© 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC DK2173_title 3/10/05 4:26 PM Page 1 Activated Carbon Adsorption Roop Chand Bansal Meenakshi Goyal Boca Raton London New York Singapore A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc. © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Published in 2005 by CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10987654321 International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8247-5344-5 (Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8247-5344-3 (Hardcover) Library of Congress Card Number 2004024878 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bansal, Roop Chand, 1937- Activated carbon adsorption / Roop Chand Bansal and Meenakshi Goyal. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 0-8247-5344-5 1. Carbon, Activated. 2. Carbon Asorption and adsorption. I. Goyal, Meenakshi. II. Title. TP245.C4B36 2005 662'.93 dc22 2004024878 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at and the CRC Press Web site at Taylor & Francis Group is the Academic Division of T&F Informa plc. DK2173_Discl.fm Page 1 Thursday, April 21, 2005 1:43 PM For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, http://www.taylorandfrancis.com http://www.crcpress.com © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Preface Activated carbons are versatile adsorbents. Their adsorptive properties are due to their high surface area, a microporous structure, and a high degree of surface reactivity. They are, used, therefore, to purify, decolorize, deodorize, dechlorinate, separate, and concentrate in order to permit recovery and to filter, remove, or modify the harmful constituents from gases and liquid solutions. Consequently, activated carbon adsorption is of interest to many economic sectors and concern areas as diverse as food, pharmaceutical, chemical, petroleum, nuclear, automobile, and vacuum indus- tries as well as for the treatment of drinking water, industrial and urban waste water, and industrial flue gases. Interest in activated carbon adsorption of gases and vapors received a big boost during and after the first World War, while an increasing attention to the activated carbon adsorption from aqueous solutions was initiated by the pollution of the environment, which includes air and water, due to rapid industrialization and ever- increasing use of the amount and the variety of chemicals in almost every facet of human endeavor. Life has initiated increasing attention to the activated carbon adsorption from aqueous solutions. It was, therefore, thought worthwhile and oppor- tune to prepare a text that describes the surface structure of activated carbons, the adsorption phenomenon, and the activated carbon adsorption of organics and inor- ganics from gaseous and aqueous phases. A vast amount of research has been carried out in the area of activated carbon adsorption during the past four or five decades, and research data are scattered in different journals published in different countries and in the proceedings and abstracts of the International Conferences and Symposia on the science and technology of activated carbon adsorbents. This book critically reviews the available literature and tries to offer suitable interpretations of the surface-related interactions of the acti- vated carbons. The book also contains consistent explanations for surface interactions applicable to the adsorption of a wide variety of adsorbates that could be strong or weak electrolytes. The book has been written with a view to equip the surface scientists (chemists, physicists, and technologists) with the surface processes, their energetics, and with the adsorption isotherm equations, their applicability to and deviations from the adsorption data for both gases and solutions. To carbon scientists and technologists, the book should help understand the parameters and the mechanisms involved in the activated carbon adsorption of organic and inorganic compounds. The book thus combines in one volume the surface physical and chemical structure of acti- vated carbons, the surface phenomenon at solid-gas and solid-liquid interfaces, and the activated carbon adsorption of gaseous adsorbates and solutes from solutions. DK2173_C000.fm Page iii Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC This unified approach will provide the reader access to the relevant literature and promote further research toward improving and developing newer activated carbon adsorbents and develop processes for the efficient removal of pollutants from drink- ing water and industrial effluents. The book can also serve as a text for studies relating to adsorption and adsorption processes occurring on solid surfaces. The authors are grateful to Elsevier, Ann Arbor Science publishers, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Marcel Dekker Multi-Science Publishing Co., Society of Chemistry and Industry, and various authors for permission to reproduce certain figures and tables. Professor Bansal also acknowledges the understanding, the cooperation, and the encouragement of his wife Rajesh Bansal. Dr. Meenakshi Goyal is grateful to her husband Er. Arvinder Goyal for his patience and help, and to her son Nikhil and daughter Mehak, who accepted her extreme busyness and continued to attain