I 1, konics auide a CD-I I contoins eBook version with full tex orch PLUS BONUS CHAPTER An Illustrated History or rrectronics anu compi BEBOP TO THE BEBOP TO THE An unconwentional guide to electronics fundamentals, components, and processes by Clive (call me “Max”) Maxfield Foreword by Pete Waddell, Publisher of Printed Circuit Design N e w n es Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier Science. Copyright 0 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier Science prints its books on acid-free paper whenever possible. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Maxfield, Clive, 1957- Bebop to the boolean boogie : an unconventional guide to electronics fundamentals, components, and processes / by Clive (call me “Max”) Maxfield ; foreword by Pete Waddell 2nd ed. p. cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7506-7543-8 (alk. paper) 1. Digital electronics-Popular works. I. Title. TK7868.D5 M323 2002 62 1.381-dc21 2002038930 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. The publisher offers special discounts on bulk orders of this book. For information, please contact: Manager of Special Sales Elsevier Science 200 Wheeler Road Burlington, MA 01803 Tel: 781-313-4700 Fax: 781-3 13-4882 For information on all Newnes publications available, contact our World Wide Web home page at: http://www.newnespress.com Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Foreword My first exposure to the unique writing style of Clive (call me “Max”) Maxfield was a magazine article that he co-wrote with an associate. The article was technically brilliant (he paid me to say that) and very infor- mative, but it was the short biography at the end of the piece that I enjoyed the most. I say enjoyed the most because, as you will soon learn, Max does not necessarily follow the herd or dance to the same drummer as the masses. Trade journals have a reputation for being informative and educational but also as dry as West Texas real estate. Anyway, Max’s personally submitted biography not only included a message from his mom, but also made mention of the fact that he (Max) is taller than his co-author, who just happened to be his boss at the time. Now to some people this may seem irrelevant, but to our readers (and Max’s boss), these kind of things-trivial as they may seem to the uninitiated- are what helps us to maintain our off-grid sense of the world. Max has become, for better or worse, a part of that alternate life experience. So now it’s a couple of years later, and Max has asked me to write a few words by way of introduction. Personally, I think that the title of this tome alone (hmmm, a movie?) should provide some input as to what YOU can expect, But, for those who require a bit more: be forewarned, dear reader, YOU will probably learn far more than you could hope to expect from Bebop to the Boolean Boogie, just because of the unique approach Max has to technical material. The author will guide you from the basics through a minefield of potentially boring theoretical mish-mash, to a Nirvana of understanding. You will not suffer that fate familiar to every reader: was trying to say. For a limey, Max shoots amazingly well and from the hip, but in a way that will keep you interested and amused. If you are not vigilant, you may not only learn something, but you may even enjoy the process. The only further advice I can give is to “expect the unexpected.” ing paragraphs over and over wondering what in the world the author - PETE WADDELL, Publisher, Printed Circuit Design Literary genius (so says his mom), and taller than Max by %” Contents Not a Lot 40 Functions versus Gates 43 Chapter 1 Analog versus Digital 1 Chapter 2 Atoms. Molecules. and Crystals 7 Chapter 3 Conductors and Insulators; Voltage. Current. Resistance. Capacitance. and Inductance 12 Voltage. Current and Resistance 13 Capacitance 16 Inductance 19 Unit Qualifiers 22 Chapter 4 Semiconductors: Diodes and Transistors 24 The Electromechanical Relay 24 The First Vacuum Tubes 25 Semiconductors 26 Semiconductor Diodes 28 Bipolar Junction Transistors 29 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors 30 The Transistor as a Switch 32 Gallium Arsenide Semiconductors 33 Light-Emitting Diodes 33 Chapter 5 Primitive Logic Functions 36 BUF and NOT Functions 38 AND. OR. and XOR Functions 