Thông tin tài liệu
Michael J. Moran
The Ohio State University
Howard N. Shapiro
Iowa State University of Science and Technology
Bruce R. Munson
Iowa State University of Science and Technology
David P. DeWitt
Purdue University
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Introduction to Thermal
Systems Engineering:
Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics,
and Heat Transfer
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Acquisitions Editor Joseph Hayton
Production Manager Jeanine Furino
Production Editor Sandra Russell
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Cover Photograph © Larry Fleming. All rights reserved.
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harvesting of its timberlands. Sustained yield harvesting principles ensure that the number of trees cut each year
does not exceed the amount of new growth.
This book is printed on acid-free paper. ϱ
Copyright © 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under
Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the
Publisher or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center,
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Printed in the United States of America.
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O
ur objective is to provide an integrated introductory
presentation of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics,
and heat transfer. The unifying theme is the application of
these principles in thermal systems engineering. Thermal
systems involve the storage, transfer, and conversion of en-
ergy. Thermal systems engineering is concerned with how
energy is utilized to accomplish beneficial functions in
industry, transportation, the home, and so on.
Introduction to Thermal Systems Engineering: Thermo-
dynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer is intended
for a three- or four-credit hour course in thermodynamics,
fluid mechanics, and heat transfer that could be taught in
the second or third year of an engineering curriculum to
students with appropriate background in elementary
physics and calculus. Sufficient material also is included
for a two-course sequence in the thermal sciences. The
book is suitable for self-study, including reference use in
engineering practice and preparation for professional en-
gineering examinations. SI units are featured but other
commonly employed engineering units also are used.
The book has been developed in recognition of the team-
oriented, interdisciplinary nature of engineering practice,
and in recognition of trends in the engineering curriculum,
including the move to reduce credit hours and the ABET-
inspired objective of introducing students to the common
themes of the thermal sciences. In conceiving this new
presentation, we identified those critical subject areas
needed to form the basis for the engineering analysis of
thermal systems and have provided those subjects within
a book of manageable size.
Thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer are
presented following a traditional approach that is familiar
to faculty, and crafted to allow students to master funda-
mentals before moving on to more challenging topics. This
has been achieved with a more integrated presentation than
available in any other text. Examples of integration include:
unified notation (symbols and definitions); engaging case-
oriented introduction to thermodynamics, fluid mechanics,
and heat transfer engineering; mechanical energy and
thermal energy equations developed from thermodynamic
principles; thermal boundary layer concept as an exten-
sion of hydrodynamic boundary layer principles; and more.
Features especially useful for students are:
•
Readable, highly accessible, and largely self-
instructive presentation with a strong emphasis on
engineering applications. Fundamentals and
applications provided at a digestible level for an
introductory course.
•
An engaging, case-oriented introduction to thermal
systems engineering provided in Chapter 1. The
chapter describes thermal systems engineering gen-
erally and shows the interrelated roles of thermody-
namics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer for ana-
lyzing thermal systems.
•
Generous collection of detailed examples featuring
a structured problem-solving approach that encour-
ages systematic thinking.
•
Numerous realistic applications and homework prob-
lems. End-of-chapter problems classified by topic.
•
Student study tools (summarized in Sec. 1.4)
include chapter introductions giving a clear
statement of the objective, chapter summary and
study guides, and key terms provided in the
margins and coordinated with the text
presentation.
•
A CD-ROM with hyperlinks providing the full
print text plus additional content, answers to
selected end-of-chapter problems, short fluid flow
video clips, and software for solving problems in
thermodynamics and in heat transfer.
•
Access to a website with additional learning
resources: http://www.wiley.com/college/moran
Features especially useful for faculty are:
•
Proven content and student-centered pedagogy
adapted from leading textbooks in the respective
disciplines:
M.J. Moran and H.N. Shapiro, Fundamentals of
Engineering Thermodynamics, 4
th
edition, 2000.
B.R. Munson, D.F. Young, and T.H. Okiishi,
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 4
th
edition,
2002.
F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer, 5
th
edition, 2002.
•
Concise presentation and flexible approach readily
tailored to individual instructional needs. Topics
are carefully structured to allow faculty wide
latitude in choosing the coverage they provide to
students—with no loss in continuity. The accom-
panying CD-ROM provides additional content that
allows faculty further opportunities to customize
their courses and/or develop two-semester
courses.
