APPLIED PROCESS DESIGN FOR CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS Volume 3, Third Edition 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page i Volume 1: 1. Process Planning, Scheduling, Flowsheet Design 2. Fluid Flow 3. Pumping of Liquids 4. Mechanical Separations 5. Mixing of Liquids 6. Ejectors 7. Process Safety and Pressure-Relieving Devices Appendix of Conversion Factors Volume 2: 8. Distillation 9. Packed Towers Volume 3: 10. Heat Transfer 11. Refrigeration Systems 12. Compression Equipment (Including Fans) 13. Reciprocating Compression Surge Drums 14. Mechanical Drivers ii 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page ii APPLIED PROCESS DESIGN FOR CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS Volume 3, Third Edition Ernest E. Ludwig Retired Consulting Engineer Baton Rouge, Louisiana Boston Oxford Auckland Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page iii 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page iv Foreword to the Second Edition ix Preface to the Third Edition xi 10. Heat Transfer 1 Types of Heat Transfer Equipment Terminology, 1; Details of Exchange Equipment Assembly and Arrangement, 8; 1. Construction Codes, 8; 2. Ther- mal Rating Standards, 8; 3. Exchanger Shell Types, 8; 4. Tubes, 10; 5. Baffles, 24; 6. Tie Rods, 31; 7. Tubesheets, 32; 8. Tube Joints in Tubesheets, 34 Example 10-1. Determine Outside Heat Transfer Area of Heat Exchanger Bundle, 35; Tubesheet Layouts, 35; Tube Counts in Shells, 35; Exchanger Surface Area, 50; Effective Tube Surface, 51; Effective Tube Length for U-Tube Heat Exchang- ers, 51; Example 10-2. Use of U-Tube Area Chart, 51; Nozzle Connections to Shell and Heads, 53; Types of Heat Exchange Operations, 53; Thermal Design, 53; Temperature Difference: Two Fluid Transfer, 55; Mean Temperature Difference or Log Mean Temperature Difference, 57; Example 10-3. One Shell Pass, 2 Tube Passes Parallel-Coun- terflow Exchanger Cross, After Murty, 57; Exam- ple 10-4. Performance Examination for Exit Temperature of Fluids, 72; Correction for Multi- pass Flow through Heat Exchangers, 72; Heat Load or Duty, 74; Example 10-5. Calculation of Weighted MTD, 74; Example 10-6. Heat Duty of a Condenser with Liquid Subcooling, 74; Heat Bal- ance, 74; Transfer Area, 75; Example 10-7. Calcu- lation of LMTD and Correction, 75; Temperature for Fluid Properties Evaluation — Caloric Tem- perature, 75; Tube Wall Temperature, 76; Fouling of Tube Surface, 78; Overall Heat Transfer Coef- ficients for Plain or Bare Tubes, 87; Approximate Values for Overall Coefficients, 90; Example 10-8. Calculation of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient from Individual Components, 90; Film Coeffi- cients with Fluid Inside Tubes, Forced Convection, 94; Film Coefficients with Fluids Outside Tubes, 101; Forced Convection, 101; Shell-Side Equiva- lent Tube Diameter, 102; Shell-Side Velocities, 107; Design Procedure for Forced Convection Heat Transfer in Exchanger Design, 109; Example 10-9. Convection Heat Transfer Exchanger Design, 112; Spiral Coils in Vessels, 116; Tube-Side Coefficient, 116; Outside Tube Coefficients, 116; Condensa- tion Outside Tube Bundles, 116; Vertical Tube v Bundle, 116; Horizontal Tube Bundle, 119; Step- wise Use of Devore Charts, 121; Subcooling, 122; Film Temperature Estimation for Condensing, 123; Condenser Design Procedure, 123; Example 10-10. Total Condenser, 124; RODbaffled® (Shell- Side) Exchangers, 129; Condensation Inside Tubes, 129; Example 10-11. Desuperheating and Condensing Propylene in Shell, 134; Example 10- 12. Steam Heated Feed Preheater—Steam in Shell, 138; Example 10-13. Gas Cooling and Partial Condensing in Tubes, 139; Condensing Vapors in Presence of Noncondensable Gases, 143; Example 10-14. Chlorine-Air Condenser, Noncondensables, Vertical Condenser, 144; Example 10-15. Con- densing in Presence of Noncondensables, Col- burn-Hougen Method, 148; Multizone