PLANTATION FORESTRY IN THAILAND (TEAK, RUBBERWOOD, EUCALYPT) CASE STUDY IN CHIANG RAI PROVINCE Abdulbasit Elmagboul Wathinee Kritsanaphan Suvi Niemi Priyanto Marko Tynkkynen Maria Ulfah Jinsun Zhu Eveliina Varis Moderators: Dr. Damrong Pipatwattanakul Syed Ashraful Alam 2 List of Contents 1. Introduction and background…………………………………………………………… 3 2. Land use management ………………………………………………………………… 6 3. Species requirements…………………………………………………………………… 8 3.1 Tectona grandis…………………………………………………………………………… 8 3.2 Hevea brasiliensis………………………………………………………………………… 9 3.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis………………………… …………………………………… 9 4. Silvicultural practices…………………………………………………………………… 10 4.1 Species selection………………………………………………………………… 10 4.2 Nursery techniques……………………………………………………………… 10 5. Environmental impacts of plantation forestry………………………………………… 12 5.1 Soil………………………………………………………………….…………… 12 5.2 Water……………………………………………………………….…………… 12 5.3 Biodiversity………………………………………………………….…………… 13 5.4 Global Warming and Carbon Sequestration………………………….………… 13 6. Management of tree plantations…………………………………………………………. 15 6.1 Management in general…………………………………………….…………… 15 6.2 Biotechnology and genetic modification………………………….…………… 15 6.3 Pests and diseases…………………………………………….………………… 15 6.4 Fertilizers………………………………………………………….…………… 15 6.5 Fire management………………………………………………….…………… 16 6.6 Management practices by species………………………………….…………… 16 7. Utilization of the tree species…………………………………………………………… 20 7.1 Tecona grandis…………………………………………………….…………… 20 7.2 Hevea brasiliensis………………………………………………….…………… 20 7.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis………………………………………….…………… 21 8. Case Study on Plantation Forestry in Chiang Rai Province………………………… 22 8.1 Result of Interview: Forest Resource Management Office………….…………… 22 8.2 Result of interview: Forest Industry Organization, FIO………….………………. 23 8.2.1 Mae Yao-Mae Sai plantation…………………………….…………… 23 8.2.2 Management of teak (Tectona grandis) ………………….…………… 24 8.2.3 Management of Eucalyptus camaldulensis………………….………… 24 8.3 Result of interview: Office of Rubber Replanting Aid Fund………….………… 24 9. Discussion………………………………………………………………………………… 26 10. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 27 11. Recommendations…………………………………………………………………… 28 12. Implications for forest restoration…………………………………………………… 29 13. References………………………………………………………………………………… 31 3 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND The Kingdom of Thailand is located in the southeastern part of continental Asia, bordered by Myanmar, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Malaysia. It has a land area of 51.3 million hectares and a population of 63 million people. In the 1980s and 1990s, Thailand’s economy was one of the fastest growing in the world, but this coincided with the rapid depletion of its natural resources. Estimates of forest cover range from 13.0 million hectares to 14.8 million hectares (for 2000; FAO 2005). The Thailand’s forest can be classified as: (i) evergreen forests with three sub-types – tropical rainforests, semi-evergreen forests and hill evergreen forests (43% of the forest area), dominated by species of the genera Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Shorea, Lagerstroemia, Diospyros, Terminalia, and Artocarpus; (ii) pine forests, mainly of Pinus merkusii (2%); (iii) mangrove and coastal forests (2%), the main mangrove genera being Rhizophora, Avicennia and Bruguiera and the main beach genera Diospyros, Lagerstroemia and Casuarina; (iv) mixed deciduous forest (22%), the dominant species being Tectona grandis (teak), Xylia kerrii, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergia spp. and Afzelia xylocarpa; and (v) dry dipterocarp forest (31%) (FAO 2005). In 2000, the area of planted forest in Thailand was estimated altogether 2,81 million hectares. The species planted were: teak – 836,000 hectares; Eucalyptus spp – 443,000 hectares; Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp – 148,000 hectares; other broadleaved species – 541,000 hectares; Pinus merkusii and other Pinus spp – 689,000 hectares; and other conifers – 148,000 (FAO 2001). In the history of Thailand deforestation has been rapid, particularly in the 70´s and 80´s. In the mid 70´s deforestation rate was about 500 000 hectares annually. After that deforestation rate started to decline but in the late 80´s 200 000 hectares was still deforested annually. Main reason for declining was logging ban on commercial operations in natural forests, declared after a devastating flood in 1988. Other reasons are change in the international agricultural markets, which discouraged the planting of cassava and rising price of forest land which effected mainly on the migrating farmers will to convert forest land into agricultural land (Tongpan et al. 1990). 