~C00KIEEE~ ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN NUTRITION SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF HUMAN NUTRITION SECOND EDITION Editor-in-Chief BENJAMIN CABALLERO Editors LINDSAY ALLEN ANDREW PRENTICE ACADEMIC PRESS Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo Elsevier Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK ª 2005 Elsevier Ltd. The following articles are US Government works in the public domain and not subject to copyright: CAROTENOIDS/Chemistry, Sources and Physiology FOOD FORTIFICATION/Developed Countries FRUCTOSE LEGUMES TEA TUBERCULOSIS/Nutrition and Susceptibility TUBERCULOSIS/Nutritional Management VEGETARIAN DIETS All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) 1865 843830, fax (+44) 1865 853333, e-mail permissions@elsevier.com. Requests may also be completed on-line via the homepage (http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissions). Second edition 2005 Library of Congress Control Number: 2004113614 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-12-150110-8 (set) This book is printed on acid-free paper Printed and bound in Spain EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Benjamin Caballero Johns Hopkins University Maryland USA EDITORS Lindsay Allen University of California Davis, CA, USA Andrew Prentice London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine London, UK Christopher Bates MRC Human Nutrition Research Cambridge, UK Carolyn D Berdanier University of Georgia Athens, GA, USA Bruce R Bistrian Harvard Medical School Boston, MA, USA Johanna T Dwyer Frances Stern Nutrition Center Boston, MA, USA Paul Finglas Institute of Food Research Norwich, UK Terrence Forrester Tropical Medicine Research Institute University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Kingston, Jamaica Hedley C Freake University of Connecticut Storrs, CT, USA Catherine Geissler King’s College London London, UK Susan A Jebb MRC Human Nutrition Research Cambridge, UK Rachel Johnson University of Vermont Burlington, VT, USA Janet C King Children’s Hospital Oakland Research Institute Oakland, CA, USA Anura Kurpad St John’s National Academy of Health Sciences Bangalore, India Kim Fleisher Michaelson The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University Frederiksberg, Denmark Carlos Monteiro University of Sa ˆ o Paulo Sa ˆ o Paulo, Brazil John M Pettifor University of the Witwatersrand & Chris Hani-Baragwanath Hospital Johannesburg, South Africa Barry M Popkin University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, NC, USA Michele J Sadler MJSR Associates Ashford, UK Ricardo Uauy London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine UK and INTA University of Chile, Santiago, Chile David York Pennington Biomedical Research Center Baton Rouge, LA, USA vi EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD FOREWORD W hy an encyclopedia? The original Greek word means ‘the circle of arts and sciences essential for a liberal education’, and such a book was intended to embrace all knowledge. That was the aim of the famous Encyclopedie produced by Diderot and d’Alembert in the middle of the 18th century, which contributed so much to what has been called the Enlightenment. It is recorded that after all the authors had corrected the proofs of their contributions, the printer secretly cut out whatever he thought might give offence to the king, mutilated most of the best articles and burnt the manuscripts! Later, and less controver- sially, the word ‘encyclopedia’ came to be used for an exhaustive repertory of information on some particular department of knowledge. It is in this class that the present work falls. In recent years the scope of Human Nutrition as a scientific discipline has expanded enormously. I used to think of it as an applied subject, relying on the basic sciences of physiology and biochemistry in much the same way that engineering relies on physics. That traditional relationship remains and is fundamental, but the field is now much wider. At one end of the spectrum epidemiological studies and the techniques on which they depend have played a major part in establishing the relationships between diet, nutritional status and health, and there is greater recognition of the importance of social factors. At the other end of the spectrum we are becoming increasingly aware of the genetic determinants of ways in which the body handles food and is able to resist adverse influences of the environment. Nutritionists are thus beginning to explore the mechanisms by which nutrients influence the expression of genes in the knowledge that nutrients are among the most powerful of all influences on gene expression. This has brought nutrition to the centre of the new ‘post-genome’ challenge of understanding the effects on human health of gene-environment interactions. In parallel with this widening of the subject there has been an increase in opportunities for training and research in nutrition, with new departments and new courses being developed in universities, medical schools and schools of public health, along with a greater involvement of schoolchildren and their teachers. Public interest in nutrition is intense and needs to be guided by sound science. Governments are realizing more and more the role that nutrition plays in the prevention of disease and the maintenance of good health, and the need to develop a nutrition policy that is integrated with policies for food production. The first edition of the Encyclopaedia of Human Nutrition established it as one of the major reference works in our discipline. The second edition has been completely revised to take account of new knowledge in our rapidly advancing field. This new edition is as comprehensive as the present state of knowledge allows, but is not overly technical and is well supplied with suggestions for further reading. All the articles have been carefully reviewed and although some of the subjects are controversial and sensitive, the publishers have not exerted the kind of political censorship that so infuriated Diderot. J.C. Waterlow Emeritus Professor of Human Nutrition London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine February 2005 INTRODUCTION T he science of human nutrition and its applications to health promotion continue to gain momentum. In the relatively short time since the release of the first edition of this Encyclopedia, a few landmark discoveries have had a dramatic multiplying effect over nutrition science: the mapping