Thông tin tài liệu
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Communication and
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Sector
Information Sector
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United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Educational, Scientific and
C
ultural
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rganization
Cultural Organization
UNESCO
Publishing
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
UNESCO
Publishing
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
UNESCO
Publishing
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
The Changing Legal and Regulatory
Ecology Shaping the Internet
FREEDOM OF CONNECTION
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
William H. Dutton • Anna Dopatka • Michael Hills • Ginette Law • Victoria Nash
Global survey on internet privacy and freedom of expression
Toby Mendel • Andrew Puddephatt • Ben Wagner • Dixie Hawtin • Natalia Torres
internet privacy and
freedom of expression
UNESCO SERIES ON INTERNET FREEDOM
UNESCO SERIES ON INTERNET FREEDOM
Communication and Information Sector
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
U
NESCO, as enshrined in its Constitution, promotes the “free ow
of ideas by word and image”, and has committed itself to enabling
a free, open and accessible Internet space as part of promoting
comprehensive freedom of expression online and ofine. We hope that this
publication will provide UNESCO Member States and other stakeholders,
national and international, with a useful reference tool. It is our wish that this
publication will contribute to bringing stakeholders together for informed
debate on approaches that are conducive to privacy protection without
compromising freedom of expression. In the coming years, UNESCO will
specically seek to disseminate information about good practices and
international collaboration concerning the points of intersection between
freedom of expression and privacy. Research on safeguarding the principle
of freedom of expression in Internet policy across a range of issues will
continue to be part of UNESCO’s normative mandate and technical advice
to stakeholders.
Jānis Kārkliņš
Assistant Director-General for Communication and Information, UNESCO
Toby Mendel • Andrew Puddephatt • Ben Wagner • Dixie Hawtin • Natalia Torres
Toby Mendel • Andrew Puddephatt • Ben Wagner • Dixie Hawtin • Natalia Torres
INTERNET PRIVACY AND
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
UNESCO SEriES ON iNtErNEt FrEEdOm
Authors
•
AndrewPuddephatt,Director,GlobalPartners&Associates
• TobyMendel,ExecutiveDirector,CentreforLawandDemocracy
• BenWagner,Researcher,EuropeanUniversityInstitute
• DixieHawtin,ProjectManager,GlobalPartners&Associates
• NataliaTorres,Researcher,CenterforStudiesonFreedomofExpressionandAccess
toInformation(CELE)oftheUniversityofPalermo,Argentina
Advisory Board
•
EduardoBertoni,Director,CenterforStudiesonFreedomofExpressionandAccess
toInformation(CELE),UniversityofPalermo,Argentina
• GamalEid,Director,ArabicNetworkforHumanRightsInformation,Egypt
• SinfahTunsarawuth,Independentmedialawyer,Thailand
• SunilAbraham,DirectorofCentrefortheInternetandSociety,India
• GraceGithaiga,IndependentresearcherandKictanet,Kenya
• JoeMcNamee,AdvocacyCoordinator,EuropeanDigitalRights
• Katitza Rodriguez, International Rights Director, Electronic Frontier Foundation,
UnitedStatesofAmerica
• Cynthia Wong, Attorney, Center for Democracy and Technology, United States of
America
With special thanks to the following who kindly agreed to be interviewed for this publication:
GuoLiang,YangWang,CerenUnal,AngPengHwa,ErickIriarteAhon,KatitzaRodriguez,
KarenReilly,AliG.Ravi,MoezChackchouk,PrimaveradeFilippi,PeterParycek,Robert
Bodle, SameerPadania, Peter Bradwell,UlrikeHöppner,EduardoBertoni,Hong Xue,
Monique Fanjoy, Abu Bakar Munir, Joe McNamee, Amr Gharbeia, Jamie Horsley,
NepomucenoMalaluan,CynthiaM.Wong,SinfahTunsarawuth,PrimOtvanDaalen,Sunil
Abraham,andanumberofanonymousformeremployeesoflargetechnologycompanies.
Publishedin2012by
theUnitedNationsEducational,
ScienticandCulturalOrganization
7,placedeFontenoy,75352Paris07SP,France
©UNESCO2012
Allrightsreserved
ISBN978-92-3-104241-6
Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialthroughoutthispublicationdonotimplythe
expressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartofUNESCOconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,
territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.
Theideasandopinionsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthors;theyarenotnecessarily
thoseofUNESCOanddonotcommittheOrganization.