Heat Exchange, 154; Fluids in Annulus of Tube-in-Pipe or Double Pipe Exchanger, Forced Convection, 154; Approximation of Scraped Wall Heat Trans- fer, 154; Heat Transfer in Jacketed, Agitated Ves- sels/Kettles, 156; Example 10-16. Heating Oil Using High Temperature Heat Transfer Fluid, 157; Pressure Drop, 160; Falling Film Liquid Flow in Tubes, 160; Vaporization and Boiling, 161; Vaporization in Horizontal Shell; Natural Circula- tion, 164; Vaporization in Horizontal Shell; Nat- ural Circulation, 165; Pool and Nucleate Boiling — General Correlation for Heat Flux and Critical Temperature Difference, 165; Reboiler Heat Bal- ance, 168; Example 10-17. Reboiler Heat Duty after Kern, 169; Kettle Horizontal Reboilers, 169; Nucleate or Alternate Designs Procedure , 173; Kettle Reboiler Horizontal Shells, 174; Horizontal Kettle Reboiler Disengaging Space, 174; Kettel Horizontal Reboilers, Alternate Designs, 174; Example 10-18. Kettle Type Evaporator — Steam in Tubes, 176; Boiling: Nucleate Natural Circula- tion (Thermosiphon) Inside Vertical Tubes or Outside Horizontal Tubes, 177; Gilmour Method Modified, 178; Suggested Procedure for Vaporiza- tion with Sensible Heat Transfer, 181; Procedure for Horizontal Natural Circulation Thermosiphon Reboiler, 182; Kern Method, 182; Vaporization Inside Vertical Tubes; Natural Thermosiphon Action, 182; Fair’s Method, 182; Example 10-19. C3 Splitter Reboiler, 194; Example 10-20. Cyclo- hexane Column Reboiler, 197; Kern’s Method Stepwise, 198; Other Design Methods, 199; Exam- ple 10-21. Vertical Thermosiphon Reboiler, Kern’s Method, 199; Simplified Hajek Method—Vertical Thermosiphon Reboiler, 203; General Guides for Vertical Thermosiphon Reboilers Design, 203; Example 10-22. Hajek’s Method—Vertical Ther- Contents 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page v mosiphon Reboiler, 204; Reboiler Piping, 207; Film Boiling, 207; Vertical Tubes, Boiling Outside, Submerged, 207; Horizontal Tubes: Boiling Out- side, Submerged, 208; Horizontal Film or Cascade Drip-Coolers—Atmospheric, 208; Design Proce- dure, 208; Pressure Drop for Plain Tube Exchang- ers, 210; A. Tube Side, 210; B. Shell Side, 211; Alternate: Segmental Baffles Pressure Drop, 215; Finned Tube Exchangers, 218; Low Finned Tubes, 16 and 19 Fins/In., 218; Finned Surface Heat Transfer, 219; Economics of Finned Tubes, 220; Tubing Dimensions, Table 10-39, 221; Design for Heat Transfer Coefficients by Forced Convection Using Radial Low-Fin tubes in Heat Exchanger Bundles, 221; Design Procedure for Shell-Side Condensers and Shell-Side Condensation with Gas Cooling of Condensables, Fluid-Fluid Convec- tion Heat Exchange, 224; Design Procedure for Shell-Side Condensers and Shell-Side Condensa- tion with Gas Cooling of Condensables, Fluid- Fluid Convection Heat Exchange, 224; Example 10-23. Boiling with Finned Tubes, 227; Double Pipe Finned Tube Heat Exchangers, 229; Miscella- neous Special Application Heat Transfer Equip- ment, 234; A. Plate and Frame Heat Exchangers, 234; B. Spiral Heat Exchangers, 234; C. Corru- gated Tube Heat Exchangers, 235; D. Heat Trans- fer Flat (or Shaped) Panels, 235; E. Direct Steam Injection Heating, 236; F. Bayonet Heat Exchang- ers, 239; G. Heat-Loss Tracing for Process Piping, 239; Example 10-24. Determine the Number of Thermonized® Tracers to Maintain a Process Line Temperature, 243; H. Heat Loss for Bare Process Pipe, 245; I. Heat Loss through Insulation for Process Pipe, 246; Example 10-25. Determine Pipe Insulation Thickness, 248; J. Direct-Contact Gas- Liquid Heat Transfer, 249; Example 10-26. Deter- mine Contact Stages Actually Required for Direct Contact Heat Transfer in Plate-Type Columns, 251; General Application, 259; Advantages— Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers, 260; Disadvantages, 260; Bid Evaluation, 260; Design Considerations (Continuous Service), 263; Mean Temperature Difference, 267; Design Procedure for