Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Poverty-eradication and Sustainable Development Michael Aliber HSRC Publishers Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Integrated Rural and Regional Development Research Programme, Occasional Paper Series Editor: Mike de Klerk (Executive Director: Integrated Rural and Regional Development, Human Sciences Research Council) Published by the Human Sciences Research Council Publishers Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa © Human Sciences Research Council First published 2002 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers ISSN 1684-5250 Produced by comPress Printed by Lithotech Africmail Distributed in South Africa by Blue Weaver Marketing and Distribution, P.O Box 30370, Tokai, Cape Town, South Africa, 7966 Tel/Fax: (021) 701-7302, email: blueweav@mweb.co.za Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Preface The Human Sciences Research Council publishes a number of Occasional Papers series These are designed to be quick, convenient vehicles for making timely contributions to debates, disseminating interim research findings and otherwise engaging with the broader research community Publications in the various series are, in general, work-in-progress which may develop into journal articles, chapters in books or other final products Authors invite comments and suggestions from readers Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za About the Author Michael Aliber joined the HSRC in February 2002 as a Chief Research Specialist in the Integrated Rural and Regional Development Programme Since joining the HSRC, Dr Aliber has completed a research project on the willing-buyer/willingseller approach to land redistribution, contributed to a study on the link between HIV/AIDS and land tenure in KwaZuluNatal, and participated in a project to review Botswana’s land policy From March 2001 until January 2002, Dr Aliber was an independent consultant, doing projects on land reform in Uganda, poverty reduction and sustainable development in South Africa, micro-finance in West Africa, East Africa and Asia, and chronic poverty in South Africa Previously, Dr Aliber was a technical assistant in the Department of Land Affairs in Pretoria focusing on land redistribution policy and systems Dr Aliber has a M.A in Public Policy and a Ph.D in Agricultural and Applied Economics Comments and suggestions on this paper can be emailed to MAliber@hsrc.ac.za Acknowledgement This paper evolved from a study conducted on behalf of the Department of Environment and Tourism in 2001 The author would like to thank the Department for permission to use materials previously covered in that study The views expressed here are not necessarily those of the Department of Environment and Tourism or the HSRC Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Poverty-eradication and Sustainable Development Introduction This paper examines South Africa’s record since 1992 in eradicating poverty within a sustainable development framework as spelt out in Agenda 21, the document adopted in that year by the Earth summit in Rio de Janeiro It begins by presenting a brief snapshot of poverty in South Africa, the better to appreciate the magnitude of the challenge of poverty eradication The next section presents an analytical overview of the relationship between poverty and the environment Then, it examines specific anti-poverty initiatives of the government, and asks how successful they are in terms of reducing poverty, and to what degree they so in a manner that is consistent with the principles of sustainable development The paper concludes by summarising the success of the government’s anti-poverty measures in terms of the principles of the National Environmental Management Act (Nema), and by making recommendations for how some of the lapses could be addressed Two qualifications should be indicated First, although Agenda 21 was adopted in 1992, in practice our point of departure is more typically 1994, i.e the year in which the first raciallyinclusive democratic elections took place, and the ANC-led Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Michael Aliber government took power This year represented a watershed not just in terms of power relations, but also coincided with the introduction of new approaches to development and poverty alleviation Second, in some instances the anti-poverty government initiatives examined are not project interventions as such but rather broad policy frameworks In these cases, we ask not how successful the frameworks have been in reducing poverty through sustainable development (because that would be exceptionally difficult to infer), but rather how coherent they are in terms of poverty eradication through sustainable development, and their likely influence in the pursuit thereof A brief overview of poverty in South Africa The particular configuration of poverty in South Africa is a fairly straightforward outcome of colonial and apartheid engineering The most salient elements of this engineering were large-scale land dispossession, the establishment of increasingly overcrowded and poorly resourced homelands for the majority black population, and the migratory labour system that formed the backbone of the country’s mining and industrial sectors The geographical, racial, and gender dimensions of contemporary poverty are in large measure the legacy of this historical experience The focus here is on three aspects of poverty – namely income