TypesetandprintedbyUNESCO
ThispublicationwasrstprintedthankstothecontributionoftheSwedishInternationalDevelopment
CooperationAgency(Sida)
Printed in France
CONTENTS
FOREWORD 5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7
1. INTRODUCTION 9
1.1 How has the Internet changed the nature of threats to privacy?
What are the main threats in the digital age? 12
1.1.1 New types of personal information 14
1.1.2 Collection and location of personal information 14
1.1.3 New capacities for private actors to analyse personal information 15
1.1.4 New capacities for governments to analyse personal information 17
1.1.5 New opportunities for commercial use of personal data 19
2. GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
FOR PRIVACY PROTECTION ON THE INTERNET 22
2.1 Key issues 22
2.1.1 Challenges and opportunities for maintaining control over personal data online 22
2.1.2 Initiatives to protect privacy and anonymity online 24
2.1.3 The roles and responsibilities of service providers and intermediaries 26
2.2.1 Cloud computing 29
2.2.2 Search engines 31
2.2.3 Social networks 33
2.3 Threats posed by different mechanisms of surveillance and data collection 39
2.3.3 Deep packet inspection (DPI) 42
2.3.4 Pervasive geo-location technology: an emerging threat to Internet privacy 44
2.3.5 Data processing and facial recognition 45
2.3.6 Internet surveillance technology 47
3. THE GLOBAL LEGAL AND REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT
3.1 International protection for privacy and personal data 52
3.1.1 Privacy 52
3.1.2 Data protection 63
3.2 National protection for privacy 74
3.2.1 China 74
3.2.2 India 78
3.2.4 France 81
3.2.5 Argentina 84
3.2.6 Mexico 85
3.2.7 United States of America 87
3.2.9 South Africa 91
3.3 Corporate initiatives 92
AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 95
4.1 The impact of poor protection for privacy on freedom of expression 95
4.2 Tensions between freedom of expression and privacy 97
4.2.1 The public interest 98
5.2 Corporate policy and practice 112
5.3 Awareness raising 115
6. USEFUL RESOURCES 117
6.1 General 117
6.3 Arab states 121
6.5 Latin America and the Caribbean 124
6.6 Europe and North America 125
6.7 Gender 127
BIBLIOGRAPHY 129
INTERVIEWS 138
APPENDIX 2: LIST OF FIGURES AND BOXES 142
5
FOREWORD
UNESCO,asenshrinedinitsConstitution,promotesthe“freeowofideasbywordand
image”,andhascommitteditselftoenablingafree,openandaccessibleInternetspace
aspartofpromotingcomprehensivefreedomofexpressiononlineandofine.
Asdemonstratedby UNESCO’s2011publicationFreedom of Expression: Freedom of
Connection, the Changing Legal and Regulatory Ecology Shaping the Internet,freedom
is not the inevitable by-product of technical change, and it must be safeguarded by
appropriatelegalandregulatorymeasures.Atatimeofrapidchange,wearefullyaware
thatfreedomofexpressiononInternetiscomplex,andthatthismeansworkingtond
a balancebetween this rightand other, sometimes conicting,imperatives – suchas
nationalsecurity,protectionofauthors’rights,andrespectforprivacy.
UNESCO approaches these issues within the framework of the follow-up process to
the World Summit of Information Society and our activities in relation to the Internet
GovernanceForum.
WeknowwellthatwenowliveinaworldwithtwobillionInternetusersandvebillion
mobilephoneusers,whoarepostingmillionsofpublicblogs,tweets,images,podcasts,
aswellastheirpersonalinformationondailybasis.
Inthiscontext,UNESCOhasrecognisedthatprivacy,asafundamentalright,impactson
otherrightsandfreedoms,includingfreedomofexpression,associationandbelief.The
challengeisthatmechanismstoprotectonlineprivacycansometimesbeusedtoinfringe
legitimatefreedomofexpressionin generalandthe democraticrolesofjournalismin
particular. Anadditionalchallenge inbalancing these rightson theInternetlies in the
discrepancyofthelegalframeworksbetweenonlineandoff-lineterritories,aswellas
nationalandinternationaljurisdictions.
Withallthisinmind,thispublicationseekstoidentifytherelationshipbetweenfreedom
ofexpressionandInternetprivacy,assessingwheretheysupportorcompetewitheach
other in different circumstances. The publication maps out the issues in the current
regulatorylandscapeofInternetprivacyfromtheviewpointoffreedomofexpression.It
providesanoverviewoflegalprotection,self-regulatoryguidelines,normativechallenges,
andcasestudiesrelatingtothetopic.
