmetals and, 229 oxidation numbers for, 412 periodic table and, 103 predicting charge on, 102 production of, 100 Iron mixture with sulfur, number of neutrons in, 93 specific heat of, 68 Isomerism, 472 Isomers, 472 Isopropyl alcohol, 489 Isotope detectives, 91 Isotopes of elements, 89–90 Isotopic notation, 90, 443 J Joliot-Curie, Frederic, 450 Joliot-Curie, Irene, 450 Joules, heat measurement and, 68 K Keiffer, Susan W., 33 Kekulé, August, 482 Kekulé structures, 482 Kelvin scale, 30–32 Ketones, 493–494 Kevlar, 238 Kilograms, 27, 31 Kinetic energy, 67 Kinetic-molecular theory, 252–253 Kurti, Nicholas, L Lactose (milk sugar), 511 Lanthanide series, 206 Lavoisier, Antoine, Law of conservation of energy, 71 Law of conservation of mass, 66 Law of definite composition, 83 Law of multiple proportions, 83 Lawrence, E O., 449 Le Châtelier, Henri, 384 Le Châtelier’s principle, 384–385, 402 Lead, 68 Lead storage battery cells, 429–430 Length measurements, 22–23 Lewis, Gilbert, 217, 354 Lewis acids and bases, 354 Lewis structures of atoms, 217–218 complex, 235–236 of compounds, 231–235 formulas of, 225 writing of, 232 Liberty Bell, 92 Light, electromagnetic radiation and, 195–196 Light sticks, 390 Limiting reactant calculations, 177–182 Line spectrum, 196–197 Linear molecular structure, 239 Lipids, 513–517 Liquid crystals, 238 I-5 Liquid elements, 45 Liquids boiling point and, 294–296 calibrated glassware in measuring, 30 capillary action and, 294 changes of state and, 297 characteristics of, 291 common materials in, densities of, 35 distillation of, 308 evaporation and, 291–292 freezing point and, 296–297 heat of fusion and, 297 heat of vaporization and, 297 hydrates, 301–303 hydrogen bond and, 298–301 melting point and, 296–297 meniscus curves and, 294 physical properties of, surface tension and, 293–294 vapor pressure and, 292–293 water as unique liquid, 303–307 water purification, 307–308 Liters, 29 Lithium, 202 Logarithms, 364 Long-term radiation damage, 460 Lowry, T M., 352 M Macromolecules, 498–499 Magnesium atomic structure of, 201–202 combustion of, 159 mass of, 92 precipitation and, 308 Magnesium oxide formation, 223 Maltase, 522 Maltose, 512 Mass conservation, 66 Mass defect, 457 Mass-energy relationship in nuclear reactions, 457 Mass-mass calculations, 176–177 Mass measurements, 27–29 Mass number, 90 Mass percent, 129, 325–327 Mass spectrometer readings, 91–92 Mass-volume calculations, 275–277 Mass/volume percent, 327 Masses of equal volumes, 35 Matter classification of, 8–9 particulate nature of, physical states of, 6–7 three states of, 291 McMillan, Edwin M., 458 Measurement, 13–17 Meiosis, 528 I-6 INDEX Meitner, Lise, 101 Melting point, liquids, 296–297 Mendelev, Dimitri, 204 Meniscus, 294 Mercury droplets, 293 liquidity at room temperature, 45 meniscus of, 294 Messenger molecules, 268 Metal corrosion, 365 Metal oxides acids reaction with, 355 plus acid, 155 water reactions with, 306–307 Metalloids, 50 Metals acids reaction with, 355 activity series of, 423–425 atomic radii of, 221 electroplating of, 427 ionization energies and, 216–217 periodic table and, 49 periodic trends in, 214 water reactions with, 305–306 Methanal, 493 Methane alkane series and, 470 in atmosphere, 161–162 ball-and-stick model of, 239 geometric shape of, 237 structural formula for, 471, 473 volume-temperature relationship for, 260–261 Methanol, 487–489 Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), 493 Methylbenzoic acids, 496 Methylpropane, 473 Metric system, 21–23 common prefixes and numerical values, 21–22 length measurements, 22–23 standard units of measurement, 22 units of mass, 28 Meyer, Lothar, 204 Microbots, 178 Microchip technology, 178 Micromachinery, 178 Miscible liquids, 318 Mitosis, 528 Modern atomic theory