poverty, quality of life and inequality Income poverty Based on a per adult equivalent poverty line of R352 per month, in 1995 61% of Africans were poor, 38% of coloureds, 5% of Indians, and 1% of whites (May et al., 2000) Although the data are old and the percentages have likely changed in the meantime, the stark racial differentiation certainly still obtains There is also a strong geographical dimension to the incidence of poverty Based on the same data set, 72% of all poor people (those below the poverty line) reside in rural areas, and 71% of all rural people are poor By most measures, the poorest provinces are those encompassing Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Poverty-eradication and Sustainable Development the most populous former homeland areas, namely KwaZuluNatal, Northern Province, and Eastern Cape A reasonable proxy for income poverty is child undernutrition Around 23 per cent of children under six years of age are stunted, indicating a protracted period of under-nutrition (Steyn, 2000) The most seriously affected children are those in rural areas whose mothers have relatively little education In addition, the infant mortality rate is eight to ten times higher for blacks than for whites The way in which data are captured in Stats SA's main annual survey, i.e the October Household Survey, is not comparable to that for the Income and Expenditure Survey of 1995, upon which the headcount measures reported above are based For that reason, it is not possible to state trends in the headcount measure of income poverty since 1995.1 However, the direction of the trend is not difficult to guess, given the close relationship between poverty and unemployment For example, among those who were below the poverty line in 1995, the unemployment rate was 55%, where as among those above the poverty line, the unemployment rate was 14% (May et al., 2000) In terms of formal sector employment, in the years since 1996 there has been a contraction of more than 800 000 jobs, or about 5% of the workforce While there has been a countervailing increase in informal sector employment, it is well known that these jobs are much less remunerative on average (Kingdon & Knight, 2000) The implication is that, most likely, the prevalence of income poverty has worsened over the past half decade An important dimension of income poverty that is receiving more and more attention is its duration Based on data from KwaZulu-Natal, it would appear that more than half of those households that were poor in 1998, were also poor in 1993, meaning that they are ‘chronically poor’ (Roberts, 2000) At least for the KwaZulu-Natal data set, the incidence of chronic poverty tends to be much higher among rural households, female-headed households, households with older household heads, and those households with below-average access to less Michael Aliber Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za arable land The experience of ‘transitory’ or ‘episodic’ poverty – i.e households that escaped poverty between 1993 and 1998 or, conversely, fell into poverty between 1993 and 1998 – is largely a function of employment transitions, in terms of a household member getting or losing a key job (Cichello, Fields & Leibbrandt, 2000) Quality of life By this we mean aspects of the experience of well-being not necessarily related to personal income One major contributor to a good quality of life is access to services and infrastructure, such as potable water, electricity, roads, etc Such services impact on quality of life in a number of ways, eg by diminishing the time or energy needed to collect water or fuel wood, by diminishing the risks associated with unprotected water sources, poor waste disposal, or charcoal fires, and by facilitating engagement in economic activities Not surprisingly, access to services is highly differentiated between rural and urban areas As of 1995, only 21 per cent of rural households had electricity within the house, against 82 per cent for urban households For indoor running water, the figures were 17 per cent and 74 per cent respectively While these gaps may have narrowed somewhat under the post-apartheid government’s infrastructure drive, the backlog remains large across the whole range of services Other aspects of quality of life may be less tangible, but no less important to the experience of poverty or non-poverty The Speak Out on Poverty Hearings sponsored by the South African NGO Coalition (Sangoco) in 1998, evoked many of the experiential aspects of poverty, including exposure to crime and violence, a sense of vulnerability and powerlessness, disrespect from government officials (eg those responsible for pension payouts), etc The same could be said of the South African Participatory Poverty Appraisal (SA-PPA) of 1999/ 2000, which vividly portrayed the relationship of poverty to hopelessness, social isolation and family fragmentation (May et al., 1997) Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Poverty-eradication and Sustainable Development Inequality Inequalities in South Africa are extreme, as already suggested by some of the headcount measures reported on page South Africa’s individual-based Gini coefficient is 0.73 (StatsSA, 2000), which is only excelled by a handful of countries in the world As shown in May et al (1997), the wealthiest ten per cent of the country’s households account for 40 per cent of all private income earned, and seven per cent of the total population (implying smaller-than-average household