4 Deforestation led to reduced timber production and protection of remaining forests. Situation led to shortages in domestic timber supply and timber importing. Importing timber from neighbouring countries can lead to similar restrictions in these countries. In the long run Thailand will be forced to secure wood and timber demand with forest plantations. Final aim could be to fulfil the demand by a combination of the sustainable management of natural forests and efficient wood production from forest plantations (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O. 1996). In 1980´s tree planting started to spread on individual owned farmland mainly due the Northeaster pulp and paper industries in Khon Kaen (Niskanen et al. 1993). Until 1993 totally 800 000 hectares of land has been planted in Thailand in which approximately 600 000 hectares at government cost, 146 000 hectares by consessionaires, and 32 000 hectares by Forest Industry Organization, FIO (RDF 1993). In North and Northeast planting has been done by the government, private concession owners, and industries. In South and East farmers planting efforts have been the highest mainly due very profitable para rubber plantations (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O. 1996). In the North most important tree species include teak (Tectona grandis) and Pinus spp., in the Northeast teak and Eucalyptus spp, and in the South and East the para rubbertree (Hevea brasilensis). Teak and pine goes for sawn timber and eucalyptus mainly for poles and pulp industry. Para rubbertree can be used for to produce latex, sawn timber and veneer. Para rubbertree plantations have been expanding rapidly due subsidies for plantation establishment costs (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O. 1996). Despite long history of tree planting reforestation programmes have not reached the targets. To achieve targets greater involvement by private farmers is needed. The problem lies on insecurity of land tenure, insufficient capital and weaknesses in the wood and timber markets. (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O. 1996). Given that there have been almost 20 years of policy shift; this paper aims to provide data on plantation forests in Thailand and in Chiang Rai Province with special focus on the issues 5 affecting the successfulness of both the policy and practice of forest plantations of teak, rubber wood, and eucalypt on the region. 6 2. LAND USE MANAGEMENT In management process is important to take into account that land selected for planting may been used by local communities to support their livelihoods and be considered as their land. To achieve socio-economic sustainability indigenous and local community rights and privileges should be considered and respected in management of these areas. Best way is to provide the right to participate in the use, management and conservation of these areas. For conflict management mechanisms for the settling of disputed rights should be established and compensation systems if the rights have to be temporary or permanently extinguished (FAO, 2006). Security of land tenure is essential for sustainable plantation management. Ownership mechanisms have been developing into direction of corporate/smallholder contracts or partnerships. Development towards secure land tenure for plantation forests requires consultation with other land users, conflict resolution and shared decision-making. Also recognition of customary rights can be necessary together with new land-use policies to harmonize land-use legislation that can impact tenure (FAO, 2006). In Thailand the aim of National Forest Policy is to increase forest cover up to 40 % of the land area. Currently the forest area is 32, 66 % of the land area 513 115 km 2 (RFD, 2007). The ratio of conservation and commercial forest used to be 15:25, but has now been changed to be 25:15 respectively. In 1992, in compliance with the National Forest Policy and the challenge of expansion of human resettlement and cultivation, the government re-categorized all national reserved forest estates into three zones, which are based on satellite images (RFD, 2005). The Conservation Forest Zone (Zone C) is the area covered by natural forest that are undisturbed and/or are minimally affected by human activities. Areas under Zone C are identified as ecologically sensitive including habitats of endangered species and watershed areas. This zone is normally declared as protected forest area. Nevertheless, some of these areas, especially in highland of Northern Thailand, are occupied by isolated human settlements that carry on their rotate or permanent cultivation activities. 7 The Economic Forest Zone (Zone E) was set aside from arable land suitable for commercial tree plantations for distribution to landless farmers. Before the establishment of economic forest zone the area has been under cultivation or on degraded forest land. The Agricultural Zone (Zone A) was set aside from degraded or deforested areas that were suitable for agriculture. In 1993, RFD transferred 70,848 km 2 of land from Zone A to Agricultural Land Reform Office (ALRO). After the transfer of land management, ALRO became responsible agency of the Zone A. In 2002, small portion of Zone A which is unsuitable for agriculture was legally return to RFD for forest rehabilitation. 