8 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 8 Hoxha Kierkegaard Staff Senior Editor: Paula K. Byers Project Editor: Suzanne M. Bourgoin Managing Editor: Neil E. Walker Editorial Staff: Luann Brennan, Frank V. Castronova, Laura S. Hightower, Karen E. Lemerand, Stacy A. McConnell, Jennifer Mossman, Maria L. Munoz, Katherine H. Nemeh, Terrie M. Rooney, Geri Speace Permissions Manager: Susan M. Tosky Production Director: Mary Beth Trimper Permissions Specialist: Maria L. Franklin Production Manager: Evi Seoud Permissions Associate: Michele M. Lonoconus Production Associate: Shanna Heilveil Image Cataloger: Mary K. Grimes Product Design Manager: Cynthia Baldwin Senior Art Director: Mary Claire Krzewinski Research Manager: Victoria B. Cariappa Research Specialists: Michele P. LaMeau, Andrew Guy Malonis, Barbara McNeil, Gary J. Oudersluys Research Associates: Julia C. Daniel, Tamara C. Nott, Norma Sawaya, Cheryl L. Warnock Research Assistant: Talitha A. Jean Graphic Services Supervisor: Barbara Yarrow Image Database Supervisor: Randy Bassett Imaging Specialist: Mike Lugosz Manager of Data Entry Services: Eleanor M. Allison Manager of Technology Support Services: Theresa A. Rocklin Data Entry Coordinator: Kenneth D. Benson Programmers/Analysts: Mira Bossowska, Jeffrey Muhr, Christopher Ward Copyright © 1998 Gale Research 835 Penobscot Bldg. Detroit, MI 48226-4094 ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (Set) ISBN 0-7876-2548-5 (Volume 8) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of world biography / [edited by Suzanne Michele Bourgoin and Paula Kay Byers]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: Presents brief biographical sketches which provide vital statistics as well as information on the importance of the person listed. ISBN 0-7876-2221-4 (set : alk. paper) 1. Biography—Dictionaries—Juvenile literature. [1. Biography.] I. Bourgoin, Suzanne Michele, 1968- . II. Byers, Paula K. (Paula Kay), 1954- . CT 103.E56 1997 920’ .003—dc21 97-42327 CIP AC While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the information presented in this publication, Gale Research Inc. does not guar- antee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. a This book is printed on acid-free paper that meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences— Permanence Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984. This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair compe- tition, and other applicable laws. The authors and editors of this work have added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination, expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 08 9/10/02 6:25 PM Page iv 8 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World Biography FM 08 9/10/02 6:25 PM Page v Enver Hoxha Enver Hoxha (1908-1985) was the preeminent Alba- nian political leader of the 20th century. He was the leader of the Communist Party of Albania from its formation in 1941 and led the effort to force German withdrawal in 1944. He headed the Albanian gov- ernment for the next four decades, longer than any other postwar European leader. D uring the years from its proclamation of indepen- dence (1912) to its final liberation from German occupation (1944), Albania’s history was charac- terized by dismal economic and political conditions at home and almost continuous intrigue and interference in the affairs of the country from abroad. Independence was declared during a period of chaotic internal conditions and occupation of much of the Albanians’ lands by the armies of Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro, allies in a war against the Ottoman Empire, of which Albania was a part. World War I followed, and Albania was occupied by several regional and great power belligerents. A tenuous independence was finally established after the war, but it was marked by increasing domestic political instability, culminating in the rise to power of Ahmet Zogu (later, King Zog I). Zog’s regime was one of ever greater authoritarianism at home and political and economic sub- servience to fascist Italy abroad. Rome invaded Albania outright in 1939 and proclaimed the country’s union with the Italian crown. In the fall of 1943, following the collapse of Mussolini’s regime, German troops occupied Albania. These conditions formed the environment in which Hoxha was born and matured. Rise of Albanian Communism Hoxha was born on October 16, 1908, the son of a Muslim landowner from the southern Albanian town of Gjirokaste¨r. Graduating from the French lyce´e of Korc¸e¨—an institution of decidedly liberal inclinations—Hoxha in 1930 received an Albanian state scholarship to study engineering in France. He apparently soon became involved in socialist and communist activities there, however, and the grant was suspended. After a period in which he wrote articles critical of the Zog regime for the