Enzymes in the Environment: Activity, Ecology and Applications - Chapter 16 pptx

... indicating that the ester probably interfered with nutrient cycling’’(103). In the former study, urease and acid- and alkaline-phosphatase activities were tem-porarily reduced, whereas in the ... clear, a dis-criminant function combining seven properties, including alkaline phosphatase and argi-nine deaminase activities, correctly classified 86% of the undisturbed soils and 70% of the disturbed ... of their protein-bindingcapacity and hence their ability to inhibit enzymes. The cationic metals are noncompetitiveinhibitors, which bind irreversibly with sulfydryl and carboxylate groups and...

... Inc.Currently,itisevidentthatmicroorganismsformcomplexmicrobialfoodwebsinallaquaticecosystems,andthattheiractivitiesandmetabolismsoftenaretightlycoupled and/ ormutuallyaffected(132,143,144).Therefore,itisnotsurprisingthatenzymaticpropertiesandactivitiesofdifferentcomponentscreatingthemicrobialfoodwebsinlakeecosystemshavedemonstratedcloserelationships.Severalreportshavedocumentedthestrongdependencyofbacterialsecondaryproductiononectoenzymeactivitiesofaquaticmicroorganisms(2–4 ,16, 17,19,25,28,29,33,36,59).Thereoftenisasignificantcorrelationbetweenphytoplanktonprimaryproductionandactivitiesofdifferentectoenzymesinfreshwaterecosystems(25,28,29,33,52).Ourstudiesinlakesofdifferingdegreesofeutrophicationhaveshownmicrobialesteraseactivitytobepositivelycorrelatedtophytoplanktonprimaryproduction,bacterialsecondaryproduction,andconcentrationofdissolvedorganiccarbon(DOC)(Fig.13).Wehavefoundasignificantnegativerelationshipbetweenenzymeactivityandtheper-centageofphytoplanktonextracellularrelease(PER)ofphotosyntheticorganiccarboninthestudiedlakes.ThisnegativecorrelationbetweenPERandesteraseactivityindicatedthatenzymesynthesiswaspartiallyinhibitedinbacteriabylow-molecular-weightphoto-syntheticproductsofphytoplanktonthatwerereadilyutilizedbythesemicroheterotrophs:i.e.,catabolicrepressionofesterasesynthesiswasfoundinlakescharacterizedbyhighPERofphytoplankton(29,33).VIII.ECTOENZYMEACTIVITYANDLAKEWATEREUTROPHICATIONTheimportanceoforganicmatterasavariableforevaluatingthetrophicstatusoflakeshasbeenrecognizedsincethebeginningofthe20thcentury(145,146).Increasingconcen-trationsoforganicconstituentsinwaterarethedistinctindicatorsofacceleratedeutrophi-cationprocessesinmanylakes(147–149).OurstudiesclearlydemonstratedthatenzymeactivitiesweresignificantlypositivelyproportionaltoDOCcontentoflakes(Fig.13C).Asdescribedearlierinthischapter,severalmicrobialectoenzymesareresponsibleforrapidtransformationanddegradationofbothdissolvedorganicmatterandPOMinfresh-waterecosystems.Therefore,wehypothesizethatan‘‘enzymaticapproach’’canbeveryusefulinthestudiesoflakeeutrophication.Severalreportspointedoutthatmicrobialenzymaticactivitieswerecloselyrelatedtotheindicesofwatereutrophicationand/orthetrophicstatusofaquaticecosystems(25,27,29,31,33,38,52,58,62,78).Ourstudiesalongthetrophicgradientoflakes(fromoligo/mesotrophictohypereutrophiclakes[Fig.14A]supportourhypothesis(andtheassumptionsofothers)thatselectedenzymaticmicrobialactivitiesareverypracticalforarapidrecognitionofthecurrenttrophicstatusoflakes.Activitiesofalkalinephosphatase,esterase,andaminopeptidaseincreasedexponentiallyalongatrophicgradientandcorre-latedsignificantlywiththetrophicstateindexofthestudiedlakes(Fig.14B,C,D).Wealsofoundastrongrelationshipbetweenactivitiesofectoenzymesandphytoplanktonprimaryproductionintheselakes.RapidincreasesinectoenzymeactivitieswereobservedespeciallyinarangeofgraduallyeutrophiclakeswhenthevalueofCarlson’strophicstateindex(TSI)wasabove55(150)(Fig.14).Moreover, ... for the enzymes involved in the transformation and degrada-tion of polymeric substrates outside the cell membrane: ectoenzymes (19), extracellular enzymes (20), and exoenzymes (21). In this chapter, ... resulting low-molecular-weight products are then transported across the cell mem-brane and utilized inside the cytoplasm. The hydrolysis of polymers is an acknowledged rate-limiting step in the utilizationof...