8 3. SPECIES REQUIREMENTS 3.1 Tectona grandis Teak is native in South East Asia. T. grandis tolerates a wide range of climates, but it grows best in a warm, moist, tropical climate. It prefers a dry season of 3 - 6 months which is typical for monsoon climate. The optimal annual rainfall is 1500 - 2000 mm, but it endures rainfall as low as 510 mm/year and as high as 5080 mm/year. According to studies of water consumption by Kallarackal and Somen (1992) a 12-year-old teak consumes 83 litres of water per day in leafy season. During the dry season the water consumption is negligible because of the deciduous state. Under very dry conditions teak is usually stunted and shrubby. Under very moist conditions, the tree is large and fluted and usually behaves like a semi-evergreen species; the wood quality is poor in terms of colour, texture and density. For the production of high quality wood with optimum growth, moisture conditions (as expressed by annual rainfall) should be between 1,200 and 2,500 mm with a marked dry season of 3-5 months (Kaosa-ard, 1981). The optimal temperature for teak is between 27 – 36 °C degrees; it poorly tolerates cold and frost conditions during the winter period. (Kanchanaburangura, 1976 et al.) Teak is a pronounced light-demander requiring full overhead light (Kadambi, 1972). T. grandis grows well on variety of geological formations and soils, but best on deep, porous, fertile, well-drained sandstones with neutral or acid pH (Kadambi, 1972). Teak soil is relatively fertile with high calcium, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen and organic matter contents (Kaosa- ard, 1981 et al.). According to several studies teak requires relatively large amounts of calcium for its growth and development (Kaosa-ard, 1981). Teak may grow from sea level up to 1200 meters, but growth is slower on high elevations and on steep slopes (Kadambi, 1972). T. grandis is a moderately wind-firm tree species as it owns a well-developed root system. Fire resistance is remarkable. Young teaks recover from fire as the root system survives and finally produces a permanent fire-resistant shoot (Kadambi, 1972). Teak seedlings are sensitive to severe drought. Teak is also very sensitive to mutual root competition, therefore weed management is essential (Kadambi, 1972). Teak is also tolerant to termites, but heavy grazing by pigs, rats, deer 9 and bison may cause damage to teak shoots. The most serious animal threat for teak plantation is the elephant (Kadambi, 1972). 3.2 Hevea brasiliensis The common rubber tree grows natively in Amazon, Brazil. H. brasiliensis is a tropical tree and grows best at temperatures of 20 - 28 °C and an annual rainfall of 1800 - 2000 mm. Prime growing area of rubber tree is 10 degrees in latitudes from the equator, but it is cultivated much further north. It is a light-demanding species. H. brasiliensis requires moist soil, but provided drainage is adequate. Severe tree damage may result from flooding. It is relatively insensitive to soil type, but higher yields and disease resistance can be expected on highly fertile soils. High salinity is a problem for rubertree. H. brasiliensis grows satisfactorily up to 600 meters above sea level, but it tends to be damaged by high winds. On plantations it may grow up to 20 - 30 meters (IRRDB, 2005) 3.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis The common name of E. camaldulensis is river red gum and it is native in Murray-Darling base, Australia. E. camaldulensis may grow in various climatic conditions, from warm to hot and from sub-humid to semi-arid and both permanent and seasonal climates. The optimal mean annual temperature is 13 - 28 °C degrees and optimal rainfall is 400-2500 mm per year. E. camaldulensis grows in elevations of 20 - 700 metres. E. camaldulensis is a light-demanding species, but very fire sensitive. Even low intensity fires may cause cambial injury lowering the value of the timber. E. camaldulensis prefers deep moist subsoils with clay content. Wildly it grows in creek valleys and requires a certain length of flooding duration. With a good water supply it may reach a height of 12 - 15 meters in few years. It is not physiologically adapted to either drought or salinity, although these stresses can be tolerated for short periods or at low levels. Compared to many other species, E. camaldulensis performs high productivity on infertile soil and hot temperatures (CSIRO, 2004). 10 4. SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES 4.1 Species selection Selection of the species come in many shapes and guides are for variety of reasons, some to provide shelter, shade, fodder for livestock, fuel wood for households, timber for furniture and construction industry or recreational resources as a valuable service to urban population. The essential ecological characteristics of tree species selected are high survival when planted, rapid growth, density and spreading of crowns that shade out weeds, flowering and fruiting, ability to attract wildlife at young stage of development, resilience of fire and the ability to coppice (Silikul, 2000). The essential characteristics of nursery techniques include reliable seed availability, rapid seed germination, ensuring the health of seedlings in containers, high quality of seedlings and good horticultural practices (Silikul, 2000). Tree improvement strategies involve planning and execution general objectives especially in long term breading, propagation and conservation in the improvement program. Improvement strategy requires biological and technological knowledge including genetic variation and gain, flowering biology, mating system, seed production, clonal propagation and planting techniques (Kaosa-ard, 2003). Improvement objectives are divided into short and long-term objectives. Short-term objectives are to increase the volume of production per unit per area through improvement of growth rate, to improve stem quality of trees, to improve wood quality and production of genetically improved seed. Long-term objectives are to establish long-term breeding population, to manipulate and maintain the genetic variability of the breeding population through many as generations as possible and to secure the supply of improved seed and/or planting materials of greater cumulative gain for planting programmes (Kaosa-ard, 2003). 