Preface
iii
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iv Preface
•
Highly integrated presentation. The authors have
worked closely as a team to ensure the material
is presented seamlessly and works well as a whole.
Special attention has been given to smooth transitions
between the three core areas. Links between the core
areas have been inserted throughout.
•
Instructor’s Manual containing complete, detailed
solutions to all the end-of-chapter problems to assist
with course planning.
A Note on the Creative Process
How did four experienced authors come together to
develop this book? It began with a face-to-face meeting in
Chicago sponsored by our Publisher. It was there that we
developed the broad outline of the book and the unifying
thermal systems engineering theme. At first we believed it
would be a straightforward task to achieve our objectives
by identifying the core topics in the respective subject areas
and adapting material from our previous books to provide
them concisely. We quickly found that it was easier to agree
on overall objectives than to achieve them. Since we come
from the somewhat different technical cultures of thermo-
dynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer, it might be
expected that challenges would be encountered as the
author team reached for a common vision of an integrated
book, and this was the case.
Considerable effort was required to harmonize different
viewpoints and writing styles, as well as to agree on the
breadth and depth of topic coverage. Building on the good
will generated at our Chicago meeting, collaboration
among the authors has been extraordinary as we have taken
a problem-solving approach to this project. Authors have
been open and mutually supportive, and have shared com-
mon goals. Concepts were honed and issues resolved in
weekly telephone conferences, countless e-mail ex-
changes, and frequent one-to-one telephone conversations.
A common vision evolved as written material was
exchanged between authors and critically evaluated. By
such teamwork, overlapping concepts were clarified, links
between the three disciplines strengthened, and a single
voice achieved. This process has paralleled the engineer-
ing design process we describe in Chapter 1. We are
pleased with the outcome.
We believe that we have developed a unique, user-
friendly text that clearly focuses on the essential aspects
of the subject matter. We hope that this new, concise
introduction to thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat
transfer will appeal to both students and faculty. Your
suggestions for improvement are most welcome.
Acknowledgments
Many individuals have contributed to making this book
better than it might have been without their participation.
Thanks are due to the following for their thoughtful com-
ments on specific sections and/or chapters of the book:
Fan-Bill Cheung (Pennsylvania State University), Kirk
Christensen (University of Missouri-Rolla), Prateen V.
DeSai (Georgia Institute of Technology), Mark J.
Holowach (Pennsylvania State University), Ron Mathews
(University of Texas-Austin), S. A. Sherif (University of
Florida). Organization and topical coverage also bene-
fited from survey results of faculty currently teaching
thermal sciences courses.
Thanks are also due to many individuals in the John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., organization who have contributed
their talents and efforts to this book. We pay special recog-
nition to Joseph Hayton, our editor, who brought the author
team together, encouraged its work, and provided resources
in support of the project.
April 2002
Michael J. Moran
Howard N. Shapiro
Bruce R. Munson
David P. DeWitt
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THERMO
What Is Thermal Systems
Engineering? 1
1.1 Getting Started 1
1.2 Thermal System Case Studies 3
1.3 Analysis of Thermal Systems 7
1.4 How to Use This Book Effectively 9
Problems 11
Getting Started in
Thermodynamics: Introductory
Concepts and Definitions 14
2.1 Defining Systems 14
2.2 Describing Systems and Their Behavior 16
2.3 Units and Dimensions 19
2.4 Two Measurable Properties: Specific Volume
and Pressure 21
2.5 Measuring Temperature 23
2.6 Methodology for Solving Problems 26
2.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 27
Problems 28
Using Energy and the First Law
of Thermodynamics 31
3.1 Reviewing Mechanical Concepts of Energy 31
3.2 Broadening Our Understanding of Work 33
3.3 Modeling Expansion or Compression Work 36
3.4 Broadening Our Understanding of Energy 40
3.5 Energy Transfer by Heat 41
3.6 Energy Accounting: Energy Balance for Closed
Systems 43
3.7 Energy Analysis of Cycles 51
3.8 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 54
Problems 55
Evaluating Properties 59
4.1 Fixing the State 59
Evaluating Properties: General
Considerations 60
4.2 p-v-T Relation 60