excellence in their schools during the preparation of the manu- script. We also thank Tulsi Ram and Ruby Singh for typing the manuscript and preparing figures and tables. Roop Chand Bansal Meenakshi Goyal DK2173_C000.fm Page iv Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Introduction ACTIVATED CARBONS Activated carbon in its broadest sense includes a wide range of processed amorphous carbon-based materials. It is not truly an amorphous material but has a microcrys- talline structure. Activated carbons have a highly developed porosity and an extended interparticulate surface area. Their preparation involves two main steps: the carbon- ization of the carbonaceous raw material at temperatures below 800 ° C in an inert atmosphere and the activation of the carbonized product. Thus, all carbonaceous materials can be converted into activated carbon, although the properties of the final product will be different, depending on the nature of the raw material used, the nature of the activating agent, and the conditions of the carbonization and activation processes. During the carbonization process, most of the noncarbon elements such as oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen are eliminated as volatile gaseous species by the pyrolytic decomposition of the starting material. The residual elementary carbon atoms group themselves into stacks of flat, aromatic sheets cross-linked in a random manner. These aromatic sheets are irregularly arranged, which leaves free interstices. These interstices give rise to pores, which make activated carbons excellent adsor- bents. During carbonization these pores are filled with the tarry matter or the products of decomposition or at least blocked partially by disorganized carbon. This pore structure in carbonized char is further developed and enhanced during the activation process, which converts the carbonized raw material into a form that contains the greatest possible number of randomly distributed pores of various sizes and shapes, giving rise to an extended and extremely high surface area of the product. The activation of the char is usually carried out in an atmosphere of air, CO 2 , or steam in the temperature range of 800 ° C to 900 ° C. This results in the oxidation of some of the regions within the char in preference to others, so that as combustion proceeds, a preferential etching takes place. This results in the development of a large internal surface, which in some cases may be as high as 2500 m 2 /g. Activated carbons have a microcrystalline structure. But this microcrystalline structure differs from that of graphite with respect to interlayer spacing, which is 0.335 nm in the case of graphite and ranges between 0.34 and 0.35 nm in activated carbons. The orientation of the stacks of aromatic sheets is also different, being less ordered in activated carbons. ESR studies have shown that the aromatic sheets in activated carbons contain free radical structure or structure with unpaired electrons. These unpaired electrons are resonance stabilized and trapped during the carboniza- tion process, due to the breaking of bonds at the edges of the aromatic sheets, and DK2173_C000.fm Page v Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC thus, they create edge carbon atoms. These edge carbon atoms have unsaturated valencies and can, therefore, interact with heteroatoms such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur, giving rise to different types of surface groups. The elemental composition of a typical activated carbon has been found to be 88% C, 0.5% H, 0.5% N, 1.0% S, and 6 to 7% O, with the balance representing inorganic ash constituents. The oxygen content of an activated carbon can vary, however, depend- ing on the type of the source raw material and the conditions of the activation process. The activated carbons in general have a strongly developed internal surface and are usually characterized by a polydisperse porous structure consisting of pores of different sizes and shapes. Several different methods used to determine the shapes of the pores have indicated ink-bottle shaped, regular slit shaped, V-shaped, capil- laries open at both ends, or with one end closed, and many more. However, it has been difficult to obtain accurate information on the actual shape of the pores. It is now well accepted that activated carbons contain pores from less than a nanometer to several thousand nanometers. The classification of pores suggested by Dubinin and accepted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) is based on their width, which represents the distance between the walls of a slit- shaped pore or the radius of a cylindrical pore. The pores in activated carbons are divided into three groups: the micropores with diameters less than 2 nm, mesopores with diameters between 2 and 50 nm, and macropores with diameters greater than 50 nm. The micropores constitute a large surface area (about 95% of the total surface area of the activated carbon) and micropore volume and, therefore, determine to a considerable extent the adsorption capacity of a given activated carbon, provided however that the molecular dimensions of the adsorbate are not too large to enter the micropores. The micropores are filled at low relative vapor pressure before the commencement