atomic structures of first eighteen elements, 200–203 Bohr atom and, 196–198 brief history and, 195 electromagnetic radiation and, 195–196 electron energy levels and, 198–200 Pauli exclusion principle and, 199 Molar mass of compounds, 126–129 definition of, 169 determination of, 123–124 Molar volume, 270–271 Molarity, 327–329, 335 Mole, 122–124 Mole-mass calculations, 174–175 Mole-mass-volume relationships of gases, 270–271 Mole-mole calculations, 171–174 Mole ratio, 170 Mole relationship with molecules, 169 Mole-volume calculations, 275–277 Molecular compounds, 52–53 Molecular formula calculating from empirical formula, 137–138 empirical formula compared, 132–133 Molecular gastronomy, 3–4 Molecular shape, 237 determining using VESPR, 240 electron pair arrangement and, 241 linear structure, 239 tetrahedral structure, 239–240 trigonal planar structure, 239 Molecules compounds and, 52 dependence of pressure on, 255–256 messenger molecules, 268 relationship with mole, 169 Monomers, 498 Monosaccharides, 509–511 fructose, 511 galactose, 510–511 glucose, 510 ribose, 511 Monosodium glutamate (MSG), 522 Monosubstituted benzenes, 483 Multiplication, significant figures in, 18–19 Municipal water-treatment plants, 307 N N-terminal residue, 519–520 Nanorobots, 178 Natural gas, 72 Natural law, 83 Natural radioactivity, 443–445 Natural states, elements in, 50 Neon, 202 Net ionic equations, 368–369 Neurotransmitters, 268 Neutralization, 355, 366–367 Neutrons characteristics of, 86 determination of in atoms, 93 electrical charge of, 87 relative mass of, 87 Nitrogen, 134, 202 Nitrogen gases, 50 Nitrogen monoxide, 268, 282 Noble gases, 48, 204, 218 Noble metals, 50 Nonelectrolytes, 357–358 Nonmetal oxides, water reactions with, 306–307 Nonmetals atomic radii of, 221 ionization energies and, 216–217 periodic table and, 49–50 periodic trends in, 214 water reactions with, 305–306 Nonpolar covalent bonds, 228–230 Normal boiling point, 294–295 Normal butane, 472 Nuclear atom, 87–89 Nuclear binding energy, 457 Nuclear chemistry acute radiation damage, 458–460 alpha particles, 445–446 artificial radioactivity, 450 atomic bomb, 455–456 beta particles, 446 gamma rays, 446–447 genetic effects of radiation, 460 isotopic notation and, 443 long-term radiation damage, 460 mass-energy relationship, 457 natural radioactivity, 443–445 nuclear fission, 451–453 nuclear fusion, 456–457 nuclear power, 453–455 radioactive disintegration series, 448–449 radioactivity discovery, 442–443 radioactivity measurement, 450–451 transmutation of elements, 449–450 transuranium elements, 458 Nuclear fission, 451–453 Nuclear fusion, 456–457 Nuclear power, 453–455 Nuclear power plants, 454–455 Nuclear radiation characteristics, 448 Nuclear scanning, 459 Nuclear waste, 455 Nucleic acids, 523–526 Nucleons, 443 Nucleoproteins, 523–524 Nucleotides, 524 Nucleus, atom, 89 Nuclides, 443 O Observations, Octane, 175 Oil, 470–471 Old Faithful, 33 Olive oil, 514 atmosphere (atm), 255 INDEX Orbitals, 198–199 atomic orbitals, 198 d orbitals, 199–200 diagrams, 201, 203 orbital filling, 203 p orbitals, 199–200 Pauli exclusion principle and, 199 s orbitals, 199–200 spin and, 198–199 Organic chemistry alcohols, 487–490 aldehydes and ketones, 493–494 alkanes, 470–477 alkenes and alkynes, 478–481 alkyl halides, 486–487 aromatic hydrocarbons, 482 beginnings of, 467–468 carbon atom and, 468–469 carboxylic acids, 495–496 esters, 496–497 ethers, 491–492 hydrocarbon derivatives, 486 hydrocarbons and, 469 isomerism and, 472 macromolecules, 498–499 naming alkanes, 474–477 polymers, 498–499 structural formulas and, 471–473 vital-force theory, 467 Organic halides, 487 Osmosis, 338–339 Osmotic pressure, 338–339 Oxidation number, 412–414 Oxidation-reduction activity series of metals, 