Providing up-to-date and sharp information on emerging issues relevant to both
developedanddevelopingcountries,wehopethatthispublicationwillprovideUNESCO
MemberStatesandotherstakeholders,nationalandinternational,withausefulreference
tool.Multiplestakeholders,preferablyindialogue,canusethispublicationintheirown
spheres of operation, adapting where appropriate from the range of experiences as
recordedinthesepages.Thepublicationalsosuppliesadditionalsourcesofreferencefor
interestedreaderstousetofurtherinvestigateeachofthesubjectshighlighted.
Itisourwishthatthispublication willcontributetobringingstakeholderstogetherfor
informed debate on approaches that are conducive to privacy protection without
compromising freedom of expression. In the coming years, UNESCO will specically
6
seek to disseminate information about good practices and international collaboration
concerning the points of intersection between freedom of expression and privacy.
ResearchonsafeguardingtheprincipleoffreedomofexpressioninInternetpolicyacross
arangeofissueswillcontinuetobepartofUNESCO’snormativemandateandtechnical
advicetostakeholders.
Jānis Kārkliņš
Assistant Director-General
for Communication and Information
UNESCO
7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Privacyisafundamentalright,eventhoughitisdifculttodeneexactlywhatthatright
entails.Privacycanberegardedas havinga dualaspect –it isconcernedwithwhat
informationorsideofourliveswecankeepprivate;andalsowiththewaysinwhichthird
partiesdealwiththeinformationthattheyhold–whetheritissafeguarded,shared,who
hasaccessandunderwhatconditions.
Understandingsofprivacyhavelongbeenshapedbythetechnologies available,with
earlyconcernsaboutprivacysurfacingwithnewspapersinthenineteenthcentury.So
theInternet,inturn,inevitablyreshapeswhatweunderstandprivacytobeinthemodern
world.
Therighttoprivacyunderpinsotherrightsandfreedoms,includingfreedomofexpression,
associationand belief.Theabilitytocommunicateanonymouslywithoutgovernments
knowingouridentity,forinstance,hashistoricallyplayedanimportantroleinsafeguarding
free expression and strengthening political accountability, with people more likely to
speakoutonissuesofpublicinterestiftheycandosowithoutfearofreprisal.Atthe
sametime,therighttoprivacycanalsocompetewiththerighttofreedomofexpression,
andinpracticea balancebetweentheserights iscalledfor.Strikingthis balanceisa
delicatetask,andnotonethatcaneasilybeanticipatedinadvance.Forthisreasonithas
longbeenaconcernofthecourtstomanagethisrelationship.
TheInternetpresents signicantnew challengesfor protectingtheright toprivacy.In
broadterms,theInternet:
• Enablesthecollectionofnewtypesofpersonalinformation–technologicaladvances
haveresultedintoolsforcollectingandunderstandingtypesofinformationwhichin
thepastwouldhavebeenimpossibleorunfeasible.
• Facilitates the collection and location of personal information – each computer,
mobilephoneorotherdeviceattachedtotheInternethasauniqueIPaddress,which
providesuniqueidentierforeverydeviceandwhichmeansinturnthattheycanbe
traced.Theabilitytolocateanydevicecreatessignicantnewprivacychallenges.
• Creates new capacities for government and private actors to analyse personal
information.Increasedcomputingpowermeansthatvastquantitiesofinformation,
once collected,can be cheaplyandefciently stored,consolidated and analysed.
Technological advances allow databases of information to be connected together
allowingevengreaterquantitiesofdatatobeprocessed.
• Createsnewopportunitiesforcommercialuseofpersonaldata.Manyoftheservices
providedbythesecompaniesarefreeandtheirbusinessmodelsrelyoncollecting
userinformationandusingitformarketingpurposes.
• CreatesnewchallengesforregulationgiventhetransnationalnatureoftheInternet.
Despitetheemergenceofinternationalbestpracticestandardsfordataprotection,
thereisstillmuchprogresstobemadetowardstheharmonisationofnationallaws.
Online companies still nd it hard to navigate the complex patchworkofnational
8
privacy laws when operating international Internet services that span national
boundaries,withlegalambiguityunderminingprivacyprotection.
ArangeofthreatstoprivacywhichhavedevelopedthroughtheInternetareconsideredin
moredetailinSection2ofthepaper.Thefollowingissuesareexplored:
(1) Theopportunitiesandchallengesformaintainingcontroloverpersonaldataonline.
(2) Arangeofinitiativestoprotectprivacyandanonymityonline.
(3) Therolesandresponsibilitiesofserviceprovidersandintermediaries.
(4) Thespecicchallengesposedbydifferentapplications,communicationsplatforms
and businessmodelsincluding cloud computing,searchengines,social networks
andotherdifferentdevices.
(5) Theproblemsposedbye-governmentandothergovernmentapproaches.