... systems involving phenoloxidase enzymes. The deamination of amino acids, such as serine, phenylalanine, proline, methionine, and cysteine by birnessite, and the role of pyrogallol in influencing their ... variable effects,depending on soil and enzyme assay conditions (46,120 ,162 ,163 ). The kinetic analysis of the decline in the activity of l-histidine NH3-lyase duringa 96-h incubation period with ... aspartase-Ca-montmoril-lonite systems (159). Deamination of l- and d-glutamic and aspartic amino acids and oftheir DL racemic mixtures in the presence of Na-montmorillonite showed a stereoselectiv-ity...

... anomeric linkages (160 162 ). A further technical advantage is that the fluorophoresused for labeling polysaccharides (fluorescein-amine, isomer II) and peptides (4-amino-3,6-disulfo-1,8-naphthalic ... forchitin-hydrolyzing activity by using MUF-β-d-N, N′-diacetylchitobioside, and chitobiaseactivity was then assayed in protein extracts prepared from the positive clones. The chi-tinases of marine bacteria ... Inc.Investigationsofextracellularenzymesfrommarineanimalsandenzymesisolatedfromprokaryotesareconsideredonlyifaclearconnectiontomarineecologyisestablished.Thetermextracellularenzymesisusedthroughoutthischapter,whereasChro´st(5)distin-guishesbetweenectoenzymesandextracellularenzymes.EctoenzymesaredefinedbyChro´st(5)andinChapter2asenzymeslocatedintheperiplasmicspaceorattachedtotheoutermembraneofthebacterialcell.Extracellularenzymesareenzymesfreelydis-solvedinthewaterorattachedtoparticlesotherthantheenzyme-synthesizingcell .In thischapter,however,thetermextracellularenzymesreferstobothectoenzymesandextracellularenzymes,unlessotherwisestated.EarlystudiesonthefateoforganicaggregatesanddissolvedpolymersintheseawerepresentedbyRiley(6),Walsh(7),andKhailovandFinenko(8).Overbeck(9)re-viewedtheearlystudiesonextracellularenzymeactivityintheaquaticenvironment.II.ECOLOGICALPRINCIPLESOFENZYMATICPATTERNSINTHESEAA.TheConceptoftheMicrobialLoopandtheRoleofExtracellular Enzymes Themicrobialloop(10)encompassesthecombinedactivitiesofautotrophicandheterotro-phic—eukaryoticaswellasprokaryotic—organismssmallerthan20µm.Theseorgan-isms,representedbybacteria,nanoflagellates,ciliates,andphototrophicprochlorophytes,aswellascyanobacteria,formafoodweboftheirown,looselyconnectedtothefoodwebofthelargergrazers.Ingeneral,thenutritionalbasisofthemicrobialfoodwebisprovidedbythepoolofdissolvedorganicmatter(DOM)andparticulateorganicmatter(POM).TheDOMpoolisapriorireservedforbacterialutilization,whereascompetitionwithmetazoansoccursforPOM.ThiscompetitionisdeterminedbythebacterialpotentialforenzymaticdissolutionofPOMontheonehandandthefeedingactivityofthemetazo-ansontheotherhand.Thebulkofboththedissolvedandparticulateresources,however,requiresenzymatichydrolysispriortouptakebybacteria(Fig.1).Thustheenzymaticactivitiesofbacteriainitiateorganiccarbon(C)remineralizationanddefinethetypeandquantityofsubstrateavailabletothetotalmicrobialfoodweband,tocertainextent,alsotothetoppredatorsinthesystem.B.FreeandAttachedEnzymeActivityGenerally,extracellularenzymesmaybeboundtothecell(definedasectoenzymesbyChro´st[5])orinthefreeandadsorbedstate(11,12).Mostofthetotalenzymeactivityinseawaterhasbeenfoundtobeassociatedwiththeparticlesizeclassdominatedbybacteria(Ͼ0.2µm–3µm)(13,14)(Table1).Dissolvedenzymes(15)andlargeparticlesϾ8...