423–425 balancing equations, 416–419 balancing ionic redox equations, 419–423 electrolytic and voltaic cells, 425–430 oxidation number and, 412–414, 416 oxidizing agents, 415 reducing agents, 415 Oxidation state, 412 Oxides, 225 Oxy-acids, 111, 113 Oxy-anions of chlorine, 111 Oxygen atomic structure and, 202 carbon dioxide exchange in blood, 402 collected over water, 267 electronegativity and, 305 empirical and molecular formulas, 134 gases, 50 hydrogen bonding and, 299 number of neutrons in, 93 percent of atmosphere, 45 reviving damaged art and, 50 Oxytocin, 520–521 Ozone, 280–281 Ozone layer, 280 P Paraffins See Alkanes Parrots, fluorescence and, 196 Partial pressures, 267–269 Particle size, solid dissolving rate and, 323 Particulate nature of matter, Parts per million (ppm), 325 Pasteur, Louis, 522 Pauli exclusion principle, 199 Pauling, Linus, 228 Pentane, 176 Peptide linkage, 517 Peptides, 520 Percent composition of compounds, 129–132 from experimental data, 132 from formula, 130–131 Percent yield, 182 Periodic table, 48–50 actinide series and, 206 alkali metals and, 48 alkaline earth metals and, 48 electron structures and, 203–208 element arrangement and sublevels, 206 groups or families and, 48, 204 halogens and, 48 inner transition elements, 206 lanthanide series and, 206 metalloids, 50 metals and, 49 noble gases and, 48 nonmetals, 49–50 outermost electron configurations, 208 periods and, 204 representative elements and, 48, 204, 206 transition elements and, 48, 204, 206 valence electron configurations, 204–205 Periodic trends in atomic properties, 214–217 atomic radius, 214–215 ionization energy, 216–217 metals and nonmetals, 214 Periods of elements, 204 Petroleum, 72 pH changes caused by HCl and NaOH, 403 common applications of, 365–366 of common solutions, 364 control of, 401–403 importance of, 365 scale of acidity and basicity, 363–364 I-7 test paper, 365 using logarithms and, 364 Phases, matter and, Phenolphthalein, 365 Phenyl group, 483 Phosphate system, as buffer in red blood cells, 403 Phospholipids, 515–516 Phosphorous, 202 Phosphorus pentachloride, 109 Photochemical process, 282 Photochromic glass, 421 Photons, 196 Physical changes, 64 Physical properties, 62 Physical states of matter, 6–7 Physiological saline solution, 338 Planck, Max, 197 Plastics, 498 Plutonium-239, 455 Polar covalent bonds, 227 Polyatomic compounds, 113 Polyatomic ions compounds containing, 111–112, 236–237 oxidation numbers in, 414 Polyatomic molecules, 100 Polyethylene, 499 Polyhydroxy alcohol, 488 Polymerization, 498 Polymers, 498–499 Polypeptides, 519 Polysaccharides, 512–513 Polysubstituted benzenes, 485 Polyunsaturated fats, 514 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 499 Popcorn popping, 70 Positron emission tomography (PET), 459 Potassium permanganate, 111–112, 318 Potassium reactions with water, 306 Potassium sulfide, 103 Potential energy, 67 Pressure effect on solubility, 321 of gases, 254–255 inverse PV relationship and, 257 molecules and temperature and, 255–256 volume of gas and, 258 Primary alcohols, 488 Principle energy levels, 198–199 Problem solving, 4, 67 Products, 66, 144 Propane, 472, 473 Proteins, 517–521 amino acids derived from, 518–519 catabolization of, 521 digestion of, 521 tissue proteins, 521 I-8 INDEX Protons, 86–87 Pure substances, distinguishing mixtures from, Q Quadratic equation, 397 Quanta, 197 Quantitative composition of compounds calculating empirical formulas, 134–136 calculating molecular formula from empirical formula, 137–138 empirical formula vs molecular formula, 132–133 molar mass of compounds, 126–129 the mole and, 122–124 percent composition of compounds, 129–132 Quantum mechanics, 198 R Rad (radiation absorbed dose), 451 Radiation See also Nuclear chemistry