of capillary condensation. The mesopores contribute to about 5% of the total surface area of the carbon and are filled at higher relative pressure with the occurrence of capillary condensation. Attempts, however, are now on to prepare mesoporous carbons. The macropores are not of considerable importance to the process of adsorption in activated carbons, as their contribution to surface area does not exceed 0.5 m 2 /g. They act as conduits for the passage of adsorbate molecules into the micro- and mesopores. Because all the pores have walls, they will comprise two types of surfaces: the internal or microporous surface and the external surface. The former represents the walls of the pores and has a high surface area that may be several thousands in many activated carbons, and the latter constitutes the walls of the meso- and macropores as well as the edges of the outward facing aromatic sheets and is comparatively much smaller and may vary between 10 and 200 m 2 /g for many of the activated carbons. Besides the crystalline and porous structure, an activated carbon surface has a chemical structure. The adsorption capacity of an activated carbon is determined by the physical or porous structure but strongly influenced by the chemical structure of the carbon surface. In graphites that have a highly ordered crystalline structure, the adsorption capacity is determined mainly by the dispersion component of the van der Walls forces. But the random ordering of the aromatic sheets in activated carbons causes a variation in the arrangement of electron clouds in the carbon skeleton and DK2173_C000.fm Page vi Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC results in the creation of unpaired electrons and incompletely saturated valencies, which would undoubtedly influence the adsorption properties of activated carbons. Activated carbons are invariably associated with certain amounts of oxygen and hydro- gen. In addition, they may contain small amounts of nitrogen. X-ray diffraction studies have shown that these heteroatoms are bonded at the edges and corners of the aromatic sheets, or to carbon atoms at defect positions, giving rise to carbon-oxygen, carbon- hydrogen, and carbon-nitrogen surface compounds. As the edges constitute the main adsorbing surface, the presence of these surface compounds modifies the surface characteristics and surface properties of activated carbons. Carbon-oxygen surface groups are by far the most important surface groups that influence the surface characteristics such as the wettability, polarity, and acidity, and the physico-chemical properties such as catalytic, electrical, and chemical reactivity of these materials. In fact, the combined oxygen has often been found to be the source of the property by which a carbon becomes useful and effective in certain respects. For example, the presence of oxygen on the activated carbon surface has an important effect on the adsorption capacity of water and other polar gases and vapors on their aging during storage, on the adsorption of electrolytes, on the properties of carbon blacks as fillers in rubber and plastics, and on the lubricating properties of graphite as well as on its properties as a moderator in nuclear reactors. In the case of carbon fibers, these surface oxygen groups determine their adhesion to plastic matrices and consequently improve their composite properties. Although the identification and estimation of the carbon-oxygen surface groups have been carried out using several physical, chemical, and physio-chemical techniques that include their desorption, neutralization with alkalies, potential, thermometric, and radiometric titrations, and spectroscopic methods such as IR spectroscopy and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, the precise nature of the chemical groups is not entirely established. The estimations obtained by different workers using varied techniques differ considerably because the activated carbon surface is very complex and difficult to reproduce. The surface groups can not be treated as ordinary organic compounds because they interact differently in different environments. They behave as complex structures presenting numerous mesomeric forms depending upon their location on the same polyaromatic frame. The aromatic sheets constituting the activated carbon structure have limited dimensions and therefore have edges. In addition these sheets are associated with defects, dislocations, and discontinuities. The carbon atoms at these places have unpaired electrons and residual valencies, and are richer in potential energy. These carbon atoms are highly reactive and are called active sites or active centers and determine the surface reactivity, surface reactions, and catalytic reactions of carbons. The impregnation of activated carbons with metals and their oxides, dispersed as fine particles, makes them extremely good catalysts for certain industrial processes. The impregnation of metals also modifies the gasification characteristics and varies the porous structure of the final product. Several inor- ganic and organic reagents when present on the carbon surface also modify the surface behavior and adsorption characteristics of activated carbons and make them useful for the removal of hazardous gases and vapors by