... Inc.Theresultsshowedlargedifferencesbetweenthe2daysofsamplinginsoilenzymeactivities(e.g.,alkalinephosphatase,Fig.2)andavailablesoilnutrients(e.g.,nitrate,Fig.3).Differenceswerefoundalsobetweenthevariousoilseedrapevarietieswithmostsoilenzymesmeasuredandwiththeavailablesoilnutrients.However,therewaslittlediffer-encebetweentheenzymeactivitiesintherhizosphereoftheGMandnon-GMplants.Themajorfactorinfluencingtheenzymeactivitiesandsoilnutrientsbetweenthetwosamplingdayswasthesoilmoisturecontent,whichwasincreasedbyovernightrain.Therefore,inthisfieldtrial,thedifferencesbetweensoilenzymeactivitieswerenotattrib-utabletoplantgeneticmodification,buttoenvironmentalvariationandtodifferencesinplantvariety.V.CONCLUSIONSClearlyenzymeactivitiesareusefulindeterminingperturbationsinthesoilenvironmentbroughtaboutbychangesinagriculturalpractices,theuseofagrochemicals,pollutionevents,ortheexploitationofgeneticallymodifiedorganisms.Biocontrolofpestsanddiseasesisameansbywhichenzymefunctionhasbeenexploited(43),butthereisevengreateropportunitytomonitorandmanipulateenzymesasgenerationsofplantnutrients,plant-growth-promotingagents,soilstructurestimulants,andbioremediationcatalysts.Althoughbioremediationhashadlessattentionthanbiocontrol,thepotentialforexploitationisenormous(44).Mostresearchhasbeenfocusedonmicrobialinoculants(bioaugmentation),butitisequallyrelevanttoconsiderhowtooptimizethefunctionoftheindigenousorganisms(biostimulation).Phytoremediation,byplantrootsthemselvesorassociatedmicrobiota(rhizoremediation),isbecominganincreasinglyinterestingcleanupsolutionforsoils.Mostattentionhasbeenpaidtoheavymetaldecontamination ,and whereasthereisinevitablysomeenzymeinvolvement,littlehasbeencharacterized.How-ever,rhizospheremicroorganismsproduceenzymesthathavethecapacitytocatabolizeawiderangeoforganicpollutants.MicrobialdehalogenationisdescribedindetailinChapters1 8and1 9,butofspecialinterestarehydrogencyanideandothernitriles.Notonly ... the control. In contrast, the β-glucosidase, β-galactos-idase, and N-acetyl glucosaminidase activities decreased with the inoculation of the DAPGϩstrain(Table1).Theseresultsindicatethatsoilenzymesaresensitivetotheimpact ... would in- crease the microbial P demand.Inverse trends were found with the C and N cycle enzymes in comparison to the general trend found in the P and S cycle enzymes. The F113 (DAPGϩ) strain was...