acute damage from, 458–460 biological effects of, 458–460 genetic effects of, 460 long-term damage from, 460 Radiation units, 451 Radioactivity discovery of, 442–443 measurement of, 450–451 radioactive decay, 443 radioactive disintegration series, 448–449 radioactive iodine, 459 Radium isotopes, 443 Rates of reaction, 382–383 Reactants, 66, 144 Reaction rates, 382–383 Real gases, 279–282 Red blood cells, 338 Redox See Oxidation-reduction Reduction See also Oxidation-reduction Rem (roentgen equivalent to man), 451 Remineralizing therapies, 385 Representative elements, periodic table and, 48, 204, 206 Resonance structures, 235 Reverse osmosis, 338 Reversible chemical reactions, 382 Ribose, 511 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 526 Roentgen, Wilhelm, 101 Roentgen, William Conrad, 442 Roentgen (R), 451 Roentgenium, 450 Rounding off, 18 Rubbing alcohol, 490 Rubidium, 92 Rutherford, Ernest, 88, 101, 442, 449 S Saccharides See Carbohydrates Salicylic acid, 496 Saline water, 303 Salt water, 84, 103 Salts, 356 acid-base properties of, 401 dissociation and, 358–359 Sand filtration, water, 307 Sanger, Frederick, 521 Saponification, 515 Saturated fatty acids, 496 Saturated hydrocarbons, 469 See Alkanes Saturated solutions, 321–322 Scientific approach to problem solving, Scientific laws, Scientific method, 4–5 hypothesis and, scientific laws and, theory and, 4–5 Scientific notation, 14–15 Scintillation camera, 459 Scintillation counter, 450 Screening, water, 307 Seaborg, Glenn, 101 Seawater, mass of, 44–45 Secondary alcohols, 488 Sedimentation, water, 307 Semipermeable membranes, 338 Shrödinger, Erwin, 197 Sickle-cell anemia, 528 Significant figures addition or subtraction and, 19–20 in calculations, 18–21 defined, 16 multiplication or division and, 18–19 rounding off and, 18 rules for counting, 17 Silicon, 202 Silicon wafers, 318 Silver nitrate and copper reaction, 157 Single-displacement reactions, 153–154 Smog, 281 Soap, 515 Sodium atomic structure and, 202 chlorine atoms reacting with, 219 electron arrangements and, 219 reactions with water, 305 relative radii of, 220 Sodium atom, 201 Sodium bromide, 103 Sodium chloride, 335 as compound, 53 crystal, 220 dissolution of, 320 formation, 219–220 Sodium fluoride formation, 222 Solar flares, 456 Solar radiation, 162 Solids common materials in, definition of, densities of, 35 dissolving rate of, 323–324 physical properties of, Solubility, 318–319 of alkali metal halides in water, 320 of common ions, 319 nature of, 319–320 pressure effect on, 321 temperature effect on, 320–321 of various compounds in water, 321 Solubility product constant, 398–400 Solutes, 317, 319–320 Solutions See also Solubility colligative properties of, 333–335 common types of, 317 concentration of, 319, 325–333, 331 dilute solutions, 325 dilution problems and, 332 dissolving solid rates, 323–324 factors related to solubility, 319–323 general properties of, 317–318 mass percent solution, 325–327 mass/volume percent, 327 molarity and, 327–329 osmosis and osmotic pressure, 338–339 permanency and, 318 as reaction medium, 324–325 saturated solutions, 321–322 solid dissolving rate and, 324 solubility and, 318–319 solution maps, 24 supersaturated solutions, 322 unsaturated solutions, 322 volume percent, 327 Solvents, 317, 319–320 Space shuttle, 71 Specific gravity, 36 Specific heat, 68 Spectator ions, 366 Speed, waves and, 195 Spherical molecules, 231 Sphingosine, 516 Spin, 198–199 Stable nuclides, 445 Standard conditions, gas volumes and, 264–265 Standard temperature and pressure (STP), 264–265 Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, 449 Starch, 513 Steroids, 516–517 INDEX Stirring, solid dissolving rate and, 324 Stock System, 106 Stoichiometry, 169–171 Stoney, G