(6) Thethreatsposedbydifferentmechanismsofsurveillanceanddatacollectionincluding:
Unique Identiers; Cookies (and other associated forms of user identication);
Adware;SpywareandMalwareconductcovertdataloggingandsurveillance;Deep
packetinspection(DPI);anddataprocessingandfacialrecognitionandsurveillance
technology.
International legalstandardsonprivacy,andresponsestotheseemergingissues,are
exploredinSection3.Thesectionsetsouttheexplicitunderstandingsandprotections
fortherighttoprivacyunderinternationalhumanrightslaw.Thesectionthenanalyses
keylegislationandregulatoryframeworksthatimpactontheprotectionofprivacyrights
onlineattheregionalandnationallevelincountriesacrosstheworld;andfurthermore
analysesthestrengthsandweaknessesofself-regulationasaprivacyprotectiontool–
whetheritbeusedasacentralmechanism,orsupplementarytolegalprotections.
Therightstoprivacyandfreedomofexpressionrelatetoeachotherincomplexways
– Section 4 explores these intersections in greater detail. In some ways privacy is a
necessarypreconditionforfreedomofexpression–thisisespeciallytrueincountries
whereitmaybedangeroustodiscusscertainissues(suchaspolitics,religionorsexuality)
openly.Howevertherearealsosignicanttensionsbetweenthetworights,forexample
whereanewspaperwishestopublishprivatedetailsaboutaleadingpolitician,perhaps
becausethenewspaperbelievesthisisinthepublicinterest.Thesetensionshavecome
intofargreaterprominencewiththemassivechangesinfreedomofexpressionbrought
aboutbytheInternetandotherdigitalcommunicationssystems.
The paper explores international law and the practice of other States, in terms of
respecting privacy on the Internet, taking into account potential conicts with other
rights,inparticularfreedomofexpression.Section5containsourrecommendationsto
statesandcorporationsforbetterpracticebasedonourresearchandconsultations.The
recommendationscover: legal andregulatorymeasures(constitutionalmeasures,civil
lawprotection,criminallawprotection,dataprotectionsystems),corporatepolicyand
practiceandawarenessraising.
Finally,Section6providesanoverviewofliterature,backgroundmaterialandtoolson
internationalandnationalpolicyandpracticeonprivacyandfreedomofexpressionon
theInternet.Thissectionisintendedasaresourceforreaderswhowishtoaccessfurther
instruments,toolsandinformation.
9
1. INTRODUCTION
Theneed forprivacyis deep-rootedin humanbeings.In itsessentialform, privacyis
basedonthenotionofpersonalintegrityanddignity.However,thisisalsohardtodene
with any agreedprecision – indifferent contexts it embraces the right to freedom of
thoughtandconscience,therighttobealone,therighttocontrolone’sownbody,the
righttoprotectyourreputation,therighttoafamilylife,therighttoasexualityofyourown
denition.Inadditionthesemeaningsvaryfromcontexttocontext.Despiteitsubiquity
thereisnoonedenitionofprivacythatisuniversallyunderstoodinthesameway.Privacy
inthemodernworldhastwodimensions–rstly,issuestodowiththeidentityofaperson
andsecondly,thewaytheirpersonalinformationishandled.
Understandingsofprivacyhavelongbeenshapedbyavailabletechnologies.Atthemost
obviouslevelprivacyinvolvesrestrictinginvasionsofphysicalspace,andtheprotection
of home and personal possessions, which is why early privacy protections focused
upon the inviolability of the home and family life. Concerns about controlling what
informationisknownaboutapersoncamewithcommunicationtechnologies.Concerns
abouttheerosionofprivacyarenotnew–infact,itmightbearguedtheyarefeatureof
thetwentiethcentury.WarrenandBrandeis’ seminalpaper on“TheRight toPrivacy”
in 1890, draftedata time when newspapers were printing pictures of peopleforthe
rsttime,denedtherightasthe“righttobeleftalone”.Theirdenition–drivenbyan
emergingtechnologyasisoftenthecasewithprivacy–wasconcernedwithprotecting
the“inviolatepersonality”andencompassingsuchvaluesasindividualdignity,personal
autonomyandindependence.
1
Thegrowthofmodernmassmediaandtheadvertising
industry’sfocusonunderstandingconsumers’wantsledMyronBrentontoarguethatwe
arelivinginthe“ageofthegoldshbowl”,whereprivatelivesaremadepublicproperty
bythemanipulationandexchangeofpersonaldata.