... short-chain poly-P was higher in the internal hyphae (67). Long-chain poly-P seems to be more efficient in transporting Pi from the extraradical to the intraradical part of the fungi. Activity of enzymes ... Inc.directlycontributetoreductionofpathogenviabilityandgrowth.Inaddition,theyhavebeenproposedasmediatorsinpathwaysleadingtodefense-relatedgeneexpression(136).ThereleaseofAOSinsomeplant–pathogeninteractionscanresultindamagetothehosttissues.Therefore,mechanismsthatlimitthedurationoftheoxidativeburstanditstoxiceffectsarenecessarytominimizedamagetotheplantitself.Oneofthesemecha-nismsistheactionofendogenousantioxidantenzymes,suchassuperoxidedismutases,catalases,peroxidases,andglutathioneperoxidases,whicharecapableofneutralizingtheAOS.Duringtheestablishmentofacompatibleplant–fungusAMsymbiosis,thehostplantshowedlittlereactionatthecytologicalleveltoappressoriumformationorinfectionhyphae.Occasionallysomethickeningwasobservedinepidermalcellwallsatthepointofcontactwithappressoria(105),andonlyaresponsesimilartoHRhasbeendetectedinRiT-DNA–transformedrootsofalfalfacolonizedbyGigasporamargarita(137).Nev-ertheless,recentstudies,usingthediaminobenzidine(DAB)stainingtechnique,revealedthatabrownishstain,indicativeofH2O2accumulation,waspresentwithincorticalrootcellsinthespaceoccupiedbyclumpedarbusculesandaroundhyphaltipsattemptingtopenetraterootsofMedicagotruncatulacolonizedbyG.intraradices(138).TheseresultssuggestthatalocallyrestrictedoxidativeburstcouldbeinvolvedintheresponseoftheplanttoAMformationanddevelopment.Relativelyfewdataexistconcerningthepossibleparticipationofantioxidanten-zymesintheplantresponsetoAMformation.Apeakofcellwall–boundperoxidasewasobservedduringtheinitialstagesoffungalpenetrationinleek(Alliumporrum)cells.Onceinfectionwasestablished,theactivitydecreasedtothelevelsshowninnonmycorrhizalplants(139).Inpotatoroots,theactivityofextracellularperoxidaserecoveredinrootleachateswasnotstimulatedbyAMinfection;peroxidaseactivitypergramoffreshweightwassignificantlyenhancedinAMroots(140).WhenpotatoplantsweregrownwithhigherPsupply,extracellularperoxidaseactivityincreasedlinearlywithincreasingPsupply,suggestingaroleofperoxidaseinlimitingAMinfectioninwell-P-nourishedplants(140).Theanalysisofcatalaseandascorbateperoxidaseactivitiesduringtheearlystageoftobacco–Glomusmosseaeinteractionrevealedtransientenhancementsofbothenzymaticactivitiesintheinoculatedplants(141).Theseincreasescoincidedwiththestageofappre-ssoriaformationonrootsurfacesandtheappearanceofapeakofaccumulationoffreesalicylicacidininoculatedroots(141).Thesedataindicatetheactivationofcatalaseandperoxidaseactivitiesinrootcellswherethefungusformingappressoriamightbepartoftheplantresponsetotheinvadingfungus.Theroleoftheseenzymesinthisresponsecouldberelatedtoactivationofadefensivemechanismortoaprocessofcellwallrepairatthesiteofinfection(Fig.3).Alternatively,theearlyactivationofcatalaseandperoxidasemay ... drought on non-mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal maize: Changes in the pools of non-structural carbohydrates, in the activities of invertase and trehalase, and in the pools of amino acids and imino acids.New...

... affecting the efficiency of interaction of the substrate and enzyme molecules. In other words, a portion of the enzyme molecules existing in the field soil may not be actively engaged in catalyzing their ... transforma-tions include the effect of bonding of β-d-glucosidase to a phenolic copolymer of l-tyro-sine, pyrogallol, or resorcinol (108) and of linking of urease to tannic acid (49,52). Sarkar and ... ofurease and invertase in the early 1990s. Gianfreda and coworkers (50) examined the inter-action of invertase (β-fructosidase) with montmorillonite, aluminum hydroxide, and alu-minum hydroxide–montmorillonite...