size) By contrast, the poorest 40 per cent of households account for only 11 per cent of total income As made evident in the course of the poverty hearings, perceptions of continued inequality much to contribute to the disillusionment and frustration associated with material poverty Inequality is also evident in terms of access to services, health status, etc For example, 18 per cent of households within the poorest decile must travel more than one kilometre to access water, versus per cent of households in the top three deciles (Budlender, 1999) Poverty and environment in South Africa Although the pre-1994 government attached considerable significance to conservation of natural environments, its approach required exclusion of local people from the environmentally protected areas converted into parks and reserves to serve conservation and recreational interests The impact of these protected areas on the culture, livelihoods and environments of local people did not receive much attention The communities that were removed were often resettled on inferior land (according to apartheid group areas or outside the proclaimed parks), where previous livelihoods could not be sustained and crowded conditions led to further degradation of the land This series of events served to reinforce the already prevalent view that poor people impact negatively on the environment, which therefore needs to be protected by their exclusion The fact that poverty was often exacerbated as Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Michael Aliber a consequence of already depleted or inferior environments and the hidden costs of large-scale industrial exploitation was largely ignored A fuller understanding of the relationship between environment and poverty needs to take into account the complex relations existing within each system The environment is composed not only of ‘things’ but more importantly the relations between them Ecological relatedness of organisms is one example; how people relate to their environment is another Environmental degradation occurs as a consequence of skewed power relationships where environmental resources are used faster than nature produces them, or where wastes from human production / consumption pollute the environment faster than nature can clean them The potential for environmental degradation is therefore inherent in human existence (people sustain their living from the environment) and not a recent phenomenon, but the current pace and global scale of environmental degradation are unprecedented (Butler & Hallows, 1998) Similarly, poverty can be understood as a system of relationships that have the cumulative effect of excluding people from processes of development and accumulation Skewed power relations and economic, political or social injustices that deny people access to empowering resources such as safe water, health services or education can be contributing factors The viability of people’s livelihoods is often largely contingent on relationships that ensure the continued access to environmental resources Such continued access, however, requires not only the sustained provision of resources but also the just and equitable access to them Sustainable development can thus be thought of as a pattern of relations between people and between people and the environment that will ensure and not undermine future development (Butler & Hallows, 1998) What form should sustainable development take to benefit people and their environment? What forms of interaction exist currently and what kinds of interactions would be desirable or necessary to maximise mutual benefits? The interface between Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Michael Aliber effective To the extent the IDP process does not so much integrate environmental considerations as subject itself to them, this may also change over time with more capacity building, learning-by-doing and lobbying On the other hand, it is difficult to discern to what extent the IRDP embraces a substantive appreciation of sustainable development The lack of substance in the IRDP echoes the absence of a cogent national vision for combating poverty At the very least, one can say that the IRDP and URS are not antithetical to sustainable development An optimistic appraisal is that their very vacuity presents an opportunity It is conceivable that, through the Department of Provincial and Local Government and the IDT in particular, the IRDP and URS could be re-invented into a substantive national povertyeradication strategy, based on principles of sustainable development Conclusion Poverty-eradication is a long-term project that South Africa began in earnest only seven years ago The country’s efforts to eliminate poverty have been frustrated by the continued shedding of jobs from the formal economy, as well as by the fact that successful poverty-eradication measures are hugely dependent on government and civil society capacity, which are still being built up Indeed, some of the tools that have been devised have great potential for reducing poverty, once government is in a position to use them In the rush to address poverty from various angles, there is pressure to disregard some of the tenets of sustainable development lest adherence to them impede delivery The examples presented in this paper point to the fact, however, that this strategy tends to be self-defeating even in terms of narrow delivery objectives, and sometimes the trade-off is more illusory than real Taking