J., 85 Straight-chain alkanes, 471 Strassmann, Fritz, 451 Strong electrolytes, 360–361 Strontium-90 isotopes, 460 Subatomic parts of atom, 85–87 electrons, 86 general arrangement of, 88–89 neutrons, 88 protons, 86 subatomic particles, 87–88 Sublevels of energy, 198–200 Sublimation, 292 Subscripts, chemical formulas and, 54 Substance properties, 62–63 Substances, Substrates, 523 Subtraction, significant figures in, 19–20 Sucrose (table sugar), 511 Sugar, 63 Sulfates, 225 Sulfur atomic structure and, 202 mixture with iron, number of neutrons in, 93 Sunglasses, 421 Super-ion battery, 430 Supersaturated solutions, 322 Surface tension, liquids and, 293–294 Symbols of common elements, 46–47 Symbols of elements derived from early names, 47 Systems, matter and, T Table salt, 127 Temperature dependence of pressure on, 255–256 effects on equilibrium, 390 effects on solubility, 320–321 gas volume and, 261 measurement of, 16, 30–34 solid dissolving rate and, 323 Tertiary alcohols, 488 Tetrahedral structure, 239–240 Theoretical yield, 182 Theory, scientific method and, 4–5 Thermal energy, 30, 470–471 Thompson, Benjamin, Thomson, J J., 85 Thomson model of the atom, 86 Three Mile Island accident, 454 Titration, 366–367 Torricelli, E., 254 Total ionic equation, 368 Trans-forming fats, 230 Transition elements, 48, 204, 206 Transmutation of elements, 449–450 Transuranium elements, 458 Triacylglycerols, 513–514 Triglycerides, 513–514 Trigonal planar molecular shape, 237 Trigonal planar structure, 239 Tripeptides, 519 Tyndall effect, 374 U Ultraviolet radiation, 280 Umami, 522 Uncertainty, measurement and, 15–17 Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 469 Unsaturated solutions, 322 Unstable nuclides, 445 Uranium disintegration series, 449 enriched, 455 isotopes, 443 oxide, 455 uranium-235, 455 uranium-238, 455 V Valence electrons, 202, 204–205 Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model, 238–239 Van de Graaf electrostatic generator, 449 Vapor pressure, 292–293 Vapor pressure curves, 295, 334 Vaporization, 291–292 Vasopressin, 520–521 Veggie Van, 470 Villard, Paul, 442 Vital-force theory, 467 Volatile substances, 293 Voltaic cells, 425–430 Volume common volume relationships, 29 effect on equilibrium, 388–389 of equal masses, 35 inverse PV relationship and, 257 measurements, 29–30 volume percent, 327 volume-volume calculations, 277–278 Volumetric flasks, 329 I-9 W Water, 303–307 arsenic contamination, 309 atomic composition of, 83 as compound, 53 crystallization and, 299 electrolysis of, 65, 71 formation of, 305 gas solubility in, 321 geometric shape of, 237 Hϩ and OHϪ concentration relationship in, 394 hydration and, 301 hydrogen bonding and, 299 ice and water in equilibrium, 303–304 ion product constant for, 393–395 ionization of, 362–363 meniscus of, 294 mole of, 127 molecular structure of, 304–305 physical properties of, 63, 295, 299, 303–304 purification of, 307–310 reactions with metal and nonmetal oxides, 306–307 reactions with metals and nonmetals, 305–306 specific heat of, 68 vapor pressure curves for, 334 vapor pressure-temperature curves for, 295 Watson, James D., 525 Wave mechanics, 197–198 Wavelengths, 195 Weak electrolytes, 360–361 Weight, determination of, 27 Wetland blanket for global warming, 281 Wetphal, James A., 33 Wilkin, Maurice H F., 525 Wöhler, Friedrich, 466 Woody plants, energy and, 72 X X-ray technology, 442, 460 Y Yield calculations, 182–184 Z Zinc-copper voltaic cell, 427–430 Zinc-mercury cells, 428 Zinc metal in hydrochloric acid, 153 Zinc sulfate, 103 This page intentionally left blank Group 1A – Current ACS and IUPAC Preferred U.S 1 Atomic number Symbol Name Atomic mass H Hydrogen 1.008 2A Li Be Lithium Beryllium 9.012 22.99 Atomic masses are based on carbon-12 