39 NAND. NOR. and XNOR Functions 40 Chapter 6 Using Transistors to Build Primitive Logic Functions 44 NOT and BUF Gates 44 NAND and AND Gates 46 NOR and OR Gates 48 XNOR and XOR Gates 49 Pass-transistor Logic 51 Chapter 7 Alternative Numbering Systems 52 Decimal (Base-10) 52 Duo-Decimal (Base-12) 54 Sexagesimal (Base-60) 55 The Concepts of Zero and Negative Numbers 56 Vigesimal (Base-20) 57 Quinary (Base Five) 58 Binary (Base-2) 59 Octal (Base-8) and Hexadecimal (Base-16) 61 Representing Numbers Using Powers 63 Tertiary Logic 66 Chapter 8 Binary Arithmetic 67 Unsigned Binary Numbers 67 Binary Addition 68 Binary Subtraction 70 Signed Binary Numbers 75 Binary Multiplication 78 viii Bebop to the Boolean Boogie Chapter 9 Boolean Algebra 80 Combining a Single Variable with Logic 0 or Logic 1 83 The Idempotent Rules 84 The Complementary Rules 84 The Involution Rule 85 The Commutative Rules 85 The Associative Rules 86 Precedence of Operators 87 The First Distributive Rule 88 The Second Distributive Rule 89 The Simplification Rules 90 DeMorgan Transformations 92 Minterms and Maxterms 94 Sum-of-Products and Product-of-Sums 94 Canonical Forms 96 Chapter 10 Karnaugh Maps 97 Minimization Using Karnaugh Maps 98 Grouping Minterms 100 Incompletely Specified Functions 102 Populating Maps Using Os versus 1s 103 RS Latches 112 D-Type Flip-flops 120 D-Type Latches 118 JK and T Flip-flops 123 Shift Registers 124 Counters 126 Setup and Hold Times 128 Brick by Brick 130 Chapter 12 State Diagrams. State Tables. and State Machines 131 State Diagrams 132 State Tables 134 State Machines 134 State Assignment 136 Don’t Care States. Unused States. and Latch-Up Conditions 138 Chapter 13 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog 140 Analog-to-Digital 140 Digital-to-Analog 142 Chapter 11 Using Primitive Logic Functions to Build More Complex Functions 105 Scalar versus Vector Notation 105 Equality Comparators 106 Multiplexers 107 Decoders 109 Tri-State Functions 1 10 Combinational versus Sequential Functions 1 I2 _I Chapter 14 lntegrated Circuits (ICs) 143 An Overview of the Fabrication Process 143 A More Detailed Look at the Fabrication Process 145 The Packaging Process 151 Integrated Circuits versus Discrete Components 155 Different Types of ICs 155 Technolow Considerations 156 Contents ix Chapter I5 Memory ICs 162 Architectures 165 Increasing Width and Depth 170 Alternative Technologies I 72 Underlying RPLM and ROM Chapter I6 Programmable ICs 178 Fusible-link Technologies 1 79 Antifuse Technologies 179 Special PLD Notation I81 Generic PLD Structures I82 Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs) 183 Programmable Array Logic (PAL) 184 Programmable Read-only Memories (PROMS) 185 Additional Programmable Options 186 Programming PLDs 189 Reprogrammable PLDs 191 Complex PLDs (CPLDs) 195 Arrays (FPGAs) 196 Why Use Programmable ICs? 199 Field-Programmable Gate Chapter I 7 Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASlCs) 201 Gate Array Devices 202 Standard Cell Devices 206 Full Custom Devices 208 Input/Output Cells and Pads 209 Who Are All the Players? 21 0 e ASIC Design Flow 21 3 ASIC. ASSP. and COT 21 8 Summary 2 19 Chapter 18 Circuit Boards 221 The First Circuit Boards 221 PCBs and PWBs 222 Subtractive Processes 222 Additive Processes 225 Single-sided Boards 226 Lead Through-Hole (LTH) 229 Surface Mount 'Technology (SMT) 231 Double-sided Boards 233 Holes versus Vias 235 Multilayer Boards 237 Microvia, HID, and Build-up Technologies 241 Discrete Wire Technology 243 Backplanes and Motherboards 252 Conductive Ink Technology 253 Chip-On-Board (COB) 255 Flexible Printed Circuits (FPCs) 256 Chapter 19 Hybrids 258 Hybrid Substrates 258 The Thick-Film Process 260 The Thin-Film Process 265 The Assembly Precess 268 The Packaging Process 273 Chapter 20 Multichip Modules (MCMs) 275 Categorization by Substrate 276 Why Use Multichip Modules? 277 Cofired Ceramics 279 Low-fired Cofired Ceramics 282 Assembly and Packaging 283 Equivalent Integrated Circuits 287 The Mind Boggles 288 [...]