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Edited by Acheampong Yaw Amoateng & Tim B Heaton
Families and households in
post-apartheid South Africa:
Socio-demographic perspectives
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Published by HSRC Press
Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa
www.hsrcpress.ac.za
First published 2007
ISBN 978-0-7969-2190-1
© 2007 Human Sciences Research Council
Copy-edited by Vaun Cornell
Typeset by Robin Taylor
Cover design by comPress
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Tables and figures iv
Preface vii
Acronyms and abbreviations ix
Chapter1
Social and economic context of families and households in South Africa 1
Acheampong Yaw Amoateng & Linda M Richter
Chapter2
Towards a conceptual framework for families and households 27
Acheampong Yaw Amoateng
Chapter3
Living arrangements in South Africa 43
Acheampong Yaw Amoateng, Tim B Heaton & Ishmael Kalule-Sabiti
Chapter4
The economic well-being of the family: Households’ access to resources in
South Africa, 1995–2003 61
Daniela Casale & Chris Desmond
Chapter5
Family formation and dissolution patterns 89
Ishmael Kalule-Sabiti, Martin Palamuleni, Monde Makiwane &
Acheampong Yaw Amoateng
Chapter6
Fertility and childbearing in South Africa 113
Martin Palamuleni, Ishmael Kalule-Sabiti & Monde Makiwane
Chapter7
Children’s household work as a contribution to the well-being of the family
and household 135
Sharmla Rama & Linda M Richter
Chapter8
The family context for racial differences in child mortality in South Africa 171
Tim B Heaton & Acheampong Yaw Amoateng
Contributors 188
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©HSRC 2007
Tables
Table 3.1 Distribution of household types by race of head in rural and urban areas
52
Table 3.2 Percentage distribution of husbands living apart from their spouses by
race 53
Table 4.1 Households’ main source of income (percentage of households), 2002 63
Table 4.2 Household income from employment, 1995–2003 66
Table 4.3 Percentage of households with a member receiving a private pension 69
Table 4.4 Percentage of households with a member receiving a welfare grant 69
Table 4.5 Percentage of households receiving remittances and average remittance
value 70
Table 4.6 Proportion of households in nominal total monthly expenditure
categories 72
Table 4.7 Percentage of households with access to and making use of various services,
1995 76
Table 4.8 Percentage of households whose main dwelling is an informal structure 77
Table 4.9 Percentage of households using mains electricity for lighting 79
Table 4.10 Percentage of households using mains electricity for cooking 80
Table 4.11 Percentage of households with access to a tap in the household or yard,
or a public tap, as their main source of water 82
Table 4.12 The distribution of access to different toilet types 84
Table 5.1 Singulate mean age at first marriage by province and race, 1996 and
2001 96
Table 5.2 Age at first marriage by selected background variables, all women 1998 98
Table 5.3 Percentage distribution of timing of first birth in relation to first marriage by
race of respondent, all women 1998 99
Table 5.4 Percentage distribution of the population by current age and marital status,
South Africa 2001 101
Table 5.5a Percentage single males by age group and province, South Africa 2001 102
Table 5.5b Percentage single females by age group and province, South Africa
2001 102
Table 5.6 Proportions married within each five-year age group by race 105
Table 5.7 Logistic regression analysis of marriage patterns 106
Table 6.1 Use-effectiveness of different contraceptive methods 120
Table 6.2 Mean number of children ever born to women by age and selected
socio-economic factors, South Africa, 1998 122
Table 6.3 Indices of proximate determinants of fertility by population group,
South Africa 1998 124
Table 7.1 Derived household income by households with children, and children by
derived income of household 139
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©HSRC 2007
Table 7.2 Distribution of children by background characteristics (weighted and
unweighted) 148
Table 7.3 Diary of main activities for two girls aged 10, residing in an area categorised
as other rural 150
Table 7.4 Total and mean time children spend on cooking-related activities, by age
and gender (unweighted) 153
Table 7.5 Total and mean time children spend on the cleaning and upkeep of the
dwelling, by age and gender (unweighted) 153
Table 7.6 Total and mean time children spend on the care of textiles, by age and
gender (unweighted) 154
Table 7.7 Total and mean time children spend on the combined household activities,
by age and gender (unweighted) 155
Table 7.8 Total and mean time children spend on the collection of fuel sources for
the household, by age and gender (unweighted) 156
Table 7.9 Total and mean time children spend on the collection of fuel sources for
the household, by gender and locale (unweighted) 157
Table 7.10 Total and mean time children spend on the collection of water for the
household, by gender and age (unweighted) 158
Table 7.11 Total and mean time children spend on the collection of water for the
household, by locale (unweighted) 158
Table 7.12 Total and mean time children spend on chopping wood, lighting fires and
heating water for the household, by gender and age (unweighted and
unweighted) 160
Table 7.13 Total and mean time spent by children on caring for household and
non-household members (unweighted and weighted) 161
Table 7.14 Total and mean time children spend on shopping for the household,
by gender and age (unweighted) 162
Table 7.15 Activities engaged in by one 13-year-old girl for the diary day,
Tuesday 163
Table 8.1 Cox regression models predicting child mortality: demographic and
socio-economic conditions 178