the case of conservationoriented public works, for example, it turns out that their most 38 Poverty-eradication and sustainable development Table 1: Progress of the various poverty-reduction strategies and programmes Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za NEMA Principles Integration of social / environmental / economic Assessment of progress made At the level of broad government antipoverty frameworks, integration of these considerations was dealt a blow with the marginalisation of the original RDP and the dropping of the NGDS.The IRDP and URS have restored some of this integration in terms of vision and clustering of interventions Anti-poverty strategies such as those funded through the Poverty Alleviation Fund, remain dislocated unless happening to fall within an IRDP or URS node Certain public-works programmes deliberately embrace an integrated approach, though in other ways may contradict the principles of sustainable development, eg governance Governance for sustainable development The linking of the IRDP and URS to locallevel development planning through the IDPs, is a positive way of promoting the chance that anti-poverty programmes will be people-centred and reflect the priorities and participation of the poor Much hinges on the capacity development of local government structures Public works programmes such as Working for Water and LandCare are alleged to undermine the principle of governance, notwithstanding their good intentions and other virtues Major infrastructure programmes such as housing flirt with the idea of governance, but the imperative of delivery together with lack of appropriate capacity, has limited their ability to go further 39 Michael Aliber Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Integrated environmental management For anti-poverty initiatives, housing, and even IDPs, there is a tendency to require that projects are benign to the environment, rather than promoting integrated environmental management Conservation-oriented public works programmes tend to be single-issue interventions that not promote management in a broader sense Environmental justice and equity Infrastructure projects can promote environmental justice in the sense that they provide long overdue services, which has the effect of reducing the pressure of low-income households on their own environments and the environment in general LandCare attempts to assist people repair the environmental damage to poor areas caused by years and years of environmental injustice (eg over-crowding), though the scale of LandCare is almost negligible.The relationship of the IRDP and URS to environmental integrity remains unclear Ecological and cultural integrity Conservation-based public-works programmes have the effect of restoring ecological integrity Poverty-alleviation projects such as income-generating projects not necessarily take ecological integrity into account.The spirit of GEAR reveals a disregard of environmental integrity lest it hinder investment and growth Integrated waste management and pollution control This is arguably not applicable for most poverty-eradication measures An important exception is in subsidised housing projects, which can proceed only if provision is made for proper waste disposal Participation and empowerment This is the Achilles heel of many anti-poverty initiatives Promotion of income-generating projects aims to empower, but success is minimal because government capacity is 40 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Poverty-eradication and sustainable development insufficient and the challenge is enormous Public-works programmes tend to undermine true empowerment, since participants’ attention is drawn to the government-paid wage rather than – and perhaps at the expense of – the inherent value of environmental management and economic self-reliance Initial indications are that the implementers of the URS have little regard for participatory processes, though this does not relate to any sort of structural flaw celebrated poverty-reducing effect through employment on labour-intensive tasks does not achieve an appreciable measure of poverty-reduction when considered in relation to the scale of the nation’s unemployment problem Meanwhile, they appear to have the effect of diminishing low-income communities’ sense of ownership of the resource management process, ultimately at the expense of the economic benefits communities derive from their natural resources Nonetheless, in principle these programmes show great promise of improving environmental conditions in areas settled by low-income communities, especially if the large budgetary resources were to be spent not (or not so much) on wages, but on long-term facilitation and training for a vastly larger number of communities than are presently assisted In Table 1, there is an attempt to summarise the progress of the various poverty-reduction strategies and programmes in fulfilling the National Environmental Management Act principles, on the premise that these principles encompass those of Agenda 21 Overall, government is making fair progress towards adopting a sustainable development approach to the eradication of poverty This is not to say that it is making fair progress towards eradicating poverty itself, which remains far more elusive What this table fails to show is how well the government is progressing in terms of addressing the povertyenvironment linkages described in the section beginning at 41 