4.2 Nursery techniques Tectona grandis For teak (Tectona grandis) the most critical problem under nursery conditions is the poor germination which is only 25 – 35% (Keiding, 1985). Low germination is due to the strong [...]... produce edible mushrooms 21 8 Case Study on Plantation Forestry in Chiang Rai Province 8.1 Result of Interview: Forest Resource Management Office Our case study is based on interviews at Forest Resource Management Office in Chiang Rai, Thailand Our aim was to find out about the state of plantation forestry in Chiang Rai province Especially we were interested in what are the main species used, what is the... thinning of teak stand should be performed 5 and 10 years after planting (Koegh, 1987) in order to prevent stunting Often the age at which the thinning is practiced is determined by the dominant height According to Centeno (1999) the first thinning should take place when the dominant height of stand is 9 to 9,5 meters and the second thinning when dominant height reaches 17 to 18 meters Thinnings during... impact of plantation forestry in the tropics In Chiang Rai, plantations are mainly monocultures Rubber tree under agricultural plantation, teak and eucalypt are established in the province When it comes to investments in tree plantations, there are several obstacles Within the government the problem is that there is no large unfragmented areas available for plantation establishment From companies point of... factory in Prae Province Trend of teak timber demand in Thailand will be declining due to the increasing use of wood-substitute composites However, the timber demand in Thailand is higher than domestic timber supply In the future, the market price of timber and the site suitability are the main incentives to plant trees on the area Normally, farmers will divide their land area for housing, growing annual... for involving and interacting with communities, selecting the best practices for growing trees including; infrastructure development, selecting species, rotation times, tending, silvicultural operations, protection and selecting suitable harvesting technologies (FAO, 2006) 6.2 Biotechnology and genetic modification Using biotechnology and genetic modification are still relatively new practices in plantation. .. cutting and the regeneration in next rotation is done by coppicing 8.3 Result of interview: Office of Rubber Replanting Aid Fund First plantation of rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was established in 1987 The Fund started to work in 2002 to promote and support rubber tree planting in Chiang Rai due to government’s policy to increase the rubber tree plantation area of Thailand to total of 1000000 rai. .. charcoal, firewood and small poles In order to improve planting material cutting and tissue culture is practiced in the province Spacing of E camaldulensis is 1.5 x 1.5 meters Weed control is needed, but pruning not, because of natural pruning Thinning is done systematically by harvesting every second row when trees are large enough for charcoal and firewood utilization In Chiang Rai the rotation of eucalypt... of plantations In our case study of Thailand, the environmental impact of plantation is barely known by people The lack of incentives and knowledge makes it very difficult Forest products coming from plantations are actually what people care about In Chiang Rai, the knowledge about environmental impact of plantation is mainly from the previous researches’ results done in other countries In addition to... conserving the natural resources 26 The side effects of the increasing consumption of water in plantation forests on upland watershed areas, together with water scarcity, might become the biggest problem in the future Since Thailand has dry season and rainy season, there will be difficulty in water management in dry period as the groundwater table can be extremely low and the water coming from rainfall... After plantation establishment trees might attract the forest cloud, but it does not necessarily contribute to direct rainfall In Chiang Rai Province of Thailand, most of the watershed areas are in natural forest or National Parks, which are under restoration and conservation, very little of the area was used for plantations 10 CONCLUSION Wood consumption in Thailand is based mainly on importing wood . PLANTATION FORESTRY IN THAILAND (TEAK, RUBBERWOOD, EUCALYPT) CASE STUDY IN CHIANG RAI PROVINCE Abdulbasit Elmagboul Wathinee Kritsanaphan. camaldulensis………………………………………….…………… 21 8. Case Study on Plantation Forestry in Chiang Rai Province ……………………… 22 8.1 Result of Interview: Forest Resource Management