Table 8.2 Cox regression models predicting child mortality in South Africa:
reproduction and health 181
Table 8.3 Cox regression models of child mortality: summary model 182
Figures
Figure 3.1 Distribution of household types in South Africa, 1996 and 2001
48
Figure 3.2a Distribution of household type by race of head 49
Figure 3.2b Distribution of household type by race of head 49
Figure 3.3 Education and complex household living by race 50
Figure 3.4 Education and household type 54
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Figure 3.5 Rural/urban residence and household type 55
Figure 5.1 Percentage of males never married by population group, South Africa
2001 103
Figure 5.2 Percentage of females never married by population group, South Africa
2001 103
Figure 5.3 Percentage of males married, by population group, South Africa 2001 104
Figure 5.4 Percentage of females married, by population group, South Africa 2001 104
Figure 5.5 Race differences in marriage 106
Figure 6.1 Linkages between fertility and the socio-economic and cultural system
through biosocial and proximate determinates 115
Figure 6.2 Impact of proximate determinants on fertility 121
Figure 6.3 Proximate determinants of fertility in South Africa by population group 125
Figure 8.1 Child survival by race group 174
Figure 8.2 Maternal education by race/ethnicity 183
Figure 8.3 Contraceptive use by race/ethnicity 183
Figure 8.4 Utilisation of pre- and post-natal healthcare by race/ethnicity 184
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Because of the devastating effect apartheid-induced policies such as migratory labour,
influx control, the Immorality Act and so on, had on families and communities before
the democratic transition in 1994, concerns about families and their well-being have
come to occupy centre stage in the post-transition period both by policy-makers and
the general public. One indication of this increasing concern about families and their
social and economic circumstances is the rapid rate at which social and economic
data on families and the households they occupy are becoming available for the
purpose of planning to meet their needs.
The idea for the present publication originated in 2002 when I joined the Human
Sciences Research Council (HSRC) from the University of the Western Cape. In this
new position the Executive Director, Professor Linda Richter put me in charge of an
in-house project called the Strengthening Families Project. Essentially, this project
involved secondary and descriptive analyses of the various survey and census data
that had proliferated in the country in the immediate post-transition period. Even
though before 1994 sociologists and other social scientists had documented the
nature of changes in families and households in the country, limitations of such
studies in terms of coverage and scope had made works like the present monograph
imperative. In other words, the idea was to take advantage of the myriad large-scale,
quantitative socio-economic data sets that were increasingly becoming available to
the South African public to describe the changes that families and households were
experiencing as a result of the political, economic, and social transformations that
were engulfing the broader society. Moreover, because of the multifaceted nature of
domestic organisation, such a study was to be multidisciplinary.
The idea to write the monograph was communicated to social science colleagues
both in and outside the HSRC, many of whom readily welcomed the challenge and
agreed to attend a workshop in the Pretoria offices of the HSRC in November 2003,
to discuss issues such as chapter outlines, data sources and timelines.
At the workshop, consensus was reached on important issues. Firstly, we agreed
to use secondary data sources in the form of the two censuses and sample surveys
(the October Household series, the South African Demographic and Health Survey,
the General Household Survey series and so on). Secondly, we agreed that the
analyses for the respective chapters would be essentially descriptive to render the
study accessible to both undergraduate and postgraduate students in the family field,
academic researchers, policy-makers and the lay public at large.
The present publication has been a protracted and combined effort of patient and
diligent authors, critical readers, and a supportive and wise publisher. Thus, it is
expected that some of the information in the study may be out of date, especially
given the rapidity with which quantitative socio-economic data are being generated in
the country. Even though alteration of established patterns of social interaction takes
time, if the need to update the information contained in this study serves as a basis
for further works of this nature, then our initial purpose in producing the monograph
would have been served. The development and completion of this publication was
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©HSRC 2007
due to the indefatigable efforts of friends and colleagues. First, we would like to
thank the Executive Director of the Child, Youth, Family and Social Development
Research Programme (CYFSD) of the HSRC, Professor Linda Richter, who gave me
carte blanche in my research and the support for this work in particular. The authors
of this monograph deserve a very special thank you for their thoughtful and well-
written contributions. But for their enthusiastic timely revisions, it would have been
impossible to complete the project. Over the years, we have been blessed with
various interns and research assistants in the Cape Town office of CYFSD who all
contributed enormously to the development of this publication: Ms Thandika Gana,
Ms Mihloti Mushwana, and Mr Anthony Burns. Finally, we would like to thank the
staff at the HSRC Press, for their diligence.