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Michael Aliber page Specifically, as a group, the collection of anti-poverty initiatives not take into account the importance of assisting poor people develop mechanisms to mitigate risk and, in a related vein, many of the interventions reveal little comprehension of the manner in which low-income households strategise to maintain or expand their livelihoods Using the public-works programmes as an example of this again, participation in these programmes tends to interrupt people’s livelihood strategies rather than actually make them more effective, notwithstanding the temporary advantages they bring It is unclear at this point whether the IRDP and URS will be any better Fundamental to this problem is the lack of appreciation that positive attention to environmental sustainability can promote rather than hinder poverty alleviation What is most worrying from a poverty-eradication and sustainable development perspective is that there continues to be a conspicuous absence of an overarching poverty-reduction strategy, in particular one that marries content with a practicable implementation plan It could be argued that the RDP had content but lacked form, while the IRDP and URS have form but a deficit of content Within this environment it is not surprising that many ground level anti-poverty interventions not rate more highly in terms of sustainable development To conclude, the following recommendations, aimed principally at government at large, are offered: • the IRDP and URS should be strengthened by means of open debate and deliberation in order to produce a coherent nation-wide anti-poverty strategy This is not to suggest that the government’s present anti-poverty activities are not worthwhile or that there is a lack of commitment, but rather to cast doubt on the assumption that the existing array of anti-poverty measures add up to an effective strategy to combat poverty In essence, what is necessary is something akin to a logical framework exercise whereby goals and objectives are defined and refined, activities are identified that relate to these 42 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Poverty-eradication and sustainable development objectives, and a sober evaluation is done to determine whether the proposed measures are commensurate with the magnitude of the poverty problem being addressed An important aspect of this process would be to reexamine the often implicit theories or metaphors that currently occupy policy-makers in their elaboration of anti-poverty strategies; • as part of an effort to instil more content into the IRDP and URS, the spirit and ingredients of a sustainable development approach should be rigorously applied This would mean, inter alia, that procedures linked to the IRDP and URS must take very literally the exigencies of sustainable development processes and considerations For example, the processes around the development of IDPs, the design of public-works programmes and infrastructure investment programmes, and the monitoring and evaluation of government interventions, must mainstream environmental considerations rather than tack them on or treat them as minimal criteria to be satisfied; • the efficacy of public-works programmes as anti-poverty vehicles must be closely examined, in particular to see if such programmes can be conducted in a fashion that is more in harmony with a community-based land management approach It may be necessary to divorce wagepaying opportunities with people’s care for their own resources This will likely require a far greater investment in the development of ‘soft skills’ such as community facilitation, possibly at the expense of temporary wage employment of community members It is necessary that officials and consultants working in anti-poverty programmes and policy-making, develop a competent understanding of the sustainable livelihoods perspective, not least so that they comprehend the vital importance of low-income households’ multiple livelihoods strategies and risk-mitigation strategies; and • more effort needs to be invested in finding ways to help groups and individuals to develop and expand income43 Michael Aliber Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za generating enterprises The ambitious start made by the government (eg Ntsika and Khula) needs to be refined and scaled up Attention must be given to contextual obstacles faced by SMMEs, eg crime 44 Poverty-eradication and sustainable development Notes It soon will be, however, as the next Income and Expenditure Survey is due to be released towards the end of 2002 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Significant omissions include: provincial initiatives such as the Free State’s Poverty Eradication Strategy; strategies to promote skills development such as that through the statutory skills levy; and various eco-tourism initiatives One interpretation of the inadequacy of the government’s efforts is the overly ‘technicist’ approach to micro finance, which has prioritised attention to abstract numbers at the expense of an understanding of social dynamics Personal communication, National Treasury, 2000 The Community-Based Public Works Programme (CBPWP) is the major component of the National Public Works Programme For 2001/02, the CBPWP has been allocated about R280 million out of R300 million for the whole National Public Works Programme Somewhat similar to these public works programmes are various infrastructure programmes, most notably the Consolidated