4.3 Retrieving Thermodynamics Properties 64
4.4 p-v-T Relations for Gases 79
Evaluating Properties Using the Ideal
Gas Model 81
4.5 Ideal Gas Model 81
4.6 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of
Ideal Gases 83
4.7 Evaluating ⌬u and ⌬h of Ideal Gases 85
4.8 Polytropic Process of an Ideal Gas 89
4.9 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 91
Problems 91
Control Volume Analysis Using
Energy 96
5.1 Conservation of Mass for a Control Volume 96
5.2 Conservation of Energy for a Control
Volume 99
5.3 Analyzing Control Volumes at Steady State 102
5.4 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 117
Problems 118
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics 123
6.1 Introducing the Second Law 123
6.2 Identifying Irreversibilities 126
6.3 Applying the Second Law to Thermodynamic
Cycles 128
6.4 Maximum Performance Measures for Cycles
Operating between Two Reservoirs 131
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3
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6.5 Carnot Cycle 136
6.6 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 137
Problems 137
Using Entropy 141
7.10 Introducing Entropy 141
7.20 Retrieving Entropy Data 143
7.30 Entropy Change in Internally Reversible
Processes 149
7.40 Entropy Balance for Closed Systems 151
7.50 Entropy Rate Balance for Control
Volumes 157
7.60 Isentropic Processes 162
7.70 Isentropic Efficiencies of Turbines, Nozzles,
Compressors, and Pumps 166
7.80 Heat Transfer and Work in Internally Reversible,
Steady-State Flow Processes 171
7.90 Accounting for Mechanical Energy 174
7.10 Accounting for Internal Energy 176
7.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 177
Problems 178
Vapor Power and Refrigeration
Systems 185
Vapor Power Systems 185
8.10 Modeling Vapor Power Systems 185
8.20 Analyzing Vapor Power Systems—Rankine
Cycle 187
8.30 Improving Performance—Superheat
and Reheat 198
8.40 Improving Performance—Regenerative Vapor
Power Cycle 202
Vapor Refrigeration and Heat Pump
Systems 206
8.50 Vapor Refrigeration Systems 207
8.60 Analyzing Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Systems 209
8.70 Vapor-Compression Heat Pump Systems 217
8.80 Working Fluids for Vapor Power and Refrigeration
Systems 218
8.90 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 218
Problems 219
Gas Power Systems 223
Internal Combustion Engines 223
9.1 Engine Terminology 223
9.2 Air-Standard Otto Cycle 225
9.3 Air-Standard Diesel Cycle 230
Gas Turbine Power Plants 234
9.4 Modeling Gas Turbine Power Plants 234
9.5 Air-Standard Brayton Cycle 235
9.6 Regenerative Gas Turbines 243
9.7 Gas Turbines for Aircraft Propulsion
(CD-ROM) 247
9.8 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 247
Problems 247
Psychrometric Applications
(CD-ROM) 250
All material in Chapter 10 is available on the CD-ROM only.
10.1 Introducing Psychrometric Principles
10.2 Evaluating the Dew Point Temperature
10.3 Psychrometers: Measuring the Wet-Bulb and
Dry-Bulb Temperatures
10.4 Psychrometric Charts
10.5 Analyzing Air-Conditioning Processes
10.6 Cooling Towers
10.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
Problems
FLUIDS
Getting Started in Fluid
Mechanics: Fluid Statics 251
11.1 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 251
11.2 Measurement of Pressure 255
11.3 Manometry 256
11.4 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure and
Measuring Devices 259
11.5 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 260
11.6 Buoyancy 264
11.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 265
Problems 265
8
10
11
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Contents vii
The Momentum and Mechanical
Energy Equations 269
12.1 Fluid Flow Preliminaries 269
12.2 Momentum Equation 272
12.3 Applying the Momentum Equation 273
12.40 The Bernoulli Equation 278
12.50 Further Examples of Use of the Bernoulli
Equation 280
12.60 The Mechanical Energy Equation 282
12.70 Applying the Mechanical Energy Equation 283
12.80 Compressible Flow (CD-ROM) 286
12.90 One-dimensional Steady Flow in Nozzles and
Diffusers (CD-ROM) 286
12.10 Flow in Nozzles and Diffusers of Ideal
Gases with Constant Specific Heats
(CD-ROM) 286
12.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 287
Problems 287
Similitude, Dimensional
Analysis, and Modeling 293
13.10 Dimensional Analysis 293
13.20 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and
Dimensional Analysis 294
13.30 Buckingham Pi Theorem and Pi Terms 297
13.40 Method of Repeating Variables 298
13.50 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid
Mechanics 301
13.60 Correlation of Experimental Data 302
13.70 Modeling and Similitude 304
13.80 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 308
Problems 309
Internal and External Flow
313
Internal Flow 313
14.10 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow 314
14.20 Fully Developed Laminar Flow 315