French Communist newspaper L’Humanite´, he briefly served as private secretary to the Albanian consul in Brussels. He studied law but did not earn a degree. In 1936 Hoxha returned to Korc¸e¨, where he ob- tained a teaching post at the lyce´e and became active with one of the few groups of Communists operating in Albania. When Hoxha returned to Albania there was no single, Comintern-recognized, Communist Party there; rather, there were several independent and mutually antagonistic groups. The Italian occupation found these groups at odds with one another, and the possibilities for united resistance were limited. The German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, however, forced the Albanian Communists to sub- merge their differences, and, with the assistance of emissaries sent by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY), the Communist Party of Albania (CPA) was formed on November 8, 1941. Hoxha was elected general secre- tary—that is, leader—of the party. Hoxha and his colleagues immediately set about orga- nizing the numerous, disparate resistance groups operating in Albania. The outgrowth of this activity was a meeting organized by the party in Peze¨ in September 1942 at which H 1 the National Liberation Movement (NLM)—of which Hoxha became chief commissar—was formed. Later, in July 1943, the first brigades of the NLM’s Army of National Liberation were activated and began large scale operations against the occupiers. While some prominent non-commu- nists joined the NLM’s ranks, many others who felt the NLM was merely a communist front remained aloof. Their organi- zations gradually were discredited by the fact that NLM was better organized and fought the occupation forces, whereas they lapsed into inactivity and even cooperation with the Axis. By November 1944 the NLM’s brigades succeeded in forcing the Germans to withdraw completely from the coun- try. This achievement was accomplished entirely in the ab- sence of Allied troops. The leadership of the NLM assumed control of the country, with Hoxha—the dominant person- ality in the organization—filling the posts of prime minister, minister of defense, minister of foreign affairs, and com- mander-in-chief of the army. The years between 1944 and 1948 were marked by the Hoxha government’s attempts to solidify its position and put the country on the road to socialism. A number of trials of the government’s opponents were held, including some of individuals who had cooperated with the occupation regimes. In 1945 and 1946 Hoxha ordered expropriation of nearly all significant private industry and large landed es- tates, eliminating the influence of foreign companies and the pre-war Albanian elite. These years also saw increas- ingly blatant attempts by the Yugoslav government of Josip Broz Tito to control Albania politically and economically through pro-Belgrade Albanian communist leaders such as Koc¸i Xoxe, the minister of interior. The expulsion of the CPY from the Cominform in June 1948 enabled Hoxha and his supporters to denounce the Yugoslavs and execute Xoxe in May 1949. Thereafter, Hoxha enthusiastically embraced the Soviet Union and its model of socialism as propounded by Stalin. The early 1950s saw a continuation of Hoxha’s campaign against ‘‘Titoism’’ both at home and abroad, as well as the crushing of several attempts by the United States and Britain to foment an anti-communist insurgency using Albanian exiles trained abroad and covertly returned to Albania. Dur- ing this period Hoxha’s government received large amounts of Soviet aid for the initial phases of socialist construction; at the same time it became a fully integrated member of the socialist bloc, participating in both the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the Warsaw Pact. Although Hoxha formally relinquished his governmen- tal titles in 1953 and 1954, he retained his position as leader of the renamed CPA, the Party of Labor of Albania (PLA). In the years after Stalin’s death, Hoxha grew increasingly distressed by the policies of the Soviet leadership and of Khrushchev in particular. Hoxha especially was not pre- pared to accept either the Soviet leader’s attempts at de- stalinization in the USSR and elsewhere or his overtures to Tito’s Yugoslavia. China, too, was for its own reasons disil- lusioned with Soviet behavior at this time, and Hoxha found common ground with Mao Zedong’s criticisms of Moscow. By 1961 Hoxha’s attacks on the ‘‘revisionist’’ Soviet leader- ship had so infuriated Khrushchev that he elected first to terminate Moscow’s economic aid to Albania and ulti- mately to sever diplomatic relations entirely. China’s Ally in Europe The end of relations with Moscow forced Hoxha to align himself still more closely with the Chinese. During the 1960s Chinese aid and technicians largely replaced assis- tance formerly given by the Soviet Union and its East Euro- pean allies. Hoxha frequently denounced Soviet ‘‘social imperialism’’ in tones not unlike those reserved for Ameri- can ‘‘imperialism.’’ In 1968, following Hoxha’s blistering condemnation of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, Albania formally withdrew from the Warsaw Pact (in which it had not participated since 1961). The 1960s saw an Albanian version of China’s Cultural Revolution. Unlike that in China, the Albanian variant was closely controlled by Hoxha from the outset as he sought to rekindle revolutionary fervor in Albanian life and eliminate the last vestiges of the old order. Perhaps best known of this campaign were Hoxha’s speeches of 1967 on the subjects of liberation of Albanian women and the elimination of bureaucratism. At the same time Hoxha spearheaded a parallel drive against religion which resulted in a September 1967 decree banning all religious activity and proclaiming Albania the ‘‘first atheist state in the world.’’ By the mid-1970s Hoxha grew critical of China’s poli- cies, particularly in the wake of Beijing’s opening to the United States and its rapprochement with Yugoslavia. Branding the Chinese theory of the ‘‘three worlds’’ as ‘‘revisionism,’’ he charged that Mao’s successors aimed to HOXHA ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 2 make China a great power by aligning themselves with Washington and betraying revolutionary movements in de- veloping countries. In mid-1978 the Chinese suspended their aid program and recalled their technicians. The loss of this assistance forced a re-evaluation of Albanian foreign policy which some analysts regard as the explanation for the mysterious suicide in December 1981 of Mehmet Shehu, the longtime prime minister of Albania and formerly Hoxha’s most trusted associate. These observers theorize that Shehu favored a greater opening to Western countries in the wake of the Chinese rift. Hoxha later charged that Shehu was simultaneously an agent of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, the Soviet KGB, and the Yugoslav in- telligence service. In his last years, as Albania strove to maintain his policy of ‘‘self-reliance,’’ Hoxha withdrew more and more from public view, apparently for reasons of health and to finish his voluminous reminiscences. He died on April 11, 1985, having shaped Albania into a land vastly different from that into which he was born. Hoxha was survived by his wife, Nexhmije, herself a leading figure in the PLA. They had two sons and a daughter. To succeed Hoxha the Albanian Communist Party se- lected Ramiz Alia (born 1925), a strict Marxist who had been propaganda chief of the Albanian Workers’ Party. Further Reading There is at present no full-length biography of Hoxha available in English. There are, however, several surveys of contemporary Albania which include information on Hoxha’s life. The offi- cial Albanian chronology may be found in Stefanaq Pollo and Arben Puto, The History of Albania from its Origins to the Present Day (1981). Anton Logoreci’s The Albanians, Eu- rope’s Forgotten Survivors (1977) is an account by an Alba- nian exile. Nicholas Pano’s The People’s Republic of Albania (1968) and Peter R. Prifti’s Socialist Albania Since 1944: Domestic and Foreign Developments (1978) are very useful studies by Albanian-American scholars. Albania and the Al- banians (1975) by Ramadan Marmullaku is a somewhat sym- pathetic work by an Albanian in Yugoslavia. Finally, and most importantly, are Hoxha’s own writings. Many are available in English, such as his five volume Selected Works (1974-1985) and certain of his memoirs including Reflections on China (1979, 2 volumes), With Stalin (1979), The Anglo-American Threat to Albania (1982), and others. Read carefully, Hoxha’s words present the most illuminating insights available into his theories and activities. Ⅺ Alesˇ Hrdlicˇka American physical anthropologist Alesˇ Hrdlicˇka (1869-1943) made important contributions to the study of human origins and variation, as well as play- ing a major role in shaping the professional contours of the discipline in the United States. A lesˇ Hrdlicˇka was born in Humpolec, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic), on March 29, 1869, the first of seven children born to Maximilian and Koralina (Wagner) Hrdlicˇka. In 1881 the family moved to the United States, settling in New York City, where young Hrdlicˇka completed his secondary education and in 1889 began his medical studies at the New York Eclectic Medical College. On graduating with honors from this school in 1892 he entered general practice on the Lower East Side, while at the same time continuing his medical education at the New York Homeopathic College (1892-1894). In 1895 he secured a position as a junior physician at the State Homeopathic Hospital for the Insane at Middle- town, New York. It was while in this position that he be- came interested in the