... \ \ ,L - I ; / \ the nucleus together and resisting \ \ / the natural tendency of \ / \ / , the protons to repel each other Protons and neutrons are approxiFigure 2-1 Helium atom mately the same size, while electrons are very much smaller If a basketball were used to represent the nucleus of a helium atom, then, on the same scale, softballs could represent the individual protons and neutrons, while... uniwerse! About this Book oolean Boogie, whic This outrageously interesting book has two namesakes, Bebop, a jazz style known for its fast tempos and agitated rhythms, and Boolean algebra, a branch of mathematics that is the mainstay of the electronics designer’s tool chest Bebop to the Boolean Boogie meets the expectations set by both, because it leaps from topic to topic with the agility of a mountain goat,... electrons to fill it Each oxygen atom can therefore form two bonds with other atoms-for example, with two hydrogen atoms to form a water molecule (chemical symbol H,O) (Figure 2-4) (The reason the three atoms in the water molecule are not shown as forming a straight line is discussed in the section on nanotechnology in Chapter 21.) Each hydrogen atom lends its H = hydrogen atom electron to the oxygen atom... gas (the latter appellation presumably comes from the fact that helium doesn’t mingle with the commoners ) Atoms, Molecules, and Crystals rn I 1 When the two borrowed electrons are added to the original six in the oxygen atom’s second shell, this shell appears to contain the eight electrons necessary to fill it Thus, all the atoms in the water molecule are satisfied with their lot and the molecule... negative source to the more positive target As an electron jumps from the negative source into the wire, it pushes the nearest electron in the wire out of the way This electron pushes another in turn, and the effect ripples down the wire until an electron at the far end of the wire is ejected into the more positive target When an electron arrives in the positive target, it neutralizes one of the positive... time to migrate from one end of the wire to the other; however, the time between an electron Conductors and Insulators entering one end of the wire and causing an equivalent electron to be ejected from the other end is extremely fast.' As opposed to a conductor, a substance which does not conduct electricity easily is called an insulator Materials such as rubber are very good insulators because the. .. is they are way beyond the scope of this book 8 ChapterTwo football fields (excluding the end zones)! Thus, the majority of an atom consists of empty space If all the empty space were removed from the atoms that form a camel, it would be possible for the little rascal to pass through the eye of a needle! The number of protons determines the type of the element; for example, hydrogen has one proton,... am of course referring to the Bible verse: “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter the Kingdom of God.” (Mark 10:25) 3 In fact, the ‘(needle”was a small, man-sized gate located next to the main entrance to Jerusalem 4 The author has discovered to his cost that if you call a zoo to ask the cubic volume of the average adult camel, they treat you as if you... Matter, the stuff that everything is made of, is formed from atoms The heart of an atom, the nucleus, is composed of protons and neumons and is surrounded by a “cloud” of electrons.’ For example, consider an atom of the gas helium, which consists of two protons, two neutrons, and two electrons (Figure 2-1) It may help to visualize the electrons as orbiting the P = Proton nucleus in the same way that the. .. structure in which their shared electrons have relatively weak bonds and may easily migrate from one atom to another Apart from the fact that atoms are the basis of life, the universe, and everything as we know it, they are also fundamental to the operation of the components used in electronic designs Electricity may be considered to be vast herds of electrons migrating from one place to another, while electronics . and Processes is where we consider the components from which electronic systems are formed and the processes required to construct them. The construction of integrated circuits is examined in. of TechBites Interactive (www.techbites.com). A marketing consultancy, TechBites specializes in communicating the value of technical products and services to non-technical audiences through. Atoms. Molecules. and Crystals 7 Chapter 3 Conductors and Insulators; Voltage. Current. Resistance. Capacitance. and Inductance 12 Voltage. Current and Resistance 13 Capacitance