... (Colapinto, 1991; Elizur & Minuchin, 1989; Fishman, 1988, 1993; Fishman & Fishman, 20 03; Minuchin, 1974, 1984; Minuchin & Fishman, 1981; Minuchin, Lee & Simon, 1996; Minuchin, ... characterised by diffi culties in maintaining a shared focus when problem solving and at-tempting to communicate directly and clearly in a goal-directed way.R.D. Laing (1965), in clinical and experimental ... on 82 CENTRAL CONCEPTS IN FAMILY THERAPYof problem-maintaining factors and these typically involve ineffective solutions.Ineffective solutions, or ironic processes, fall into four main categories:1....