chemisorption and catalytic decomposition. DK2173_C000.fm Page vii Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC A DSORPTION Adsorption arises as a result of the unsaturated and unbalanced molecular forces that are present on every solid surface. Thus, when a solid surface is brought into contact with a liquid or gas, there is an interaction between the fields of forces of the surface and that of the liquid or the gas. The solid surface tends to satisfy these residual forces by attracting and retaining on its surface the molecules, atoms, or ions of the gas or liquid. This results in a greater concentration of the gas or liquid in the near vicinity of the solid surface than in the bulk gas or vapor phase, despite the nature of the gas or vapor. The process by which this surface excess is caused is called adsorption. The adsorption involves two types of forces: physical forces that may be dipole moments, polarization forces, dispersive forces, or short- range repulsive interactions and chemical forces that are valency forces arising out of the redistribution of electrons between the solid surface and the adsorbed atoms. Depending upon the nature of the forces involved, the adsorption is of two types: physical adsorption and chemisorption. In the case of physical adsorption, the adsor- bate is bound to the surface by relatively weak van der Walls forces, which are similar to the molecular forces of cohesion and are involved in the condensation of vapors into liquids. Chemisorption, on the other hand, involves exchange or sharing of electrons between the adsorbate molecules and the surface of the adsorbent resulting in a chemical reaction. The bond formed between the adsorbate and the adsorbent is essentially a chemical bond and is thus much stronger than in the physisorption. Two types of adsorptions differ in several ways. The most important difference between the two kinds of adsorption is the magnitude of the enthalpy of adsorption. In physical adsorption the enthalpy of adsorption is of the same order as the heat of liquefaction and does not usually exceed 10 to 20 KJ per mol, whereas in chemisorption the enthalpy change is generally of the order of 40 to 400 KJ per mol. Physical adsorption is nonspecific and occurs between any adsorbate-adsorbent systems, but chemisorption is specific. Another important point of difference between physisorption and chemisorption is the thickness of the adsorbed phase. Although it is multimolecular in physisorption, the thickness is unimolecular in chemisorption. The type of adsorp- tion that takes place in a given adsorbate-adsorbent system depends on the nature of the adsorbate, the nature of the adsorbent, the reactivity of the surface, the surface area of the adsorbate, and the temperature and pressure of adsorption. When a solid surface is exposed to a gas, the molecules of the gas strike the surface of the solid when some of these striking molecules stick to the solid surface and become adsorbed, while some others rebound back. Initially the rate of adsorp- tion is large because the whole surface is bare, but the rate of adsorption continues to decrease as more and more of the solid surface becomes covered by the adsorbate molecules. However, the rate of desorption, which is the rate at which the adsorbed molecules rebound from the surface, increases because desorption takes place from the covered surface. With the passage of time, the rate of adsorption continues to decrease, while the rate of desorption continues to increase, until an equilibrium is reached, where the rate of adsorption is equal to the rate of desorption. At this point the solid is in adsorption equilibrium with the gas. It is a dynamic equilibrium DK2173_C000.fm Page viii Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC because the number of molecules sticking to the surface is equal to the number of molecules rebounding from the surface. As the amount adsorbed at the equilibrium for a given adsorbate-adsorbent system depends upon the pressure of the gas and the temperature of adsorption, the adsorption equilibrium can be represented as an adsorption isotherm at constant temperature, the adsorption bar at constant pressure, and the adsorption isostere for a constant equilib- rium adsorption. In actual practice the determination of adsorption at constant temper- ature is most convenient and, therefore, the adsorption isotherm is the most extensively employed method for representing the equilibrium states of an adsorption system. The adsorption isotherm gives useful information regarding the adsorbate, the adsorbent, and the adsorption process. It helps in the determination of the surface area of the adsorbent, the volume of the pores, and their size distribution. It also provides important information regarding the magnitude of the enthalpy of adsorption and the relative adsorbility of a gas or a vapor on a given adsorbent with respect to chosen standards. The adsorption data can be represented by several isotherm equations, the most impor- tant being the Langmuir, the Freundlich, the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), and Dubinin equations. The first two isotherm equations apply equally to physisorption as well as to chemisorption. The BET and Dubinin equations are most important