Municipal Infrastructure Programme (CMIP), the National Housing Programme, and Community Water Supply and Sanitation Programme (CWSS) Although these infrastructure investment programmes have positive implications for employment, they are commonly not categorised as public-works programmes because job-creation is not a central goal, and labour-intensive methods may or may not be adopted CMIP, in particular, which was allocated a budget of almost R1 billion for 2001/02, consists mainly of budgetary support from central government to municipalities for infrastructure development, and not a particular model of delivery per se Presumably the LandCare Programme has a similar effect, though probably less severe owing to the lower level of wages it offers Estimated from the 1999 October Household Survey, using the broad definition of unemployment, i.e including ‘discouraged’ job seekers 45 Michael Aliber The unspoken implication is that the vast majority of the 60 000 ‘employment opportunities’ created since 1997 are not sustainable Notwithstanding, the exemplary management and execution of the Community-Based Public Works Programme should not be overlooked (see Everatt et al., 2001) Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Another common concern of NGOs about the Working for Water and LandCare programmes is that the educational component is not pursued with diligence 10 Personal communication, 2001 Northern Province Department of Agriculture and Environment 11 The growing fondness for proposing ‘fast-tracking’ interventions is one manifestation of this pressure, however self-deceptive the promises (see Everatt et al., 2001) 12 A further contention is that housing projects might better to try to assist people where they are as relocation imposes huge costs on poor households, not least because it is dictated by what land local councils or developers consider suitable In any event, assisting people to improve their shelter and access to services where they are could also presumably mitigate the environmental impacts associated with informal settlement patterns, and also improve public health conditions (see Baumann, 2001) 13 The Government’s commitment to the People’s Housing Process may be about to increase significantly, not least because of budgetary concerns with the conventional housing programme On 25 September 2001, Gauteng’s housing department announced that it intended to discontinue the provision of RDP houses in favour of offering serviced sites and relying on the People’s Housing Process What this will mean in actuality remains to be seen 14 Deputy President Jacob Zuma, speaking of the importance of the IRDP, stated, ‘We must reverse the trend of people coming to cities for employment’ (Sunday Times, February 2002) 15 The ‘basket of services’ comprises: adult basic education and training, feeding schemes, housing, the Kick-Start Youth Programme, housing support centres, telecentres, women in construction, local economic development, co-operatives, the Community-Based Public Works Programme, Working for 46 Poverty-eradication and sustainable development Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Water, Khula Start, community water and sanitation, technology centres, eco-tourism, LandCare, cultural industries and energy centres 16 As an example, the Department of Land Affairs set up an M&E system for land reform which was in operation (to some extent) as of 1996, but despite a number of specialist studies to determine how the system could also take cognisance of environmental considerations, it was not until several years later that a cogent system was proposed Unfortunately, by the time this happened, the ‘mainstream’ M&E system had started to approach collapse – a probable indication of the insufficient commitment to M&E in the first place References Aliber, M 2001 A Study of the Incidence and Nature of Chronic Poverty and Development Policy in South Africa: An Overview, PLAAS and University of Manchester ANC, 1994 The Reconstruction and Development Programme: A Policy Framework Baumann, T 2001 Housing Policy and Poverty, unpublished manuscript Beinart, W & Coates, R 1995, Environment and History: The Taming of Nature in the USA and South Africa, New York: Routledge Berrisford, S 2000 A Report on Integrated Development Plans and Land-Use Management Linkages, report prepared for the Department of Provincial and Local Government Bond, P 2000 Elite Transition: From Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa, Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press Brooks, K., Townsend, R., & Van Zyl, J (team leaders) 2000 Improving Opportunities for the Rural Poor in South Africa through Land Reform and More Effective Service Delivery, unpublished background paper for the ISRDS 47 Michael Aliber Budlender, D 1999 Patterns of poverty in South Africa, Development Southern Africa, Vol 16, No Butler, M & Hallows, D 1998 Poverty and the Environment in South Africa, SANGOCO Occasional Publications Series, No Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za CASE, 2000 Evaluation of the Capacity of ProgrammeImplementing Agents to Implement the Community-Based Works Programme Cichello, P., Fields, G & Leibbrandt, M 2000 Which African Workers Have Gotten Ahead and by How Much? The Story of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 1993-1998, TIPS Conference 2000 Annual Forum Cole J & Parnell, S 2000 A Report on Poverty, Gender and Integrated Development Planning in South African