application of anthropometry to medicine, and as a direct result of his researches at the Middletown asylum he was invited in 1896 to join a multi- disciplinary team being assembled to staff the newly created Pathological Institute in New York City. Under the direction of the neurologist and histochemist Ira Van Gieson this institute had been charged with the task of investigating the ‘‘modus operandi’’ of insanity. To prepare for this work, Hrdlicˇka spent the winter of 1896 at the Ecole de Mede´cine in Paris studying anthropology under Le´once Manouvrier, who exerted an important and enduring influence on his intellectual development. Hrdlicˇka remained at the Pathological Institute until 1899, when he was invited by Frederic Ward Putnam to join the Hyde Expeditions of the American Museum of Natural History as a ‘‘field anthropologist.’’ In this capacity Hrdlicˇka conducted four intensive surveys among the Native Ameri- cans of the southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico be- tween 1899 and 1902. A summary of these and later surveys (1903-1906) can be found in his monograph Physiological and Medical Observations among the Indians of Southwest- ern United States and Northern Mexico (1908). In 1903 he was selected to head the newly created Division of Physical Anthropology (DPA) at the National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution) in Washington, D.C., a position he held for the next 40 years. During his tenure at the National Museum, Hrdlicˇka built the DPA into a major research center housing one of the finest human osteological collections in the world. He also did much to promote physical anthropology as a legiti- mate academic discipline in the United States. In this re- gard, he endeavored to organize the then-nascent profession along the lines Paul Broca had taken French anthropology. Although his ambition of founding an Ameri- can Institute of Physical Anthropology was never realized, he did succeed in launching the American Journal of Physi- cal Anthropology in 1918 and the American Association of Physical Anthropologists in 1930, both of which were fun- damental elements of his particular vision of the future of American physical anthropology. He also did much to pro- mote physical anthropology in his native country. Besides making substantial donations that launched and sustained Jindrich Matiegka’s journal Anthropologie (published at Charles University in Prague until 1941), he donated money to the Czech Academy of Arts and Sciences for the explora- Volume 8 HRDLIC ˇ KA 3 tion of prehistoric sites in Moravia and also to Charles University for the foundation of the Museum of Man that is now named in his honor. Throughout his long career Hrdlicˇka received many awards and honors which indicated appreciation for his prodigious labors in the discipline. He was elected to mem- bership in the American Philosophical Society in 1918 and in the National Academy of Sciences in 1921 and served as president of the American Anthropological Association (1925-1926), the Washington Academy of Science (1928- 1929), and the American Association of Physical Anthropol- ogists (1930-1932). He was also a recipient of the presti- gious Huxley Medal (1927). Although Hrdlicˇka’s research interests ranged over almost every aspect of modern physical anthropology, the primary focus of his scientific endeavors was on the ques- tion of the origin and antiquity of the American aborigines. He commenced this work with an exhaustive study of all the available evidence attributed to early humans in North and South America, the results of which are summarized in two major publications: The Skeletal Remains Suggesting or Attributed to Early Man in North America (1907) and Early Man in South America (1912). These studies indicated the presence of only anatomically modern humans in the West- ern hemisphere, which led him to reject the view that the Native Americans had either evolved in the New World or had entered the continent in early glacial or preglacial times. Following this he began orchestrating evidence to support a case for hominid origins in the western sector of the Old World and the subsequent peopling of the New World from Asia during the late Pleistocene-early Holocene period. It was Hrdlicˇka’s growing conviction that anatomically modern Homo sapiens had been derived from a basically Neanderthaloid population that had initially been restricted to Europe and Africa. As these early transitional hominids spread slowly eastward across the Old World, Hrdlicˇka contended, they became separated into a number of dis- crete geographical breeding units that led to their subse- quent differentiation into the various racial groups that characterize the modern human family. He first presented an outline of this hypothesis in a paper presented to the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia in 