Elements marked with † have no stable isotopes The atomic mass given is that of the isotope with the longest known half-life He 13 3A Mg Sodium Magnesium 24.31 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 14 4A 15 5A 16 6A 17 7A Helium 4.003 10 B For practical use, atomic masses have been rounded to four figures 12 Na 22.99 Period Na Sodium 18 8A C N O F Ne Boron 11 1B Fluorine Neon 16.00 19.00 20.18 14 15 16 17 18 Si P S Cl Ar Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon 26.98 12 2B Oxygen 14.01 Al 10 Nitrogen 12.01 13 8B Carbon 10.81 Transition Elements 11 11 6.941 Noble Gases Periodic Table of the Elements 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton 39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3 86 Rn Molybdenum Technetium 95.94 98.00† 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At 55 56 57 Cs Ba La Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth 132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 118 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuo Seaborgium 266† Bohrium 264† Hassium 277† 87 88 89 Fr Ra Ac Francium 223 † Radium 226 † Actinium 227 † * * * Rutherfordium Dubnium 261† 262† Polonium 209† Astatine 210† Radon 222† Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium 268† 271† 272† Inner Transition Elements * Lanthanide Series * * Actinide Series 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0 103 Cerium 140.1 Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium † 140.9 144.2 145 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium 232.0 231.0 238.0 237 Plutonium 244† Americium 243† Curium 247† Berkelium 247† colors indicate placement of the outermost electrons Californium Einsteinium 251† 252† s orbitals d orbitals Fermium 257† Mendelevium Nobelium 258† 259† p orbitals Lr Lawrencium 262† f orbitals Atomic Masses of the Elements Based on the 2005 IUPAC Table of Atomic Masses Name Actinium* Aluminum Americium* Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine* Barium Berkelium* Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium* Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium* Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium* Darmstadtium* Dubnium* Dysprosium Einsteinium* Erbium Europium Fermium* Fluorine Francium* Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium* Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium* Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Symbol Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Atomic Number 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 71 12 25 Atomic Mass 227 26.981538 243 121.760 39.948 74.92160 210 137.327 247 9.012182 208.98038 264 10.811 79.904 112.411 40.078 251 12.0107 140.116 132.90545 35.4527 51.9961 58.933200 63.546 247 271 262 162.500 252 167.26 151.964 257 18.9984032 233 157.25 69.723 72.61 196.96655 178.49 277 4.002602 164.93032 1.00794 114.818 126.90447 192.217 55.845 83.80 138.9055 262 207.2 6.941 174.967 24.3050 54.938049 Name Meitnerium* Mendelevium* Mercury Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium* Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium* Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium* Polonium* Potassium Praseodymium Promethium* Protactinium Radium* Radon* Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium* Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium* Samarium Scandium Seaborgium* Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium* Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Symbol Mt Md Hg Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr Atomic Number 109 101 80 42 60 10 93 28 41 102 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 * This element has no stable isotopes The atomic mass given is that of the isotope with