of the human genome, the links between molecular bioenergetics and lifespan, the influence of nutrients on viral mutation, to name a few. But perhaps the strongest evidence of the importance of nutrition for human health comes from the fact that almost 60% of the diseases that kill humans are related to diet and lifestyle (including smoking and physical activity). These are all modifiable risk factors. As individuals and organizations intensify their efforts to reduce disease risks, the need for multidisciplinary work becomes more apparent. Today, an effective research or program team is likely to include several professionals from fields other than nutrition. For both nutrition and non-nutrition scientists, keeping up to date on the concepts and interrelationships between nutrient needs, dietary intake and health outcomes is essential. The new edition of the Encyclopedia of Human Nutrition hopes to address these needs. While rigorously scientific and up to date, EHN provides concise and easily understandable summaries on a wide variety of topics. The nutrition scientist will find that the Encyclopedia is an effective tool to ‘‘fill the void’’ of information in areas beyond his/her field of expertise. Professionals from other fields will appreciate the ease of alphabetical listing of topics, and the presentation of information in a rigorous but concise way, with generous aid from graphs and diagrams. For a work that involved more than 340 authors requires, coordination and attention to detail is critical. The editors were fortunate to have the support of an excellent team from Elsevier’s Major Reference Works division. Sara Gorman and Paula O’Connell initiated the project, and Tracey Mills and Samuel Coleman saw it to its successful completion. We trust that this Encyclopedia will be a useful addition to the knowledge base of professionals involved in research, patient care, and health promotion around the globe. Benjamin Caballero, Lindsay Allen and Andrew Prentice Editors April 2005 [...]... D H Williamson Radcliffe Infirmary Oxford, UK S Zidenberg-Cherr University of California at Davis Davis, CA, USA M-M G Wilson St Louis University St Louis, MO, USA T R Ziegler Emory University Atlanta, GA, USA xxv CONTENTS VOLUME 1 A ACIDS see ELECTROLYTES: Acid-Base Balance ´ ¨ G Fruhbeck and J Gomez-Ambrosi ADIPOSE TISSUE 1 ADOLESCENTS Nutritional Requirements Nutritional Problems AGING C H S Ruxton... Factors; Lipid Theory; Prevention HEIGHT see NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT: Anthropometry HOMOCYSTEINE HUNGER J W Miller 462 J C G Halford, A J Hill and J E Blundell HYPERACTIVITY 469 M Wolraich 475 HYPERLIPIDEMIA Overview T R Trinick and E B Duly Nutritional Management 479 A H Lichtenstein 491 HYPERTENSION Etiology T Morgan and H Brunner Dietary Factors L J Appel Nutritional Management HYPOGLYCEMIA 499 506... 1 7 INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM Classification and Biochemical Aspects D L Marsden Nutritional Management of Phenylketonuria D L Marsden, F J Rohr and K C Costas 13 22 INFANTS Nutritional Requirements Feeding Problems S A Atkinson 28 R M Katz, L Schuberth and C S Gulotta 42 INFECTION Nutritional Interactions H Ghattas Nutritional Management in Adults 47 J A Tayek 54 INTESTINE see SMALL INTESTINE: Structure... London, UK R Nalubola Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration, MD, USA J W Miller UC Davis Medical Center Sacramento, CA, USA J L Napoli University of California Berkeley, CA, USA P Miller Kennedy–Krieger Institute Baltimore, MD, USA V Nehra The Mayo Clinic College of Medicine Rochester, MN, USA D J Millward University of Surrey Guildford, UK B Nejadnik Johns Hopkins... USA A P Simopoulos The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health Washington, DC, USA A O Scheimann Johns Hopkins School of Medicine Baltimore, MD, USA R J Smith Brown Medical School Providence, RI, USA B Schneeman University of California at Davis Davis, CA, USA P B Soeters University Hospital Maastricht Maastricht, The Netherlands xxiii xxiv CONTRIBUTORS N Solomons Center for Studies of Sensory Impairment,... Measurement the following information would be provided: DIETARY INTAKE MEASUREMENT Contents Methodology Validation xii GUIDE TO USE OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA 2 Cross-References All of the articles in the Encyclopedia have been extensively cross-referenced The cross-references, which appear at the end of an article, serve three different functions For example, at the end of the ADOLESCENTS /Nutritional Problems... ACID RIBOFLAVIN THIAMIN: Physiology; Beriberi VITAMIN B6 BACTERIA see INFECTION: Nutritional Interactions; Nutritional Management in Adults BASES see ELECTROLYTES: Acid-Base Balance BEER see ALCOHOL: Absorption, Metabolism and Physiological Effects; Disease Risk and Beneficial Effects; Effects of Consumption on Diet and Nutritional Status BEHAVIOR E L Gibson and M W Green 183 BERIBERI see THIAMIN: Beriberi... and B J Petersen 366 G GALACTOSE A Abi-Hanna and J M Saavedra GALL BLADDER DISORDERS 377 B Nejadnik and L Cheskin 384 GERIATRIC NUTRITION see OLDER PEOPLE: Physiological Changes; Nutritional Requirements; Nutrition-Related Problems; Nutritional Management of Geriatric Patients GLUCOSE Chemistry and Dietary Sources D J A Jenkins, R de Souza, L S A Augustin and C W C Kendall Metabolism and Maintenance... Bloomberg School of Public Health Baltimore, MD, USA L S A Augustin University of Toronto Toronto, ON, Canada L H Allen University of California at Davis Davis, CA, USA D J Baer US Department of Agriculture Beltsville, MD, USA D Anderson University of Bradford Bradford, UK A Baqui Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Baltimore, MD, USA J J B Anderson University of North Carolina Chapel Hill,... CT, USA ´ J Gomez-Ambrosi Universidad de Navarra Pamplona, Spain J Freitas Tufts University Boston, MA, USA J M Graham University of California at Davis Davis, CA, USA R E Frisch Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies Cambridge, MA, USA J Gray Guildford, UK G Frost Imperial College at Hammersmith Hospital London, UK ¨ G Fruhbeck Universidad de Navarra Pamplona, Spain D Gallagher Columbia . London New York Oxford Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo Elsevier Ltd., The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK ª. Health Baltimore, MD, USA L H Allen University of California at Davis Davis, CA, USA D Anderson University of Bradford Bradford, UK J J B Anderson University of North