for the analysis of physical adsorption of gases and vapors on porous carbons. The Langmuir isotherm equation is the first theoretically developed adsorption isotherm that was derived using thermodynamic and statistical approaches. The applicability of the equation to the experimental data was carried out by a large number of investigators, but deviations were often noticed. According to this iso- therm equation, the plot of p/v against p should be linear from θ = 0 to θ = ∝ , and it should give a reasonable value of Vm (the monolayer capacity), which should be temperature independent. However, few data conform to this criterion. Similarly, several chemisorption results are known where the Langmuir equation is valid only within a small restricted range. Thus, although the Langmuir isotherm equation is of limited significance for the interpretation of the adsorption data because of its idealized character, the equation remains of basic importance for expressing dynamic adsorption equilibrium. Furthermore, it has provided a good basis for the derivation of other, more complex, models. The assumptions that the adsorption sites on solid surfaces are energetically homogeneous and that there are no lateral interactions between the adsorbed molecules are the weak points of this model. Brunauer, Emmet, and Teller derived the BET equation for multimolecular adsorp- tion by a method that is the generalization of the Langmuir treatment of unimolecular adsorption. These workers proposed that the forces acting in multimolecular adsorption are the same as those acting in the condensation of vapors. Only the first layer of adsorbed molecules, which is in direct contact with the adsorbent surface, is bound by adsorption forces originating from the interaction between the adsorbate and the adsorbent. Thus, the molecules in the second and subsequent layers have the same properties as in the liquid or gaseous phase. The BET equation has played a significant role in studies of adsorption because it represents the shapes of the actual isotherms. It also gives reasonable values for the average enthalpy of adsorption in the first layer and satisfactory values for Vm, the monolayer capacity of the adsorbate which can be used to calculate the specific surface area of the solid adsorbent. DK2173_C000.fm Page ix Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM © 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC The BET equation is applicable within the relative pressure range of 0.05 to 0.35. The failure of the equation above and below this range of relative pressures has been attributed to the faulty and simplifying assumptions of the theory. The failure below a relative pressure of 0.05 is due to the heterogeneity of the adsorbent surface. Activated carbon and inorganic gel surfaces that are important adsorbents are generally energetically heterogeneous (i.e., the enthalpy of adsorption varies from one part of the surface to another). At higher relative pressures, the BET equation loses its validity because adsorption by capillary condensation along with physical adsorption also takes place. The assumption that the adsorbate has liquid- like properties after the first layer is difficult to reconcile because both porous and nonporous adsorbents exposed to a saturated vapor sometimes adsorb strictly a limited amount and not the infinitely large quantity as postulated by the BET model. Thus, the limited validity of the BET equation is due to the shortcomings in the model itself rather than to our lack of knowledge of the various parameters, such as the number of layers, the heat of adsorption, or the evaporation constant in the higher layers. The potential theory of adsorption and the Dubinin equation, which is based on it, have been developed primarily for microporous adsorbents, for which they have proved to be better than all other theories. Dubinin and coworkers, while investigat- ing the effect of surface structure of activated carbons on the adsorbability of different vapors and of different solutes from solutions on active carbons, observed that over a wide range of values of adsorption, the characteristic curves of different vapors on the same adsorbent were related to each other. In fact, it was observed that if the adsorption potential corresponding to a certain volume of adsorption space on the characteristic curve for one vapor was multiplied by a constant, called the affinity coefficient, the adsorption potential corresponding to the same value of adsorption space on the characteristic curve of another vapor was obtained. Based on these observations, the characteristic curves for microporous activated carbons were expressed analytically by a Gaussian distribution equation between the total limiting volume of the adsorption space and the adsorption potential. This further made it possible to obtain an equation of the adsorption isotherm and to calculate the appropriate micropore volume. The Dubinin equation is valid over the range of relative pressures from 1 × 10 –5 to 0.2 or 0.4, which corresponds to about 85 to 95% filling of the micropores. At relative pressures below 10 –5 , extremely ultra-fine micropores that are not accessible to larger molecules are filled. Thus, the potential theory of adsorption together with the