1921, under the title ‘‘The Peopling of Asia’’ ( Proceedings, Ameri- can Philosophical Society, 60 [1922]). This period of Hrdlicˇka work culminated with the delivery of the 1927 Huxley Memorial Lecture in London in which he summa- rized his arguments for a ‘‘Neanderthal Phase of Man’’ ( Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 57 [1927]), and the subsequent publication of his now classic work, The Skeletal Remains of Early Man (1930). After 1926 Hrdlicˇka pursued evidence to document the thesis that the first Americans had entered the New World from Asia. His work in the Yukon and Alaskan coast (1926- 1930), Kodiak Island (1931-1935), and the Aleutian and Commander Islands (1936-1938) is summarized in two posthumously published volumes: The Anthropology of Kodiak Island (1944) and The Aleutian and Commander Islands and their Inhabitants (1945). One of the main objec- tives of his work in the Commander and Aleutian islands had been to investigate the possibility that they had served as stepping stones from Kamchatka to the American main- land. Excavations proved, however, that the Commanders had been uninhabited in pre-Russian times. Thus, on the basis of this negative evidence, he concluded that the earlier and later inhabitants of the Aleutians must have entered these islands from Alaska. After 1938 he had intended to initiate a program of research on the Siberian mainland in an effort to prove the Asiatic origins of the American aborig- ines. These plans, however, were scotched by the outbreak of World War II. Hrdlicˇka died of a heart attack at his home in Washington, D.C., on September 5, 1943. Further Reading For further biographical details see Frank Spencer, Alesˇ Hrdlicˇka M.D., 1869-1943: A Chronicle of the Life and Work of an American Physical Anthropologist (2 volumes, 1979); and Frank Spencer and Fred H. Smith, ‘‘The Significance of Alesˇ Hrdlicˇka’s ‘‘Neanderthal Phase of Man: A Historical and Cur- rent Assessment’’ in American Journal of Physical Anthropol- ogy (1981). Ⅺ Hsia Kuei Hsia Kuei (active 1190-1225) was a Chinese painter who, with Ma Yu¨an, was the creator of the ‘‘Ma-Hsia school’’ of landscape painting. H sia Kuei, also named Yu¨yu¨, was a native of Ch’ien- t’ang, the modern Hangchou in Chekiang Prov- ince. Of his life it is known only that he served in the painting academy of Emperor Ning-tsung (reigned 1195-1224), who awarded him the Golden Belt, sym- bolizing the highest artistic achievement. Hsia’s name is commonly linked with that of Ma Yu¨an to characterize the most distinctive and influential landscape style of the late Sung period. Chinese landscape painting of the 10th and 11th centu- ries had been a monumental vision of the great universe, the macrocosm, of towering granite cliffs, deep valleys, and broad, shadowed marshlands. By the mid-11th century a more amiable, personal style had become dominant; and in the art of Li T’ang landscape was conceived in dramatically expressive intimacy, a reflection of the emotions of man rather than his mind. Hsia Kuei and Ma Yu¨an developed from Li T’ang and realized the final subtleties of poetic suggestion. No painter displays greater mastery of the subtleties of brush and ink than Hsia Kuei. In his masterpiece, Twelve Views from a Thatched Cottage, a hand scroll 7 inches high and (originally) 16 feet long, this technical virtuosity is allied with perhaps the most profoundly affecting response to the moods of nature in Chinese art. In this scroll, beginning with Wandering the Hills by the River and ending with Evening Mooring by a Misty Bank, the painter passes through the hours of the day in a succession of vignettes describing the HSIA KUEI ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 4 life along a river. Each scene is subtly related to the next in a continuous sequence remarkably like modern cinematic techniques, but also with a complexity of mood, pace, tonal variation, and theme similar to musical composition. As the scroll opens, one is swept into the busy activities of the early hours, and one scene follows another in quick succession. But as the day lengthens, the pace slows gradually, mist sweeps into the picture, light begins to fade; the Clear and Lonely Sound of the Fisherman’s Flute is rendered. As the scroll ends, the banks and trees are cloaked in shadow, the fishing boats are silent, and night obliterates sight. From the breathtaking sweep of the conception as a whole to the infinite subtleties of pulsating life in the small- est detail, Hsia Kuei reveals the mind and the hand of the supreme master. With the crackling poetry of Ma Yu¨an and the evocative Zen mystery of the monk Much’i, Hsia Kuei stands at the end of a long era in Chinese art history. For centuries the artist had sought to capture in ink the profound powers of nature. When the infinity of space itself was brought under the control of his brush, the quest