2
Thereisatensionbetweentherighttofreedomofexpression–inparticularthemedia’s
exerciseoftheright–andtherighttoprivacy.Freedomofexpression,whetherexercised
byindividualsorbythemedia,andtheabilitytoexerciseit,isanessentialfeatureofany
open,liberalanddemocraticsociety.Itisonlythroughexercisingfreeexpressionthat
societies cansustainreal democraticaccountability.Howeverthe right tofreedom of
expressionisnotunlimitedanditcanbequaliedtoprotecttherightsandfreedomsof
others.Itisadelicatebalancetodecidewheretheboundarybetweenfreeexpression
andprivacyliesbutonethecourtsareusedtonegotiating.
Latterly,privacywasalsodenedastherightofpeopletodeterminewhen,howandto
whatextentinformationabout themiscommunicatedto others
3
asaresponseto the
growingprocessingpowerofcomputers.Privacy,accordingtoWestin“istheclaimof
individuals,groups,orinstitutionstodetermineforthemselveswhen,how,andtowhat
extentinformationaboutthemiscommunicatedtoothers [Itis]thedesireofpeopleto
1 Bloustein, E. (1964) Privacy as an aspect of human dignity: an answer to Dean Prosser 39 NYU L
Rev 962
2 Brenton, M (1964) The Privacy Invaders
3 Westin AF (1967) Privacy and Freedom New York: Atheneum, page 7
[...]... experts and civil society alike that a substantial expansion in the use of strong encryption technologies among Internet users would have a highly positive impact on privacy and anonymity on the Internet (III) Corporate initiatives promoting freedom of expression and privacy: the Global Network Initiative Separately from citizen’s initiatives, one of the most prominent self-regulatory initiatives among Internet. .. transnational environment is a major challenge for policy makers In broad terms, the Internet: • Enables the collection of new types of personal information • Facilitates (and economically demands) the collection and location of personal information • Creates new capacities for government and private actors to analyse personal information • Creates new opportunities for commercial use of personal data... protections for users 2.2.4 Mobile phones, smartphones and the mobile Internet The explosion of the use of the mobile Internet in the 21st century has contributed to many of the existing concerns about privacy and data protection on mobile phone networks In comparison with fixed line communications, mobile communications have several attributes which have a particularly negative effect on privacy These... articulated in terms of its instrumentality Democracy and liberty rely on individuals having a certain degree of privacy The right to privacy underpins many human rights, the right to freedom of association, freedom of belief and freedom of expression being particularly significant examples As one writer puts it “in one sense, all human rights are aspects of the right to privacy ,13 in that if privacy is protected... public figures and their rights to control their personal data Fifth, the problematic role of public authorities’ surveillance of the Internet remains difficult Lastly, the appropriateness of anonymity and pseudonymity online represent an important component in the overall debate on privacy protection on the Internet While all of these questions are intimately linked to information privacy, they also... constitutional rights to privacy, as they do in Canada, France, Germany, 4 Ibid 5 Beresford A and Stajano F (2003) Location Privacy in Pervasive Computing, IEEE Communications Society 6 Privacy International, (2006) Privacy and Human Rights 2006: An International Survey of Privacy Laws and Developments 11 Japan, and India.7 Some census agencies have privacy policies to ensure the protection of personal... The digitalisation of information and expectation of free access makes traditional forms of income generation more complex on the Internet Successful companies therefore consciously “mine” personal data in order to target advertising at users There is therefore a direct and powerful economic incentive to secure, retain and share personal data This also applies to non -Internet electronic activity Computerised... Challenges and opportunities for maintaining control over personal data online “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.” – Article 12, Universal Declaration of Human Right Protection of privacy has long been... clicking ‘Accept’ and consenting to providing their data without spending any meaningful amount of time reading the terms of service or privacy policy of the respective site The tension between rights and actual control capacity of Internet users over their personal data has led to extensive debates about privacy on the Internet These debates typically focus on the lack of user control and empowerment... agreement, diffusion of personal data is such that it may quickly move beyond the capacity of any one actor to control (see inset below for further details) Fourth, user rights to control their personal data may conflict with other rights, such as the right of another individual to freedom of expression As is discussed in the inset below about Visual Privacy and Edison Chen, there are frequent conflicts between . FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION 95
4.1 The impact of poor protection for privacy on freedom of expression 95
4.2 Tensions between freedom of expression and privacy 97
4.2.1. and regulatorymeasures(constitutionalmeasures,civil
lawprotection,criminallawprotection,dataprotectionsystems),corporatepolicy and
practice and awarenessraising.
Finally,Section6providesanoverview of literature,backgroundmaterial and tools on
international and nationalpolicy and practice on privacy and freedom of expression on
the Internet. Thissectionisintendedasaresourceforreaderswhowishtoaccessfurther
instruments,tools and information.
9
1.
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