... Inc.wererepressedbyaddedN;formapleandoak,theseactivitiesincreased.Theresultssuggestedthatwhiterotfungi,whichproduceligninasesinresponsetolowNavailability,weredisplacedbysupplementalN,slowingthedecompositionofrecalcitrantlitter.HenriksenandBreland(27)alsofocusedontheroleofNinthedecompositionprocess.Usingamicrocosmsystemofwheatstrawandsoil,theyfoundthatcarbonminer-alization,fungalbiomass,andactivitiesofcellulolyticandhemicellulolyticenzymesde-creasedwithNavailability.Intheareaofcomparativeecosystemstudies,Sinsabaughetal.(62,63)followedmassloss,NandPimmobilization,andactivityof11typesofextracellularenzymesforbirchsticks(Betulapapyfera)decomposingateightupland,riparian,andloticsitesoverafirst-orderwatershed.Masslossratesamongsitesvariedbyafactorof5andwerecorrelatedwithlignocellulaseactivities.Incontrast,relationshipsbetweenmasslossandactivitiesofacidphosphataseand -1 ,4-N-acetylglucosaminidasevariedwidelyamongsites.TheserelationshipsalongwithanalysesoftheNandPcontentofthestickssuggestedthatdifferencesinmasslossratesamongsitesweretiedtodifferencesinnutrientavail-ability.Inanotherexperiment,litterbagscontainingsenescentleavesofAgeratumconi-zoidesandMallotusphilippinensiswereplacedonthefloorofayoungtropicalforestsiteinnortheastIndia(38).OtherlitterbagscontainingleavesofHolarrhenaantidysentericaandVitexglabratawereplacedatamaturetropicalforestsite.Athigher-elevationsubtrop-icalsites,litterbagscontainingPinuskesiyaandMyricaesculentaleaveswereplacedinayoungforestandbagscontainingPinuskesiyaandAlnusnepalensisleaveswereplacedinamatureforest.Sampleswereanalyzedformassloss,bacterialandfungalnumbers,cellulosecontent,Ncontent,solublesugarcontent,andactivitiesofcellulase,amylase,andinvertase.Cellulaseandamylaseactivitieswerecorrelatedwithmicrobialnumbers.Invertaseactivitycorrelatedwithsolublesugarcontent.Enzymeactivitiesandmasslossrateswerehigheratthelowerelevationsitesbutwerenotrelatedtostandage.Inasimilarstudy,thedecompositionofPinuskesiyaandAlnusnepalensisatadisturbedroadsideforestsitewascomparedwiththatatanundisturbedsite(30).Againcellulaseandamylaseactivitieswerecorrelatedwithmicrobialnumbers,whereasinvertaseactivitywaslinkedtosolublesugars.DillyandMunch(18)studiedenzymeactivitiesandmicrobialrespirationforAlnusglutinosa(blackalder)leavesdecomposingatwetanddrysiteswithinafenforest.Masslossratesweremorethantwiceasfastatthewetsite.Microbialbiomassandrespirationdecreasedovertime(16to2.3µmolgϪ1hϪ1),buttheefficiencyofCutilizationincreased.Thesetrendswereparalleledbydecreasingβ-glucosidaseactivityandincreasingproteaseactivity.III.COMPARATIVEANALYSESInthecontextofthesuccessionalloopmodel(Fig.1),therearethreedimensionsforcomparing ... xylanase, β-glucosidase)were the least affected, phosphatase and sulfatase the most affected; N-acquiring enzymes (urease) were intermediate. Another study of heavy metal contamination in grassland ... everycombination of monomer, linkage, and secondary structure (69). For lignin and other aro-matic molecules, the process is principally oxidative; the enzymes have lower specificity,but the full...

... the years; these include vanilin, indulin, ferrulic acid, and, most importantly,14C-labeled synthetic lignins. Various fungal enzymes are involved in lignin degradation, including lignin peroxidase, ... strains and the extrac-tion of enzymes, provide complementary information on enzyme production by emphasi-zing the potential of the living hyphae and the sum of past and present activities re-spectively. ... enzymes in the upper part of the profile couldbe due to the presence of fungi (chitin in the cell walls) and arthropods (chitin in the exoskeleton) serving as substrates.Enzyme determination using...