Approxi- mation, 269; Tube-Side Fluid Temperature Con- trol, 271; Heat Exchanger Design with Computers, 271; Nomenclature, 273; Greek Symbols, 278; Sub- scripts, 279; References, 279; Bibliography, 285 11. Refrigeration Systems 289 Types of Refrigeration Systems, 289; Terminology, 289; Selection of a Refrigeration System for a Given Temperature Level and Heat Load, 289; Steam Jet Refrigeration, 290; Materials of Con- struction, 291; Performance, 291; Capacity, 293; Operation, 295; Utilities, 295; Specification, 296; vi Example 11-1. Barometric Steam Jet Refrigera- tion, 299; Absorption Refrigeration, 299; Ammo- nia System, 299; General Advantages and Features, 301; Capacity, 301; Performance, 301; Example 11- 2. Heat Load Determination for Single-Stage Absorption Equipment, 302; Lithium Bromide Absorption for Chilled Water, 305; Mechanical Refrigeration, 308; Compressors, 309; Con- densers, 311; Process Evaporator, 311; Compres- sors, 311; Purge, 312; Process Performance, 312; Refrigerants, 312; ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34- 1992, “Number Designation and Safety Classifica- tion of Refrigerants”, 312; System Performance Comparison, 319; Hydrocarbon Refrigerants, 321; Example 11-3. Single-Stage Propane Refrigeration System, Using Charts of Mehra, 322; Example 11- 4. Two-Stage Propane Refrigeration System, Using Charts of Mehra, 328; Hydrocarbon Mixtures and Refrigerants, 328; Liquid and Vapor Equilibrium, 333; Example 11-5. Use of Hydrocarbon Mixtures as Refrigerants (Used by Permission of the Car- rier Corporation.), 333; Example 11-6. Other Fac- tors in Refrigerant Selection Costs, 350; System Design and Selection, 353; Example 11-7. 300-Ton Ammonia Refrigeration System, 353; Receiver, 359; Example 11-8. 200-Ton Chloro-Fluor-Refrig- erant-12, 361; Economizers, 361; Suction Gas Superheat, 362; Example 11-9. Systems Operating at Different Refrigerant Temperatures, 362; Com- pound Compression System, 363; Comparison of Effect of System Cycle and Expansion Valves on Required Horsepower, 363; Cascade Systems, 363; Cryogenics, 364; Nomenclature, 365; Subscripts, 366; References, 366; Bibliography, 366 12. Compression Equipment (Including Fans) 368 General Application Guide, 368; Specification Guides, 369; General Considerations for Any Type of Compressor Flow Conditions, 370; Reciprocat- ing Compression, 371; Mechanical Considera- tions, 371; Performance Considerations, 380; Specification Sheet, 380; Compressor Perfor- mance Characteristics, 410; Example 12-1. Inter- stage Pressure and Ratios of Compression, 415; Example 12-2. Single-Stage Compression, 430; Example 12-3. Two-Stage Compression, 431; Solu- tion of Compression Problems Using Mollier Dia- grams, 433; Horsepower, 433; Example 12-4. Horsepower Calculation Using Mollier Diagram, 433; Cylinder Unloading, 442; Example 12-5. Compressor Unloading, 445; Example 12-6. Effect of Compressibility at High Pressure, 448; Air Com- pressor Selection, 450; Energy flow, 451; Constant- T system, 454; Polytropic System, 454; Constant-S System, 455; Example 12-7. Use of Figure 12-35 Air 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page vi Chart (©W. T. Rice), 455; Centrifugal Compres- sors, 455; Mechanical Considerations, 455; Speci- fications, 470; Performance Characteristics, 479; Inlet Volume, 480; Centrifugal Compressor Approximate Rating by the “N” Method, 491; Compressor Calculations by the Mollier Diagram Method, 493; Example 12-8. Use of Mollier Dia- gram, 495; Example 12-9. Comparison of Poly- tropic Head and Efficiency with Adiabatic Head and Efficiency, 496; Example 12-10. Approximate Compressor Selection, 500; Operating Character- istics, 504; Example 12-11. Changing Characteris- tics at Constant Speed, 509; Example 12-12. Changing Characteristics at Variable Speed, 510; Expansion Turbines, 512; Axial Compressor, 513; Operating Characteristics, 513; Liquid Ring Com- pressors, 516; Operating