the longest known half-life Atomic Mass 268 258 200.59 95.94 144.24 20.1797 237 58.6934 92.90638 14.00674 259 190.23 15.9994 106.42 30.973762 195.078 244 209 39.0983 140.90765 145 231.03588 226 222 186.207 102.90550 272 85.4678 101.07 261 150.36 44.955910 266 78.96 28.0855 107.8682 22.989770 87.62 32.066 180.9479 98 127.60 158.92534 204.3833 232.0381 168.93421 118.710 47.867 183.94 238.0289 50.9415 131.29 173.04 88.90585 65.39 91.224 Names, Formulas, and Charges of Common Ions Positive Ions (Cations) 1± 2± 3± 4± 5± Ammonium Copper(I) (Cuprous) Hydrogen Potassium Silver Sodium Barium Cadmium Calcium Cobalt(II) Copper(II) (Cupric) Iron(II) (Ferrous) Lead(II) Magnesium Manganese(II) Mercury(II) (Mercuric) Nickel(II) Tin(II) (Stannous) Zinc Aluminum Antimony(III) Arsenic(III) Bismuth(III) Chromium(III) Iron(III) (Ferric) Titanium(III) (Titanous) Manganese(IV) Tin(IV) (Stannic) Titanium(IV) (Titanic) Antimony(V) Arsenic(V) Negative Ions (Anions) + NH + Cu H+ K+ Ag + Na + Ba2+ Cd2+ Ca2+ Co 2+ Cu2+ 1– Fe 2+ Pb 2+ Mg 2+ Mn2+ Hg 2+ 2+ Ni Sn2+ Zn2+ Al3+ Sb 3+ As3+ Bi3+ Cr 3+ Fe 3+ 2– Ti3+ Mn4+ Sn4+ Ti4+ 3– Sb 5+ As5+ Acetate Bromate Bromide Chlorate Chloride Chlorite Cyanide Fluoride Hydride Hydrogen carbonate (Bicarbonate) Hydrogen sulfate (Bisulfate) Hydrogen sulfite (Bisulfite) Hydroxide Hypochlorite Iodate Iodide Nitrate Nitrite Perchlorate Permanganate Thiocyanate Carbonate Chromate Dichromate Oxalate Oxide Peroxide Silicate Sulfate Sulfide Sulfite Arsenate Borate Phosphate Phosphide Phosphite C2H 3O BrO Br ClO ClClO CN FHHCO HSO HSO OH ClO IO INO NO ClO MnO SCN - CO 23 CrO 24 Cr2O 27 2C2O O 2O 22 SiO 23 2SO S2SO 23 AsO 34 3BO PO 34 P 3PO 33 Prefixes and Numerical Values for SI Units Prefix Symbol Numerical value Power of 10 equivalent exa peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deka — deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto E P T G M k h da — d c m n p f a 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 100 10 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001 0.000000000001 0.000000000000001 0.000000000000000001 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 SI Units and Conversion Factors Length Mass Volume SI unit: meter (m) SI unit: kilogram (kg) SI unit: cubic meter (m3) meter = = centimeter = inch = kilometer mile angstrom = = = = 1000 millimeters 1.0936 yards 0.3937 inch 2.54 centimeters (exactly) 0.62137 mile 5280 feet 1.609 kilometers 10-10 meter kilogram gram pound ton SI unit: kelvin (K) K °C °C °F = -273.15°C = - 459.67°F = °C + 273.15 (°F - 32) = 1.8 = (°F - 32) = 1.8(°C) + 32 1000 grams 2.20 pounds 1000 milligrams 453.59 grams 0.45359 kilogram 16 ounces 2000 pounds 907.185 kilograms 28.3 grams liter gallon quart ounce atomic mass unit = 1.6606 * 10-27 kilograms Temperature 0K = = = = = = = = = SI unit: joule (J) calorie = kg m2>s2 = 0.23901 calorie = 4.184 joules 1000 milliliters 10-3 m3 dm3 1.0567 quarts quarts pints 3.785 liters 32 fluid ounces 0.946 liter cups fluid ounce = 29.6 mL Energy joule = = = = = = = = = = Pressure SI unit: pascal (Pa) pascal atmosphere = = = = = kg>(ms2) 101.325 kilopascals 760 torr 760 mm Hg 14.70 pounds per square inch (psi) ... the names of the units These prefixes represent multiples of 10, making the metric system a decimal system of measurements Table 2.1 shows the names, symbols, and numerical values of the common... substance always has the same composition There are two types of pure substances: • Elements • Compounds Matter Pure substances (homogeneous composition) Elements Mixtures of two or more substances... The metric system, or International System (SI, from Système International), is a decimal system of units for measurements of mass, length, time, and other physical quantities Built around a set