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Foam Engineering
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Foam Engineering
Fundamentals and Applications
Edited by
Paul Stevenson
Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Auckland, New Zealand
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
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This edition first published 2012
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Foam engineering : fundamentals and applications / [edited by] Paul Stevenson. – 1st ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-66080-5 (hardback)
1. Foam. 2. Foam–Industrial applications. 3. Foam–Technological innovations. 4. Foamed materials.
I. Stevenson, Paul, 1973–
QD549.F59 2012
620.1–dc23
2011037211
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Print ISBN: 9780470660805
Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India
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Contents
About the Editor xiii
List of Contributors xv
Preface xvii
1 Introduction 1
Paul Stevenson
1.1 Gas–Liquid Foam in Products and Processes 1
1.2 Content of This Volume 2
1.3 A Personal View of Collaboration in Foam Research 3
Part I Fundamentals 5
2 Foam Morphology 7
Denis Weaire, Steven T. Tobin, Aaron J. Meagher and Stefan Hutzler
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Basic Rules of Foam Morphology 7
2.2.1 Foams, Wet and Dry 7
2.2.2 The Dry Limit 9
2.2.3 The Wet Limit 11
2.2.4 Between the Two Limits 11
2.3 Two-dimensional Foams 11
2.3.1 The Dry Limit in 2D 11
2.3.2 The Wet Limit in 2D 12
2.3.3 Between the Two Limits in 2D 12
2.4 Ordered Foams 15
2.4.1 Two Dimensions 15
2.4.2 Three Dimensions 16
2.5 Disordered Foams 19
2.6 Statistics of 3D Foams 20
2.7 Structures in Transition: Instabilities and Topological Changes 21
2.8 Other Types of Foams 22
2.8.1 Emulsions 22
2.8.2 Biological Cells 22
2.8.3 Solid Foams 23
2.9 Conclusions 24
Acknowledgements 24
References 25
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vi Contents
3 Foam Drainage 27
Stephan A. Koehler
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 Geometric Considerations 29
3.3 A Drained Foam 33
3.4 The Continuity Equation 35
3.5 Interstitial Flow 36
3.6 Forced Drainage 38
3.7 Rigid Interfaces and Neglecting Nodes: The Original
Foam Drainage Equation 41
3.8 Mobile Interfaces and Neglecting Nodes 43
3.9 Neglecting Channels: The Node-dominated Model 46
3.10 The Network Model: Combining Nodes and Channels 48
3.11 The Carman – Kozeny Approach 50
3.12 Interpreting Forced Drainage Experiments: A Detailed Look 51
3.13 Unresolved Issues 53
3.14 A Brief History of Foam Drainage 54
References 55
4 Foam Ripening 59
Olivier Pitois
4.1 Introduction 59
4.2 The Very Wet Limit 59
4.3 The Very Dry Limit 61
4.3.1 Inter-bubble Gas Diffusion through Thin Films 61
4.3.2 von Neumann Ripening for 2D Foams 62
4.3.3 3D Coarsening 64
4.4 Wet Foams 65
4.5 Controlling the Coarsening Rate 69
4.5.1 Gas Solubility 69
4.5.2 Resistance to Gas Permeation 70
4.5.3 Shell Mechanical Strength 70
4.5.4 Bulk Modulus 71
References 72
5 Coalescence in Foams 75
Annie Colin
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Stability of Isolated Thin Films 76
5.2.1 Experimental Studies Dealing with Isolated Thin Liquid Films 76
5.2.2 Theoretical Description of the Rupture of an Isolated
Thin Liquid Film 77
5.3 Structure and Dynamics of Foam Rupture 78
5.4 What Are the Key Parameters in the Coalescence Process? 81
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Contents vii
5.5 How Do We Explain the Existence of a Critical Liquid Fraction? 86
5.6 Conclusion 89
References 89
6 Foam Rheology 91
Nikolai D. Denkov, Slavka S. Tcholakova, Reinhard Höhler
and Sylvie Cohen-Addad
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 Main Experimental and Theoretical Approaches 93
6.3 Foam Visco-elasticity 95
6.3.1 Linear Elasticity 95
6.3.2 Non-linear Elasticity 98
6.3.3 Linear Relaxations 99
6.3.4 Shear Modulus of Particle-laden Foams 102