... Inc.possibletofindseveralexplanationstointerpretaproteinadsorptionisotherm,withnoexperimentalevidenceavailabletochooseamongthem.TheadvantageoftheNMRmethodisthatitsimultaneouslygivesthequantityofadsorbedprotein,thesurfacecover-ageofthesolidbytheprotein,andthemonolayerormultilayermodeofadsorption (16) .Onlyknowledgeofthesethreefactorsallowsapossibleunfoldingoftheproteinsontheclaysurfacestobedetectedandquantified.1.NuclearMagneticResonanceDetectionoftheExchangeofaParamagneticCationonProteinAdsorptiononClaysTheprincipleofthemethod (16) isbasedonthefactthattheadsorptionofproteinsonclayscausesthereleaseofcharge-compensatingcations(7,17).ItalsousesthesensitivityoftherelaxationtimesT1andT2ofnuclearspinstoparamagneticcationsinNMRspectros-copy(18,19).Asmallquantity(between 3and2 0µMdependingonthepH)ofaparamagneticcation,Mn2ϩ,isaddedtoasodium-saturatedmontmorillonitesuspension(1gLϪ1)witha10-mMconcentrationoforthophosphate.Thesuspensionisstudiedby31PNMRspec-troscopy.Aninterestingphenomenonisobserved:(1)theMn2ϩcationsthatareadsorbedontheclaysurfacedonotinteractatallwiththeorthophosphate,asshownbythecompari-sonbetweentheclaysuspensionandsupernatantafterremovaloftheclaybycentrifuga-tion ;and( 2)theMn2ϩcationsinsolutioninteractwiththeorthophosphate,leadingtoalinearincreaseofthelinewidthathalfheight,∆ν1/2,oftheorthophosphatepeakontheNMRspectrum.Thislasteffectistheresultoftheparamagneticcontributiontothede-creaseofthespin–spinrelaxationtime,T2,oftheorthophosphatesignal.Whenagivenquantityofproteinisintroducedintothissuspension,itdisturbstheequilibriumbetweentheparamagneticMn2ϩadsorbedontheclaysurfaceandthatinsolution.Theanalysisoftheresultinglinewidthoftheorthophosphosphatesignalgivesthequantityofcationsexchangedonadsorption.Witha300-MHzNMRspectrometer,themeasurementtakesafewminutes;witha500-MHzspectrometer,1minissufficient(evenlessifhigherconcentrationsofortho-phosphateareused).Asnocentrifugationisrequiredwiththismethod,thisshorttimeofsignalacquisitioniscompatiblewithkineticstudies.Theresultsareexpressedas∆νP,whichisthedifferencebetween∆ν1/2inthesystemwithparamagneticcationsand∆ν1/2inacontrolofthesamecomposition,(butwithoutparamagneticcations)dividedbytheconcentrationofparamagneticcations.ThesurfacecoverageoftheclaybytheproteincanbededucedfromthefractionofMn2ϩreleased.Theknowledgeofboththequantityofproteinadsorbedandthesurfacecoverageofthesolidallowsthecalculationoftheinterfacialareaofcontactbetweenasingleproteinmoleculeandtheclaysurfaceatdiffer-entpHandionicstrengths.2.ConformationalChangesonAdsorptionofaSoftProtein,BovineSerumAlbumina.DescriptionoftheProgressiveSurfaceCoverageoftheClayFigure1shows the ... (2) a possi-ble unfolding of the protein on the surface changing the interfacial area between individualprotein and surface and the quantity of protein adsorbed at saturation; (3) the surfacecoverage ... contrast to the three preceding models, which assume that the enzymes retain the sameconformation in the adsorbed state and in solution, another model is based on a pH-depen-dent unfolding of the enzyme...