was fin- ished. Henceforward, Chinese painters turned toward the expression of inner realities. Further Reading Hsia Kuei is extensively discussed in Oswald Siren, Chinese Painting: Leading Masters and Principles, vol. 1 (1956). The art of the Southern Sung period as a whole is treated by James Cahill, The Art of Southern Sung China (1962). Ⅺ Wei Hsiao-Wen-ti Wei Hsiao-wen-ti (467-499) was the sixth emperor of the Northern Wei dynasty. His reign represents the apogee of the dynasty’s power and probably sowed the seeds for its subsequent decline. W ei Hsiao-wen-ti was born T’o-pa Hung on Oct. 13, 467, in P’ing-ch’eng (east of the present Ta- t’ung, Shansi, south of the Great Wall), eldest son of Emperor Hsien-wen. He was perfectly white, and there were the usual ‘‘supernatural’’ signs of an imperial birth. His father, a fervent Buddhist, abdicated in 471, and four-year-old Hsiao-wen ascended the throne. The first 19 years of his reign, under the regency of his grandmother, the formidable empress dowager Feng (442-490), were devoted to studies which enabled him to become versed in all as- pects of Chinese literary culture, as well as in Buddhism. Until his grandmother’s death Hsiao-wen was only titu- lar head of state, all real decisions being taken by her with the counsel of her Chinese officials. He gave up hunting at the age of 14 to devote himself entirely to preparing himself for his future imperial tasks. He is traditionally thought of as a paragon of rulers, exceptionally attentive to the needs of his people, considerate of others, and profoundly filial. The two most outstanding events of Emperor Hsiao- wen’s reign were the promulgation of the ‘‘equal-field’’ ( chu¨n-t’ien ) system and his removal of his capital from Ta- t’ung to Loyang, with the accompanying Sinicization that removal symbolized. The equal-field agrarian reform was promulgated in 485, during a period of severe famine, and was an attempt to redistribute the land so that it would be more extensively cultivated. This reform greatly influenced later, similar attempts at land reform and has been passion- ately debated in China and Japan in recent years. Hsiao-wen’s most important influence in Chinese his- tory was the steps he took to achieve the total Sinicization of his Hsien-pi (proto-Mongol or Turkish) compatriots, to whose T’o-pa clan the Emperor belonged. His own deep interest in Chinese culture had led him to feel he was the true son of heaven and should rule over the entire Chinese Empire from the ancient capital of Loyang, which was in the southern part of his domains. Against the bitter opposition of the entire court, he had the capital moved in 494. Barbarian dress and hair style were prohibited in the same year, and a year later the Hsien-pi language was prohibited in court by all except those who were too old (over 30) to learn Chi- nese. Finally, in 496, he changed his tribal name from T’o- pa to the Chinese name of Yu¨an, had other tribes also take Chinese names, and encouraged the intermarriage of the Hsien-pi noblemen with Chinese girls of aristocratic fami- lies. This nostalgia for China and things Chinese weakened the Northern Wei empire, taking its people away from their homeland, putting them into an inferior position vis-a`-vis the culturally superior Chinese officialdom, and generally sowing the seeds of Hsien-pi discontent that was to split the dynasty in two in a little over 3 decades. Hsiao-wen’s Sinophilia was also the direct cause of his early end, for he died, exhausted by his campaigning in his attempt to unite all of China, in what is now northern Hupei on April 26, 499, at the age of 32. In 500 his son, Hsu¨an-wu, had a memorial carved for Hsiao-wen and his wife in the famous caves at Lung-men near Loyang. He remains in history as a man of culture, intelligence, and humanity in an era when this last virtue, in particular, was exceptionally rare. Further Reading A good study of Wei Hsiao-wen-ti is in Dun J. Li, The Ageless Chinese: A History (1965). An interesting, somewhat personal view of his equal-field reform is in Etienne Balazs, Chinese Civilization and Bureaucracy (trans. 1964). For general histor- ical background see Wolfram Eberhard, A History of China (1950). Ⅺ Hsieh Ling-yu¨n Hsieh Ling-yu¨ n (385-433), Duke of K’ang-lo, was a Chinese poet. An aristocrat of philosophic temper, he was China’s first systematic nature poet to ex- plore the mountains and gorges of South China and write poems about them. Volume 8 HSIEH LING-YU ¨ N 5 H sieh Ling-yu¨ n, whose ancestral home was Yang- hsia (in presentday Honan Province), belonged to one of the most illustrious families who moved to South China with the Chin court when North China was invaded by barbarian tribes from across the Chinese border. Besides Hsieh Ling-yu¨ n, there were several poets of the Hsieh clan who achieved fame during the 4th and 5th centuries. Upon his father’s