NEUROIMAGING – METHODS Edited by Peter Bright Neuroimaging – Methods Edited by Peter Bright Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. 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Publishing Process Manager Sandra Bakic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published February, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Neuroimaging – Methods, Edited by Peter Bright p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0097-3 Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Functional Neuroimaging: A Historical Perspective 1 Stefano Zago, Lorenzo Lorusso, Roberta Ferrucci and Alberto Priori Chapter 2 fMRI for the Assessment of Functional Connectivity 29 Till Nierhaus, Daniel Margulies, Xiangyu Long and Arno Villringer Chapter 3 Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS): Principles and Neuroscientific Applications 47 José León-Carrión and Umberto León-Domínguez Chapter 4 Measurement of Brain Function Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) 75 Hitoshi Tsunashima, Kazuki Yanagisawa and Masako Iwadate Chapter 5 Towards Model-Based Brain Imaging with Multi-Scale Modeling 99 Lars Schwabe and Youwei Zheng Chapter 6 Functional Brain Imaging Using Non-Invasive Non-Ionizing Methods: Towards Multimodal and Multiscale Imaging 115 Irene Karanasiou Chapter 7 Diffusion Tensor Imaging: Structural Connectivity Insights, Limitations and Future Directions 137 Linda J. Lanyon Chapter 8 A Triangulation-Based MRI-Guided Method for TMS Coil Positioning 163 Jamila Andoh and Jean-Luc Martinot VI Contents Chapter 9 Biocytin-Based Contrast Agents for Molecular Imaging: An Approach to Developing New In Vivo Neuroanatomical Tracers for MRI 181 Anurag Mishra, Kirti Dhingra, Ritu Mishra, Almut Schüz, Jörn Engelmann, Michael Beyerlein, Santiago Canals and Nikos K. Logothetis Chapter 10 The Use of 31-Phosphorus Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy to Study Brain Cell Membrane Motion-Restricted Phospholipids 205 Basant K. Puri and Ian H. Treasaden Chapter 11 Pediatric Cranial Ultrasound: Techniques, Variants and Pitfalls 217 Kristin Fickenscher, Zachary Bailey, Megan Saettele, Amy Dahl and Lisa Lowe Chapter 12 Impact of White Matter Damage After Stroke 233 Robert Lindenberg and Rüdiger J. Seitz Chapter 13 Tissue Fate Prediction from Regional Imaging Features in Acute Ischemic Stroke 245 Fabien Scalzo, Xiao Hu and David Liebeskind Chapter 14 MRI Assessment of Post-Ischemic Neuroinflammation in Stroke: Experimental and Clinical Studies 261 Fabien Chauveau, Marilena Marinescu, Cho Tae-Hee, Marlène Wiart, Yves Berthezène and Norbert Nighoghossian Chapter 15 Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Influence of Topography of Bleeding on Clinical Spectrum and Early Outcome 277 Adrià Arboix and Elisenda Grivé Chapter 16 Genetic Risk Factors of Imaging Measures Associated with Late-Onset Alzheimer’s Disease 293 Christiane Reitz Chapter 17 Neuroimaging Findings in Dementia with Lewy Body: A Review 313 Francesca Baglio, Maria Giulia Preti and Elisabetta Farina Chapter 18 Endoscopic Intracranial Imaging 339 Oscar H. Jimenez-Vazquez Preface Neuroimaging methodologies continue to develop at a remarkable rate, providing ever more sophisticated techniques for investigating brain structure and function. The scope of this book is not to provide a comprehensive overview of methods and applications but to provide a “snapshot” of current approaches using well established and newly emerging techniques. Taken together, these chapters provide a broad sense of how the limits of what is achievable with neuroimaging methods are being stretched. In cognitive neuroscience research, however, it is increasingly recognised that key theoretical debates about brain function are only likely to be resolved with reference to converging evidence from a range of methods. All neuroimaging techniques have important limitations which should always be acknowledged. For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a correlational, indirect method of measuring brain activation and interpretation of signal should always reflect this fact. Spatial resolution and sensitivity is improving with the commercial availability of ultra-high field human scanners, but a single voxel (the smallest unit of measurement) still corresponds to many thousands of individual neurons. Haemodynamic response to input is slow (in the order of seconds) and the relationship between this function and neural activity remains incompletely understood. Furthermore, choice of image preprocessing parameters can appear somewhat arbitrary and an obvious rationale for selection of statistical thresholds, correction for multiple corrections, etc. at the analysis stage can likewise be lacking. Therefore, to advance our knowledge