Characteristics, 517; Applications, 518; Rotary Two-Impeller (Lobe) Blowers and Vacuum Pumps, 518; Construction Materials, 519; Performance, 519; Rotary Axial Screw Blower and Vacuum Pumps, 522; Perfor- mance, 523; Advantages, 524; Disadvantages, 524; Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor, 526; Perfor- mance, 528; Types of Fans, 531; Specifications, 535; Construction, 535; Fan Drivers, 542; Perfor- mance, 544; Summary of Fan Selection and Rat- ing, 544; Pressures, 547; Example 12-13. Fan Selection, 547; Operational Characteristics and Performance, 549; Example 12-14. Fan Selection Velocities, 549; Example 12-15. Change Speed of Existing Fan, 559; Example 12-16. Fan Law 1, 560; Example 12-17. Change Pressure of Existing Fan, Fan Law 2, 560; Example 12-18. Rating Conditions on a Different Size Fan (Same Series) to Corre- spond to Existing Fan, 560; Example 12-19. Chang- ing Pressure at Constant Capacity, 560; Example 12-20. Effect of Change in Inlet Air Temperature, 560; Peripheral Velocity or Tip Speed, 561; Horse- power, 561; Efficiency, 562; Example 12-21. Fan Power and Efficiency, 562; Temperature Rise, 562; Fan Noise, 562; Fan Systems, 563; System Compo- nent Resistances, 564; Duct Resistance, 565; Sum- mary of Fan System Calculations, 565; Parallel Operation, 567; Fan Selection, 569; Multirating Tables, 569; Example 12-22. Fan Selection for Hot Air, 571; Example 12-23. Fan Selection Using a Process Gas, 573; Blowers and Exhausters, 573; Nomenclature, 573; Greek Symbols, 577; Sub- scripts, 577; References, 577; Bibliography, 580 13 Reciprocating Compression Surge Drums 581 Pulsation Dampener or Surge Drum, 581; Com- mon Design Terminology, 582; Applications, 585; Internal Details, 591; Design Method — Surge Drums (Nonacoustic), 591; Single-Compression Cylinder, 591; Parallel Multicylinder Arrangement Using Common Surge Drum, 592; Pipe Sizes for Surge Drum Systems2, 12, 593; Example 13-1. Surge Drums and Piping for Double-Acting, Paral- lel Cylinder, Compressor Installation, 593; Exam- ple 13-2. Single Cylinder Compressor, Single Acting, 596; Frequency of Pulsations, 596; Com- pressor Suction and Discharge Drums, 597; Design Method — Acoustic Low Pass Filters, 597; Exam- ple 13-3. Sizing a Pulsation Dampener Using Acoustic Method, 602; Design Method — Modi- fied NACA Method for Design of Suction and Dis- charge Drums, 608; Example 13-4. Sample Calculation, 609; Pipe Resonance, 611; Mechani- cal Considerations: Drums/Bottles and Piping, 612; Nomenclature, 613; Greek, 614; Subscripts, 614; References, 614; Bibliography, 614 14 Mechanical Drivers 615 Electric Motors, 615; Terminology, 615; Load Characteristics, 616; Basic Motor Types: Synchro- nous and Induction, 616; Selection of Synchro- nous Motor Speeds, 619; Duty, 625; Types of Electrical Current, 625; Characteristics, 627; Energy Efficient (EE) Motor Designs, 628; NEMA Design Classifications, 630; Classification Accord- ing to Size, 630; Hazard Classifications: Fire and Explosion, 631; Electrical Classification for Safety in Plant Layout, 647; Motor Enclosures, 649; Motor Torque, 651; Power Factor for Alternating Current, 652; Motor Selection, 653; Speed Changes, 654; Adjustable Speed Drives, 659, Mechanical Drive Steam Turbines, 659; Standard Size Turbines, 661; Applications, 662; Major Vari- ables Affecting Turbine Selection and Operation, 662; Speed Range, 662; Efficiency Range, 662; Motive Steam, 662; Example 14-3, 663; Selection, 663; Operation and Control, 666; Performance, 671; Specifications, 671; Steam Rates, 672; Single- Stage Turbines, 673; Multistage Turbines, 680; Gas and Gas-Diesel Engines, 680; Example 14-1: Full Load Steam Rate, Single-Stage Turbine, 680; Example 14-2: Single-Stage Turbine Partial Load at Rated Speed, 680; Application, 681; Engine Cylinder Indicator Cards, 681; Speed, 682; Tur- bocharging and Supercharging, 683; Specifica- tions, 683; Combustion Gas Turbine, 