6.4 Yielding 103
6.5 Plastic Flow 105
6.6 Viscous Dissipation in Steadily Sheared Foams 106
6.6.1 Predominant Viscous Friction in the Foam Films 108
6.6.2 Predominant Viscous Friction in the Surfactant
Adsorption Layer 111
6.7 Foam–Wall Viscous Friction 112
6.8 Conclusions 114
Abbreviations 115
Acknowledgement 115
References 116
7 Particle Stabilized Foams 121
G. Kaptay and N. Babcsán
7.1 Introduction 121
7.2 A Summary of Some Empirical Observations 123
7.3 On the Thermodynamic Stability of Particle Stabilized Foams 125
7.4 On the Ability of Particles to Stabilize Foams during
Their Production 131
7.5 Design Rules for Particle Stabilized Foams 135
7.6 Conclusions 138
Acknowledgement 138
References 138
8 Pneumatic Foam 145
Paul Stevenson and Xueliang Li
8.1 Preamble 145
8.2 Vertical Pneumatic Foam 145
8.2.1 Introduction 145
8.2.2 The Hydrodynamics of Vertical Pneumatic Foam 147
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viii Contents
8.2.3 The ‘Vertical Foam Misapprehension’ 152
8.2.4 Bubble Size Distributions in Foam 153
8.2.5 Non-overflowing Pneumatic Foam 153
8.2.6 The Influence of Humidity upon Pneumatic Foam
with a Free Surface 155
8.2.7 Wet Pneumatic Foam and Flooding 155
8.2.8 Shear Stress Imparted by the Column Wall 157
8.2.9 Changes in Flow Cross-sectional Area 158
8.3 Horizontal Flow of Pneumatic Foam 158
8.3.1 Introduction 158
8.3.2 Lemlich’s Observations 159
8.3.3 Wall-slip and Velocity Profiles 160
8.3.4 Horizontal Flow Regimes 161
8.4 Pneumatic Foam in Inclined Channels 162
8.5 Methods of Pneumatic Foam Production 162
Nomenclature 164
References 165
9 Non-aqueous Foams: Formation and Stability 169
Lok Kumar Shrestha and Kenji Aramaki
9.1 Introduction 169
9.1.1 Foam Formation and Structures 169
9.1.2 Foam Stability 170
9.2 Phase Behavior of Diglycerol Fatty Acid Esters in Oils 173
9.3 Non-aqueous Foaming Properties 174
9.3.1 Effect of Solvent Molecular Structure 174
9.3.2 Effect of Surfactant Concentration 177
9.3.3 Effect of Hydrophobic Chain Length of Surfactant 181
9.3.4 Effect of Headgroup Size of Surfactant 187
9.3.5 Effect of Temperature 189
9.3.6 Effect of Water Addition 191
9.3.7 Non-aqueous Foam Stabilization Mechanism 201
9.4 Conclusion 203
Acknowledgements 203
References 204
10 Suprafroth: Ageless Two-dimensional Electronic Froth 207
Ruslan Prozorov and Paul C. Canfield
10.1 Introduction 207
10.2 The Intermediate State in Type-I Superconductors 208
10.3 Observation and Study of the Tubular Intermediate
State Patterns 211
10.4 Structural Statistical Analysis of the Suprafroth 215
Acknowledgements 224
References 224
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Contents ix
Part II Applications 227
11 Froth Phase Phenomena in Flotation 229
Paul Stevenson and Noel W.A. Lambert
11.1 Introduction 229
11.2 Froth Stability 233
11.3 Hydrodynamic Condition of the Froth 235
11.4 Detachment of Particles from Bubbles 236
11.5 Gangue Recovery 238
11.6 The Velocity Field of Froth Bubbles 241
11.7 Plant Experience of Froth Flotation 242
11.7.1 Introduction 242
11.7.2 Frother-constrained Plant 242
11.7.3 Sampling, Data Manipulation and Data Presentation 244
11.7.4 Process Control 245
11.7.5 The Assessment of Newly Proposed Flotation Equipment 246
11.7.6 Conclusions about Froth Flotation Drawn from Plant Experience 246
Nomenclature 246
References 247
12 Froth Flotation of Oil Sand Bitumen 251
Laurier L. Schramm and Randy J. Mikula
12.1 Introduction 251
12.2 Oil Sands 251
12.3 Mining and Slurrying 253
12.4 Froth Structure 265
12.5 Physical Properties of Froths 272
12.6 Froth Treatment 274
12.7 Conclusion 278
Acknowledgements 278
References 278
13 Foams in Enhancing Petroleum Recovery 283
Laurier L. Schramm and E. Eddy Isaacs
13.1 Introduction 283
13.2 Foam Applications for the Upstream Petroleum Industry 284
13.2.1 Selection of Foam-Forming Surfactants 284
13.3 Foam Applications in Wells and Near Wells 287
13.3.1 Drilling and Completion Foams 287
13.3.2 Well Stimulation Foams: Fracturing, Acidizing, and Unloading 288