14.30 Laminar Pipe Flow Characteristics
(CD-ROM) 316
14.40 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 316
14.50 Pipe Flow Head Loss 317
14.60 Pipe Flow Examples 322
14.70 Pipe Volumetric Flow Rate Measurement
(CD-ROM) 325
External Flow 325
14.80 Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 326
14.90 General External Flow Characteristics 330
14.10 Drag Coefficient Data 332
14.11 Lift 335
14.12 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 337
Problems 338
HEAT TRANSFER
Getting Started in Heat
Transfer: Modes, Rate Equations
and Energy Balances 342
15.10 Heat Transfer Modes: Physical Origins and Rate
Equations 342
15.20 Applying the First Law in Heat Transfer 348
15.30 The Surface Energy Balance 351
15.40 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 355
Problems 356
Heat Transfer by
Conduction 359
16.10 Introduction to Conduction Analysis 359
16.20 Steady-State Conduction 362
16.30 Conduction with Energy Generation 373
16.40 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces:
Fins 377
16.50 Transient Conduction 385
16.60 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 395
Problems 397
Heat Transfer by
Convection 405
17.10 The Problem of Convection 405
Forced Convection 412
17.20 External Flow 412
17.30 Internal Flow 423
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15
17
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Free Convection 438
17.40 Free Convection 438
Convection Application:
Heat Exchangers 446
17.50 Heat Exchangers 446
17.60 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 456
Problems 458
Heat Transfer by
Radiation 468
18.1 Fundamental Concepts 468
18.2 Radiation Quantities and Processes 470
18.3 Blackbody Radiation 473
Spectrally Selective Surfaces 479
18.4 Radiation Properties of Real Surfaces 479
Radiative Exchange Between Surfaces in
Enclosures 489
18.5 The View Factor 489
18.6 Blackbody Radiation Exchange 492
18.7 Radiation Exchange between Diffuse-Gray
Surfaces in an Enclosure 495
18.8 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 502
Problems 503
Appendices 511
Index to Property Tables
and Figures 511
Index 557
18
A
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Things You Should Know Version 1 05-31-02 Page 1 of 7
Things You Should Know About
Interactive Thermodynamics (IT)
and
Interactive Heat Transfer (IHT)
What is the software all about?
IT and IHT provided on your CD-ROM are Windows-based, general-purpose, nonlinear equation
solvers with built-in functions for solving thermodynamics and heat transfer problems. The
packages were designed for use with the texts Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics
(Moran & Shapiro, 4
th
Ed., 2000, Wiley) and Introduction to Heat Transfer (Incropera & DeWitt, 4
th
Ed., 2002, Wiley), respectively. The equation numbering, text section/topic identification, and
content, are specific to those texts. However, the software is also well suited for use with
Introduction to Thermal Systems Engineering (ITSE). It is our purpose here to identify features of
IT and IHT that will help you make good use of the software in solving thermodynamics and heat
transfer problems.
Why use IT and IHT?
You should consider IT and IHT as productivity tools to reduce the tediousness of calculations,
and as learning tools to permit building models and exploring influences of system parameters.
Use the software as you would a hand calculator to check solutions. Solve systems of equations
that otherwise would require iterative hand calculations. Sweep across the value of a parameter
to generate a graph. But, best of all, use the special features of the packages identified below
that will greatly facilitate your problem solving assignments.
For thermodynamics applications, you will find IT especially helpful for retrieving thermodynamic
property data while solving a problem that requires one numerical solution, or for varying
parameters to investigate their effects.
For heat transfer applications, you will find IHT especially helpful for solving problems associated
with these topics: transient conduction using the lumped capacitance method and one-term series
analytical solutions; estimating convection coefficients using correlations requiring thermophysical
properties of fluids as a function of temperature; and blackbody radiation functions.
Things You Should Know Version 1 05-31-02 Page 2 of 7
Getting Started with IT and IHT
When you first start up IT and IHT, you will be asked whether you want to run the Tutorial. If you
are new to the software, you should go through the Tutorial so that you can build these basic
skills:
• enter equations from the keyboard,
• solve equation sets with an understanding of Initial Guesses and solver behavior,
• perform Explore and Graph operations, and
• understand general features of the solver Intrinsic Functions .