683; Nomenclature, 686; References, 687; Bibliogra- phy, 690 vii 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page vii 66131_Ludwig_FM 5/30/2001 4:04 PM Page viii The techniques of process design continue to improve as the science of chemical engineering develops new and bet- ter interpretations of fundamentals. Accordingly, this sec- ond edition presents additional, reliable design methods based on proven techniques and supported by pertinent data. Since the first edition, much progress has been made in standardizing and improving the design techniques for the hardware components that are used in designing process equipment. This standardization has been incorpo- rated in this latest edition, as much as practically possible. The “heart” of proper process design is interpreting the process requirements into properly arranged and sized mechanical hardware expressed as (1) off-the-shelf mechan- ical equipment (with appropriate electric drives and instru- mentation for control); (2) custom-designed vessels, controls, etc.; or (3) some combination of (1) and (2). The unique process conditions must be attainable in, by, and through the equipment. Therefore, it is essential that the process designer carefully visualize physically and mathe- matically just how the process will behave in the equipment and through the control schemes proposed. Although most of the chapters have been expanded to include new material, some obsolete information has been removed. Chapter 10, “Heat Transfer,” has been updated and now includes several important design techniques for difficult condensing situations and for the application of ther- mosiphon reboilers. Chapter 11, “Refrigeration Systems,” has been improved with additional data and new systems designs for light hydro- carbon refrigeration. ix Chapter 12, “Compression Equipment,” has been gener- ally updated. Chapter 13, “Compression Surge Drums,” presents sev- eral new techniques, as well as additional detailed examples. Chapter 14, “Mechanical Drivers,” has been updated to inlcude the latest code and standards of the National Elec- trical Manufacturer’s Association and information on the new energy efficient motors. Also, the new appendix provides an array of basic refer- ence and conversion data. Although computers are now an increasingly valuable tool for the process design engineer, it is beyond the scope of these three volumes to incorporate the programming and mathematical techniques required to convert the basic process design methods presented into computer programs. Many useful computer programs now exist for process design, as well as optimization, and the process designer is encouraged to develop his/her own or to become familiar with available commercial programs through several of the recognized firms specializing in design and simulation com- puter software. The many aspects of process design are essential to the proper performance of the work of chemical engineers and other engineers engaged in the process engineering design details for chemical and petrochemical plants. Process design has developed by necessity into a unique section of the scope of work for the broad spectrum of chemical engi- neering. 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Corporation.), 33 3; Example 1 1-6 . Other Fac- tors in Refrigerant Selection Costs, 35 0; System Design and Selection, 35 3; Example 1 1-7 . 30 0-Ton Ammonia Refrigeration System, 35 3; Receiver, 35 9; Example 1 1-8 APPLIED PROCESS DESIGN FOR CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS Volume 3, Third Edition 66 131 _Ludwig_FM 5 /30 /2001 4:04 PM Page i Volume 1: 1. Process Planning, Scheduling, Flowsheet Design 2 Compres- sors, 31 1; Purge, 31 2; Process Performance, 31 2; Refrigerants, 31 2; ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 3 4- 1992, “Number Designation and Safety Classifica- tion of Refrigerants”, 31 2; System Performance Comparison,