Municipal Practice, report prepared for the Department of Provincial and Local Government Cross, C., Luckin, L., Mzimela, T & Clark, C 1996 On the Edge: Poverty, Livelihoods and Natural Resources in Rural KwaZuluNatal, in Lipton, M, Ellis, F & Lipton, M (eds), Land, Labour and Livelihoods in Rural South Africa, Durban: Indicator Press Department of Finance, 1996 Growth, Employment and Redistribution – A Macro-Economic Strategy, Pretoria: Government Printers Department of Finance 2000, memorandum to government departments on the Special Allocation for Poverty Relief, Infrastructure Investment and Job Summit Projects Department of Housing, 2000 Environmental Implementation Plan Department of Housing, 2001 South African Country Report for the Review of the Implementation of the Habitat Agenda Department of Provincial and Local Government, 2001 High Level Assessment of Interim Integrated Development Plans, unpublished government report EDA Trust, 1999 Understanding the Impact of the Working for Water Programme on Rural Communities: A Household Livelihood Situation Analysis in Madlangala Administrative Area, unpublished research report 48 Poverty-eradication and sustainable development Everatt, D Khumalo, B & Zulu, S 2001 Rural Development in South Africa 1994–2000, Development Update IDASA, 2000 Unspent Poverty Alleviation Funds: Reasons and Remedies, Budget Brief No 43, Cape Town Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za IDT, 2000 The Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy (ISRDS) Jumo, M 1999 Landcare in Herschel District in the Eastern Cape, and Reay-McLeod, N 1999 Community Based Wattle Management: Harmonising WFW with Communal Realities, papers produced for CBLM seminar in Hammanskraal Kingdon, G & Knight, J 2000 The Incidence of Unemployment in South Africa, TIPS Conference 2000 Annual Forum Krugman, P 1994 The Fall and Rise of Development Economics, in Rodwin, L & Schön, D (eds), Rethinking the Development Experience, Washington DC: Brookings May, J., Attwood, H., Ewang, P., Lund, F., Norton, A & Wentzal, W 1997 Experience and Perceptions of Poverty in South Africa (synthesis report for the SA-PPA), Durban: Praxis May, J., Woolard, I & Klasen, S 2000 The Nature and measurement of poverty and inequality, in May, J ed., Poverty and Inequality in South Africa: Meeting the Challenge, Cape Town: David Philip Mufamadi, F S 2001 Report to the Cabinet Lekgotla, July National Treasury 2001 Estimates of National Expenditure, Pretoria: Government Printers Parnell, S 2000 Environment and Poverty in Southern Africa – Regional Linkages, background paper prepared for DFID SA and CA People’s Dialogue, 2001 The Brighter the Light, the Darker the Shadow, webpage Roberts, B 2000 Chronic and Transitory Poverty in Post-Apartheid South Africa: Evidence from KwaZulu-Natal, Working Paper No 28, Centre for Social and Development Studies, University of Natal 49 Michael Aliber Salafsky, N & Wollenberg, E 2000 Linking Livelihoods and Conservation: A Conceptual Framework and Scale for Assessing the Integration of Human Needs and Biodiversity, World Development, Vol 28, No Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Shackleton, S., Shackleton, C & Cousins, B 2000 Re-valuing the Communal Lands of Southern Africa: New Understandings of Rural Livelihoods, London: Overseas Development Institute Sowman, M (forthcoming) Integrating Environmental Sustainability Issues into Local Government Planning and Decision-Making Processes, Pieterse, E., Parnell, S., Swilling, M & Wooldridge, D (eds), Policy Ambitions: Perspectives on Developmental Local Government in South Africa, Cape Town: Juta StatsSA 2000 Measuring Poverty in South Africa, Pretoria: Government Printers Steyn, N 2000 A South African Perspective on Preschool Nutrition, South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol 13, No Tchale, H., Kachote, T., Moty, I & Manyothwane, N 1998 CostBenefit Analysis of Selected Wattle Management Approaches in East Griqualand Kei Region of the Eastern Cape, IUCN/ROSA/USAID/RCSA Urban Environment Unit, Sustainable Cities Programme, 2001 Implementation and Replication of the Sustainable Cities Programme Process at City and National Level, Working Paper No 50 HSRC Subscription Paths 8/29/02 1:32 PM Page Integrated Rural & Regional Development Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za C Y CM MY CY CMY K Occasional Papers from the HSRC Publishers Composite M www.hsrc.ac.za/publishing HSRC Subscription Paths 8/29/02 1:32 PM Page Subscriptions www.hsrc.ac.za/publishing Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za C Y CM MY CY CMY K Please send me the publications below: From the Integrated Rural & Regional Development Occasional Paper Series: Title Poverty Eradication and Sustainable Development by Michael Aliber ISSN 1684-5250 Issue Energy Sustainability for 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Poverty-eradication and Sustainable Development eradication and sustainable development since 1992, and what does and does not appear to work at the interface of poverty eradication and environmental... consultant, doing projects on land reform in Uganda, poverty reduction and sustainable development in South Africa, micro-finance in West Africa, East Africa and Asia, and chronic poverty in South... contrary to basic tenets of sustainable development? ?? such as consultation and public participation 36 Free download from www.hsrcpress.ac.za Poverty-eradication and Sustainable Development The inaugural