Dubinin equation represent the temperature dependence of adsorption and enable calculation of important thermodynamic func- tions, such as the heat and entropy of adsorption. The Dubinin equation has been further modified by Kaganer to yield a method for calculating the specific surface area from these isotherms. He confined his attention to monolayer region and assumed that adsorption at very low relative pressures results in the formation of a unimolecular layer on the walls of all the pores. This method thus yields monolayer capacity rather than the micropore volume. The method is applicable in the low pressure region of the isotherm (below relative pressure of 10 –4 ). The surface areas calculated by Kaganer method for activated carbons were within few percent of those calculated from the BET equation. DK2173_C000.fm Page x Tuesday, April 26, 2005 1:44 PM [...]... 5.2.2.2 Removal of Hydrogen Sulfide and Carbon Disulfide 272 5.3 Activated Carbon Adsorption in Nuclear Technology 277 5.4 Activated Carbon Adsorption in Vacuum Technology 279 5.5 Medicinal Applications of Activated Carbon Adsorption 279 5.6 Activated Carbon Adsorption for Gas Storage 289 References 292 Chapter 6 Activated Carbon Adsorption and Environment: Removal... Metal Ion Adsorption by Activated Carbons 361 References 364 Chapter 7 Activated Carbon Adsorption and Environment: Adsorptive Removal of Organics from Water 373 7.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Halogenated Organic Compounds 374 7.2 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Natural Organic Matter (NOM) .383 7.3 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds 387 7.4 Adsorption. .. of Inorganics from Water .297 6.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Inorganics from Aqueous Phase (General) 299 6.2 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Copper 304 6.2.1 Mechanism of Copper Adsorption 315 6.3 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Chromium .316 6.3.1 Mechanism of Adsorption of Cr(III) Ions .325 6.4 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Mercury 326 6.5 Adsorptive... Adsorption of Nitro and Amino Compounds 402 7.5 Adsorption of Pesticides 411 7.6 Adsorption of Dyes 416 7.7 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Drugs and Toxins 426 7.8 Adsorption of Miscellaneous Organic Compounds 429 7.9 Mechanism of Adsorption of Organics by Activated Carbons 434 References 436 Chapter 8 Activated Carbon Adsorption and Environment: Removal of Hazardous... surfaces and the models of adsorption; adsorption from solution phase; the preparation, characterization of, and adsorption by carbon molecular sieves; important applications of activated carbons with special emphasis on medicinal and health applications; and the use of activated carbons in environmental clean up The crystalline, microporous, and chemical structures of the activated carbon surface are discussed... .246 5.1.4.1 Decolorization with Powdered Activated Carbons 247 5.1.4.2 Decolorization with Granulated Activated Carbons 249 5.1.5 Application in Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries 250 5.1.6 Activated Carbon for the Recovery of Gold 251 5.1.6.1 Mechanism of Gold Recovery by Activated Carbon Adsorption .252 5.1.6.2 Desorption of Gold from Active Carbon Surface 259 5.1.6.3 Desorption... and activated carbon adsorption have been used for the removal of these chemical compounds Many studies including laboratory tests and field operations have indicated that the activated carbon adsorption is perhaps the best broad spectrum control technology available at the present moment An activated carbon in contact with a salt solution is a two-phase system consisting of a solid phase that is the activated. .. to 8 are devoted to important applications of activated carbon adsorption The most general liquid phase and gas phase applications of activated carbons with special reference to the nature of the carbon surface and the form of the activated carbon are discussed in Chapter 5, with special emphasis on medicinal and health applications Different types of carbons prepared from different source raw materials... Modification of Activated Carbon Surface by Nitrogenation 53 1.6.2 Modification of Carbon Surface by Halogenation 54 1.6.3 Modification of Carbon Surface by Sulfurization 56 1.6.4 Activated Carbon Modification by Impregnation 58 References 60 Chapter 2 Adsorption Energetics, Models, and Isotherm Equations 67 2.1 Adsorption on a Solid Surface .67 2.2 Adsorption Equilibrium... Mercury 326 6.5 Adsorptive Removal of Cadmium from Aqueous Solutions .335 6.6 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Cobalt from Aqueous Solutions .340 6.7 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Nickel 346 6.8 Removal of Lead from Water 351 6.9 Adsorptive Removal of Zinc 353 6.10 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Arsenic 355 6.11 Adsorptive Separation of Cations in Trace Amounts . Applications of Activated Carbon Adsorption 279 5.6 Activated Carbon Adsorption for Gas Storage 289 References 292 Chapter 6 Activated Carbon Adsorption. 373 7.1 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Halogenated Organic Compounds 374 7.2 Activated Carbon Adsorption of Natural Organic Matter (NOM) 383 7.3 Activated Carbon