Acheampong Yaw Amoateng
Human Sciences Research Council, Cape Town
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©HSRC 2007
CPR contraceptive prevalence rate
CRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
DHS Demographic and Health Survey
EA enumerated area
GHS General Household Survey
IES Income and Expenditure Survey
IMR infant mortality rate
LFS Labour Force Survey
OHS October Household Survey
PSU primary sampling unit
SADHS South African Demographic and Health Survey
SAYP Survey of Activities of Young People
SMAM singulate mean ages at marriage
SNA System of National Accounts
Stats SA Statistics South Africa
TMFR total marital fertility rate
TN total natural fertility rate
TF total fecundity rate
TFR total fertility rate
TUS Time Use Survey
VIP ventilated pit latrine
Note: Names of South African population groups
During the apartheid regime, legislation divided the South African populace into
four distinct population groups based on racial classification. Although the notion of
population groups is now legal history, it is not always possible to gauge the effects
of past discriminatory practices, and the progress of policies designed to eradicate
them, without reference to it. For this reason, the HSRC continues to use the terms
black/African, coloured, white or Indian/Asian people where it is pertinent to the
analysis of data.
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[...]... constraint was removed largely by African mothers’ ready accessibility to childcare through kin, including politically subordinate, unpaid extended kin.5 Against this broad background of the political economy of South African society during the colonial and apartheid eras, how were families and households depicted by family scholarship? Pre-1994 family scholarship in South Africa In the 1950s and 1960s,... international political-economic system led to South Africa becoming a signatory to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and also joining the Southern African Development Community in 1994 (Economic Commission for Africa 2000) 9 With a per capita GNP of $3 160 South Africa is classified in the 1999 World Bank Tables as a middle-income developing country and ranked 86th of 206 countries (Jenkins... survival, and family well-being are occurring were largely ignored In contemplating this work, we had two main types of audience in mind The first audience is policy-makers As a study of families and households in contemporary South Africa, it was intended to provide an assessment of the performance of society with regard to the welfare of the population To the extent that most people live in families and households, ... life’ So, against this background of social, cultural, economic and political changes that have been taking place in the immediate period before and after the democratic transition, what is the state of families and households in the society? 11 ©HSRC 2007 Family in post-transition scholarship in South Africa As the above review of family scholarship in South Africa in the pre-transition period and elsewhere... housekeeping but which live in the same dwelling are counted as one household in the dwelling unit definition (1995: 116) In South Africa, the official statistical agency, Statistics South Africa, uses the UN’s definition by defining as a household as consisting of: a person, or a group of persons, who occupy a common dwelling [or part of it] for at least four days a week and who provide themselves jointly... Deaton 1998), and is used to purchase provisions within households, including the education of grandchildren.13 Even though the information available on the social and economic impact of HIV/ AIDS on families and children in South Africa is very scanty, the epidemic represents another major challenge to the state, given the alarming rate at which individuals are infected According to Shisana and Simbayi... Thus, the principal aim of the present study is to describe the social, economic and political changes that have taken place in South Africa since the political transition in 1994 and how such changes help us to understand family and household structures in the society It is worthy of note that one of the interesting developments in the country since the democratic transition is the increasing availability... agriculture and utilities sectors showed job attrition of 3.3 per cent and 6.6 per cent respectively In tandem with this rise in unemployment has been a concomitant rise in inequality between the top 10 per cent and the bottom 20 per cent The state As in the economic domain, significant strides have been made in the political and social domains since the democratic transition in South Africa Apartheid... assessing the performance of policy-makers with regard to the population’s welfare by examining not only the rate at which families and households are being formed, but also the social and material resources and costs of families and households of different types in the population This is especially so for those groups and communities that bore the brunt of apartheid’s social engineering policies in the... married women join the labour force in South Africa South African Journal of Sociology 20(3): 143–151 Mampanya-Serpell N (2000) HIV/AIDS and food and nutrition security Available at http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/fpreview/pv07/pv07ch02.pdf Marwick M (1978) Household composition and marriage in a Witwatersrand African township In Argyle & W Preston W (Eds) Social systems and tradition in Southern Africa Cape . www.hsrcpress.ac.za
Tables and figures iv
Preface vii
Acronyms and abbreviations ix
Chapter1
Social and economic context of families and households in South Africa 1
Acheampong. and marital status,
South Africa 2001 101
Table 5.5a Percentage single males by age group and province, South Africa 2001 102
Table 5.5b Percentage single
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