death, Ling-yu¨n acquired his heredi- tary title as the Duke of K’ang-lo and would have seemed assured of a brilliant career at court; yet this persistently eluded him. Partly to blame were his aristocratic arrogance and his lavish style of maintaining himself. When the East- ern Chin collapsed in 419, he served the Liu Sung dynasty. He was, however, demoted to Marquis of K’ang-lo. In 422 his enemies, jealous of his friendship with the heir to the throne, the prince of Lu-ling, exiled him to Yung- chia (in present-day Chekiang) and murdered the prince. It is from this period that Ling-yu¨ n matured as a poet. As prefect of Yung-chia, he recorded the scenic attractions around it with a fresh, observant eye; at the same time, suffering had deepened his outlook so that a philosophic vein now ran through his descriptive verse. For the next 10 years he alternated between intervals of seclusion on his estate and spells of discontented service as an official. Fi- nally, he contracted the enmity of a powerful clique at court, was exiled to Canton, and was executed there on a trumped-up charge. Brought up as a Taoist, Hsieh Ling-yu¨n became in his youth a fervent convert to Buddhism. He once joined the intellectual community on Mt. Lu, under the famous monk Hui-yu¨an, and distinguished himself by his essays on Bud- dhist philosophy and his translation of several sutras. But his real contribution to Chinese literature lies in his nature po- etry, which grew out of his love for the mountains and waters of Chekiang and Kiangsi. He wrote mainly in the five-word style, using a bookish and allusive vocabulary fashionable at his time. For this reason modern Chinese critics tend to belittle him by placing his achievement alongside that of his contemporary T’ao Ch’ien, a much greater poet. Nevertheless, with all his stylistic faults, Hsieh Ling-yu¨n’s passionate love for nature shines through his verse, and he remains the most important landscape poet of the pre-T’ang period. Further Reading For a sampling of Hsieh Ling-yu¨n’s poetry see J. D. Frodsham with the collaboration of Ch’eng Hsi, compilers, An Anthol- ogy of Chinese Verse: Han, Wei, Chin, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (1967). The standard work is J. D. Frodsham, The Murmuring Stream: The Life and Works of the Chinese Nature Poet Hsieh Ling-yu¨n ( 385-433 ), Duke of K’ang-lo (2 vols., 1967), which contains a full biography of the poet as well as copious translations of his verse. Ⅺ Hsu¨an Tsang Hsu¨an Tsang (ca. 602-664) was the most famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrim and traveler in India and a translator of Buddhist texts. His ‘‘Hsi-yu¨ Chi,’’ or ‘‘Record of Western Countries,’’ remains an indis- pensable source book to students of 7th-century In- dia and central Asia. H su¨an Tsang, also spelled Hsu¨an Chuang, whose name is romanized in a wide variety of ways, is the Buddhist designation of the Chinese holy monk whose family name was Ch’en and personal name, Chen. He was born in Honan midway in the brief Sui dynasty (589-617), which represented the first successful attempt at reunifying the Chinese Empire since the end of the Han dynasty (220). The intervening centuries saw much chaos and suffering together with a phenomenal expansion of Buddhism. Hsu¨an Tsang followed the example of an elder brother and joined the Buddhist monastic order in Loyang at the age of 12. The boy monk traveled extensively in China in pursuit of Buddhist learning, particularly the Vijnanavadin school. Travel to India A burning desire for firsthand clarification prompted Hsu¨an Tsang to leave for India in 627, stealthily, as it was against the law to travel abroad. Surviving the rigors of forbidding deserts and mountains and narrowly escaping the jaws of death, he passed through the central Asiatic regions of Turfan, Karashahr, Tashkent, Samarkand, and Bactria. He kept a journal of his unique experiences and observations during his 19-year sojourn, which later be- came known as the Hsi-yu¨ Chi . This Record of Western Countries stands today as the single written record of condi- tions at that time in India and central Asia. After visiting some 34 ‘‘kingdoms’’ along the way, he finally entered India in 631 by crossing the Hindu Kush into Kapisa. His first impressions of the Hindus inhabiting northwest India were recorded as follows: ‘‘The people are accustomed to a life of ease and prosperity and they like to sing. However, they are weak-minded and cowardly, and they are given to deceit and treachery. In their relations with each other there is much trickery and little courtesy. These people are small in size and unpredictable in their movements.’’ Study and Travel in India After a 2-year study period in northwest India, Hsu¨an Tsang sailed down the Ganges to visit the holy land of Buddhism. His itinerary included Kapilavastu, the birth- place of Buddha; Benares; Sarnath, where Buddha de- livered his first sermon; and Bodhgaya, where Buddha attained his nirvana under the bodhi tree. The trip termi- nated at Nalanda, the leading center of Buddhist learning in India, where Hsu¨an Tsang took up the study of Vijnanavada in earnest under the tutelage of the grand, old Silabhadra, HSU ¨ AN TSANG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 6 [...]... C Green, Servant of the House (1969) Additional Sources Booker, Malcolm, The great professional: a study of W.M Hughes, Sydney; New York: McGraw-Hill, 1 980 Horne, Donald, In search of Billy Hughes, South Melbourne: Macmillan Co of Australia, 1979 Ⅺ ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Vicomte Victor Marie Hugo The French author Victor Marie, Vicomte Hugo ( 180 2- 188 5), was the supreme poet of French romanticism... Freeman Clarke, The History of the Campaign of 181 2, and Surrender of the Post of Detroit Since Clarke’s essay was written to defend Hull, it should be read critically An account condemning Hull is found in volume 6 of Henry Adams, History of the United States of America (9 vols., 188 9- 189 1) A good brief account of Hull’s western campaign is in Harry L Coles, The War of 181 2 (1965) Additional Sources... 1775- 180 6 (1962) Additional Sources Sweet, Paul Robinson, Wilhelm von Humboldt: a biography, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 19 78- c1 980 Ⅺ Humboldt was influenced by the educational principles of Johann Pestalozzi As Prussian minister of education ( 180 9- 181 0), he sent teachers to Switzerland to study Pestalozzi’s methods, and he founded the University of Berlin ( 180 9) Humboldt’s ideas profoundly... later poetry the beginnings of a healing process can be seen to have occurred as Hughes celebrated a more varied view of nature beyond that of struggle and survival In Moortown (19 78) the ‘‘Birth of Rainbow’’ offers a more optimistic view of procreation as the birth of a calf is described, while Hughes moved towards a fuller acceptance of the Christian tradition:‘‘ then the world blurred/And disappearing... spectroscopic inquiry and pioneering in the use of photography In recognition of his contributions he was knighted ( 189 7), awarded the Order of Merit (1902), and showered with honors from all parts of the scientific world HUGHES Volume 8 Further Reading The only biography of Huggins is John Montefiore and others, A Sketch of the Life of Sir William Huggins, K C B., O M (1936), from material collected by... Hughes ( 186 2-19 48) served as secretary of state in two administrations and was a chief justice of the Supreme Court C harles Evans Hughes was born at Glens Falls, N.Y., on April 14, 186 2, the son of a minister Precocious and gifted with a phenomenal memory, Hughes entered Madison University at the age of 14, transferring later to Brown University He graduated from Cornell Law School in 188 4 For the... poetry from the time of the Lake poets of the early 19th century and had received a new impetus from the Georgians before World War I However, Hughes was also reacting to the modernism of such poets as W B Yeats and T S Eliot and the 19 20 HU G H E S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY Pike too immense to stir, so immense and old/That past nightfall I dared not cast.’’ The discovery of this England was... severe drought in China The central government was incapable of helping the desperate people, and by 87 5 fullscale rebellion had broken out The leader of the rebellion was Wang Hsien-chih; Huang Ch’ao was one of his lieutenants In 87 8, after 3 years of hard fighting, Wang was killed in battle and Huang Ch’ao became commander of the rebel troops In 87 9 they occupied Canton and its outlying areas Success... them as rather alien to the English spirit of harmony and compromise Since becoming poet laureate in 1 985 , Hughes’ publications include verse: Flowers and Insects (1 989 ), HUGHES Volume 8 Moortown Diary (1 989 ), Rain-charm for the Duchy (1992), New Selected Poems 1957-1994 (1995); libretti: Wedekind, Spring Awakening (1995); stories: Tales of the Early World (1 988 ), The Iron Woman (1993), The Dreamfighter... Academy of Sciences and other honorary societies For his war research he received the Medal of Merit for 1946 In 19 48 he was elected an honorary fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford He died of Ricarda Huch Ricarda Huch ( 186 4-1947), German novelist, poet, and cultural historian, won renown as a talented writer in several genres R icarda Huch was born in Brunswick (Braunschweig) on Aug 18, 186 4, the daughter of . 8 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY 8 Hoxha Kierkegaard Staff Senior Editor:. of the information. All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended. World Biography FM 08 9/10/02 6:25 PM Page iv 8 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF WORLD BIOGRAPHY World