13.4 Foam Applications in Reservoir Processes 289
13.4.1 Reservoir Recovery Background 289
13.4.2 Foam Applications in Primary and Secondary Oil Recovery 292
13.4.3 Foam Applications in Enhanced (Tertiary) Oil Recovery 293
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x Contents
13.5 Occurrences of Foams at the Surface and Downstream 298
13.6 Conclusion 299
References 299
14 Foam Fractionation 307
Xueliang Li and Paul Stevenson
14.1 Introduction 307
14.2 Adsorption in Foam Fractionation 310
14.2.1 Adsorption Kinetics at Quiescent Interface 311
14.2.2 Adsorption at Dynamic Interfaces 314
14.3 Foam Drainage 315
14.4 Coarsening and Foam Stability 316
14.5 Foam Fractionation Devices and Process Intensification 317
14.5.1 Limitations of Conventional Columns 317
14.5.2 Process Intensification Devices 319
14.6 Concluding Remarks about Industrial Practice 324
Nomenclature 325
References 326
15 Gas–Liquid Mass Transfer in Foam 331
Paul Stevenson
15.1 Introduction 331
15.2 Non-overflowing Pneumatic Foam Devices 334
15.3 Overflowing Pneumatic Foam Devices 336
15.4 The Waldhof Fermentor 338
15.5 Induced Air Methods 340
15.6 Horizontal Foam Contacting 341
15.7 Calculation of Specific Interfacial Area in Foam 342
15.8 Hydrodynamics of Pneumatic Foam 343
15.9 Mass Transfer and Equilibrium Considerations 345
15.9.1 Gas–Liquid Equilibrium 345
15.9.2 Rate of Mass Transfer 345
15.9.3 Estimation of Mass Transfer Coefficient 346
15.10 Towards an Integrated Model of Foam Gas–Liquid
Contactors 347
15.11 Discussion and Future Directions 349
Nomenclature 351
Acknowledgements 351
References 352
16 Foams in Glass Manufacturing 355
Laurent Pilon
16.1 Introduction 355
16.1.1 The Glass Melting Process 356
16.1.2 Melting Chemistry and Refining 359
16.1.3 Motivations 362
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Contents xi
16.2 Glass Foams in Glass Melting Furnaces 363
16.2.1 Primary Foam 363
16.2.2 Secondary Foam 363
16.2.3 Reboil 364
16.2.4 Parameters Affecting Glass Foaming 365
16.3 Physical Phenomena 365
16.3.1 Glass Foam Physics 365
16.3.2 Surface Active Agents and Surface Tension of Gas/Melt Interface 368
16.3.3 Drainage and Stability of a Single Molten Glass Film 369
16.3.4 Gas Bubbles in Molten Glass 370
16.4 Experimental Studies 373
16.4.1 Introduction 373
16.4.2 Transient Primary and Secondary Glass Foams 374
16.4.3 Steady-state Glass Foaming by Gas Injection 384
16.5 Modeling 386
16.5.1 Introduction 386
16.5.2 Dynamic Foam Growth and Decay 387
16.5.3 Steady-state Glass Foams 389
16.5.4 Experiments and Model Limitations 395
16.6 Measures for Reducing Glass Foaming in Glass Melting Furnaces 396
16.6.1 Batch Composition 396
16.6.2 Batch Conditioning and Heating 397
16.6.3 Furnace Temperature 397
16.6.4 External and Temporary Actions 397
16.6.5 Atmosphere Composition and Flame Luminosity 399
16.6.6 Control Foaming in Reduced-pressure Refining 400
16.7 Perspective and Future Research Directions 401
Acknowledgements 402
References 402
17 Fire-fighting Foam Technology 411
Thomas J. Martin
17.1 Introduction 411
17.2 History 413
17.3 Applications 415
17.3.1 Foam Market 415
17.3.2 Hardware 415
17.4 Physical Properties 416
17.4.1 Mechanism of Action 417
17.4.2 Class A Foams 422
17.4.3 Class B Foams 422
17.5 Chemical Properties 430
17.5.1 Ingredients and Purpose 430
17.5.2 Example Recipes 447
17.6 Testing 448
17.6.1 Lab Test Methods 449
17.6.2 Fire Test Standards 452