about the neural bases of cognition, rigorous methodological control, well developed theory with testable predictions, and inferences drawn on the basis of a range of methods is likely to be required. The first chapter (Zago, Lorusso and Priori) provides an informative (and sometimes surprising) historical overview of functional neuroimaging techniques, drawing a direct line of influence from cerebral thermometry and brain “pulsation” recordings through Roy and Sherrington’s late eighteenth century studies linking neural activity with energy consumption and blood flow to the development of photon emission tomography (PET), computed tomography (CT), and measurement of the blood- oxygen-level dependent effect with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Chapter 2 (Nierhaus, Margulies, Long and Villringer) provides a brief but excellent introduction to the BOLD effect and a more comprehensive consideration of functional connectivity X Preface with specific reference to measurement of baseline or so called “resting state” networks. Principles and applications of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) are presented by León-Carrión and León-Domínguez (Chapter 3). These authors provide a strong case for more widespread application of fNIRS in a range of clinical populations and conditions. The size and portability of fNIRS devices provides opportunities for enhancing ecological validity of research investigations (in comparison to the restrictive conditions of fMRI), an argument also proposed by Tsunashima, Yanagisawa and Iwadate (Chapter 4). Tsunashima et al. provide a detailed consideration of NIRS signal analysis and offer a direct comparison of NIRS and fMRI data associated with systematic variations in cognitive demand. Neuroinformatics is concerned with advancing neuroscience through a process of sharing and integrating data and techniques across all levels and scales of investigation. Schwabe (Chapter 5) argues convincingly for the importance of neuroinformatics tools, able to accommodate a range of spatial and temporal scales, for the development of detailed computational models of complex cognitive functions. Karanasiou (Chapter 6) discusses strengths and limitations associated with multimodal data acquisition (including simultaneous fMRI and electroencephalography (EEG), fNIRS with EEG, magnetoencephalography (MEG) with fNIRS, and fMRI with fNIRS) and also considers the viability and potential for integrating optogenetics with fMRI (ofMRI). Diffusion tensor imaging is an MRI technique used to characterise white matter, specifically the directionality of pathways (or “tracts”). Visualisation of these tracts therefore provides the opportunity for examining structural connectivity in vivo. Lanyon (Chapter 7) presents an excellent overview of this technique, including consideration of its application for clinical diagnostic purposes. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) offers a number of important potential advantages over the classical neuropsychological (lesion-behaviour) approach to understanding neural basis of cognition. Through the creation of a “virtual lesion” in normal participants, the potential issues of cortical reorganisation, additional pathological substrates, distal pressure effects, psychiatric factors etc. in patient populations are avoided. Additionally, there is a great advantage in being able to study the same participants in control (i.e., pre-“lesion”) and experimental (post-“lesion”) conditions. Clinically, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has proved successful (although not in all cases) in the treatment of a range of neurological or psychiatric conditions through the excitation or inhibition of target areas. However, among a number of methodological and interpretative challenges, perhaps the most critical is placement precision of the TMS coil. Andoh and Martinot (Chapter 8) present a validated and freely available triangulation-based MRI-guided manual method for ensuring accurate coil placement. Mishra et al. (Chapter 9) describe in vivo neuronal tract tracing in the rat brain using biocytin-based tracers which clearly indicated their suitability for visualising cortical . NEUROIMAGING – METHODS Edited by Peter Bright Neuroimaging – Methods Edited by Peter Bright Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9,. orders@intechweb.org Neuroimaging – Methods, Edited by Peter Bright p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0097-3 Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 Functional Neuroimaging: A Historical. determined primarily by neural metabolism, regulated by cerebral blood flow, and affected by various environmental factors and drugs (Kiyatin, 2007). This aspect was already conjectured by some scientist