For IT, the Tutorial, is self-contained and provides you with all that you need to learn the basic
features of the software. After working through the tutorial you will be able to solve basic
thermodynamic problems, vary parameters, and make graphs. Your skills with IT will serve you
as well with IHT since their architecture, solver engine and other key features are similar.
For IHT, the Tutorial, while labeled as Example 1.6, is based on ITSE Example 15.3, Curing a
Coating with a Radiant Source. Step-by-step instructions will lead you through the construction of
the model, solution for the unknown variables, and graphical representation of a parametric study.
You should become familiar with the Help Index, which serves as the User’s Manual for the
software. You should read the first section, IHT Environment, so that you understand the
structure of the software. Later we’ll introduce you to some special Intrinsic Functions.
To find out more about using the software, you should go to the sections that follow entitled, IT:
Some Special Tips or IHT: Some Special Tips.
[...]... represent thermal systems Ice rinks, snow-making machines, and other recreational uses involve thermal systems In living things, the respiratory and circulatory systems are thermal systems, as are equipment for life support and surgical procedures Thermal systems involve the storage, transfer, and conversion of energy Energy can be stored within a system in different forms, such as kinetic energy and gravitational... of Thermal Systems In this section, we introduce the basic laws that govern the analysis of thermal systems of all kinds, including the three cases considered in Sec 1.2 We also consider further the roles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer in thermal systems engineering and their relationship to one another Important engineering functions are to design and analyze things intended to. .. study in thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer to strengthen your understanding of fundamentals and to acquire more experience in model building and solving applications-driven problems 1.4 How to Use This Book Effectively This book has several features and learning resources that facilitate study and contribute further to understanding 9 10 Chapter 1 What Is Thermal Systems Engineering? ... physics and chemistry, you were introduced to these laws In this book, we place the laws in forms especially well suited for use in thermal systems engineering and help you learn how to apply them 1.3.1 The Three Thermal Science Disciplines As we have observed, thermal systems engineering typically requires the use of three thermal science disciplines: thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. .. t transfer Fl H ea Thermal Systems Engineering Analysis directed to Design Operations/Maintenance Marketing/Sales Costing • • • Heat Transfer Conduction Convection Radiation Multiple Modes s Fluid Mechanics Fluid statics Conservation of momentum Mechanical energy equation Similitude and modeling Figure 1.5 The disciplines of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer involve fundamentals and. .. practice of thermal systems engineering 1.4 How to Use This Book Effectively effects and lift/drag forces The concept of similitude is used extensively in scaling measurements on laboratory-sized models to full-scale systems Heat transfer is concerned with energy transfer as a consequence of a temperature difference As shown in Fig 1.5, there are three modes of heat transfer Conduction refers to heat transfer. .. from your background in physics and chemistry The roles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer in thermal systems engineering and their relationship to one another also are described The presentation concludes with tips on the effective use of the book chapter objective 1.1 Getting Started Thermal systems engineering is concerned with how energy is utilized to accomplish beneficial functions... applications for thermal systems engineering Electric power Cooling tower 1.2 Thermal System Case Studies system is a complex combination of fluid flow and heat transfer components that regulates the flow of blood and air to within the relatively narrow range of conditions required to maintain life In the next section, three case studies are discussed that bring out important features of thermal systems engineering. .. (up to eight characters), but different extensions (.dsk, eqd, and eqs) Remember to include all four files if you perform a copy -and- paste sequence to relocate the files from your CD-ROM to another drive on your computer Things You Should Know Version 1 05-31-02 Page 7 of 7 1 WHAT IS THERMAL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING? Introduction The objective of this chapter is to introduce you to thermal systems engineering. .. provide examples of complex thermal systems As in the case of hot water systems, the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer apply to the analysis and design of individual parts, components, and to the entire vehicle 1.2.3 Microelectronics Manufacturing: Soldering Printed-Circuit Boards Printed-circuit boards (PCBs) found in computers, cell phones, and many other products, are . home, and so on. Introduction to Thermal Systems Engineering: Thermo- dynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer is intended for a three- or four-credit hour course in thermodynamics, fluid mechanics,. include: unified notation (symbols and definitions); engaging case- oriented introduction to thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer engineering; mechanical energy and thermal energy equations. from your background in physics and chemistry. The roles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer in thermal systems engineering and their relationship to one another also are described.
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