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[...]... foam, which underpins the processes of froth flotation, foam fractionation and gas–liquid mass transfer, and one on the formation and stability of non-aqueous foams Finally in the Fundamentals section there is a chapter on ‘Suprafroth’, which is a novel class of magnetic froth in which coarsening is promoted by the application of a magnetic field and therefore is reversible In the second part, Applications ,... processes, and there is a description of foam behaviour and control in the production of glass One of the most common applications of foam is in firefighting, as is discussed in a dedicated chapter There is an important chapter on the creation and application of foams in consumer products; such products are typically of high added-value and therefore this field is rich with opportunities for innovation and. .. create two-dimensional foams of various kinds, offering attractive possibilities of easy experiments, computer simulations and visualizations, and more elementary theory One form of 2D foam consists of a thin sandwich of bubbles between two glass plates Let us begin with the 3D case, recognizing its greater practical importance 2.2 2.2.1 Basic Rules of Foam Morphology Foams, Wet and Dry Foams may be classified... fraction (i.e 1 − f) the foam quality Foams used in firefighting are classified by their expansion ratio, which is defined by f−1 At each extreme (the dry and wet limits) Foam Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications, First Edition Edited by Paul Stevenson © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Stevenson_c02.indd 7 12/5/2011 11:21:10 PM 8 Foam Engineering (b) (a) (c)... in the use of the material for fighting fires and to displace hydrocarbons from reservoirs Foam Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications, First Edition Edited by Paul Stevenson © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Published 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Stevenson_c01.indd 1 12/3/2011 3:28:03 AM 2 Foam Engineering 4 A finite yield stress Because gas–liquid foams can support a finite shear stress before... science and engineering, but all are leading experts in their fields and all are active in developing the science and technology of foam fundamentals and applications It is very much hoped that, in bringing together this diverse cohort of authors into a single volume, genuine crossdisciplinary research will be stimulated that can effectively address problems in the fundamental nature of gas–liquid foam. .. 18.3.4 Summary 18.4 Conclusions References 19 Foams for Blast Mitigation A Britan, H Shapiro and G Ben-Dor 19.1 19.2 Introduction Free Field Tests 19.2.1 Compressibility 19.2.2 Typical Test Rigs 19.2.3 Decay of the Foam Barrier 19.2.4 Effect of Foam Density 19.2.5 Foam Impedance and the Barrier Thickness 19.3 Shock Tube Testing 19.3.1 Main Restrictions 19.3.2 Foam Shattering 19.4 Theoretical Approaches... of foam fractionation Thus, the desire for a better understanding of a process technology for the separation of surface-active molecules from aqueous solution was the driver for the development of what some regard as the ‘standard model’ of foam drainage Robert Lemlich’s career was characterised by trying to describe and innovate process technologies that harnessed foam by building a better understanding... understanding and practical application Lemlich, and his co-workers, were able to effect these developments within their own research group Those of us who do not possess Lemlich’s skill and insight may not be able to make similar progress single-handedly, but can still benefit from cross-disciplinary collaboration to achieve similar goals As a chemical engineer working on the fundamentals of gas–liquid foam. .. active agents contained in liquids in household and personal care products (such as bathroom cleaner and shaving foam) , as well as in topical pharmaceutical treatments Thus, the geometrical, hydrodynamical and rheological properties of gas–liquid foam can be harnessed to make it a uniquely versatile multiphase mixture for a variety of process applications and product designs It is therefore a material . of Foam- Forming Surfactants 284
13.3 Foam Applications in Wells and Near Wells 287
13.3.1 Drilling and Completion Foams 287
13.3.2 Well Stimulation Foams:. Non-aqueous Foams: Formation and Stability 169
Lok Kumar Shrestha and Kenji Aramaki
9.1 Introduction 169
9.1.1 Foam Formation and Structures 169
9.1.2 Foam Stability
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