... components, includingDNA, ssRNA, dsRNA and glycoproteins. Thisresponse initiates signaling pathways leading to theinduction of protective cellular genes, including type-Iinterferons [initially interferon ... factors, including IFN regulatory fac-tor-3 (IRF-3) and kinases, including the Tank-bindingkinase 1 (TBK-1) and inhibitor of j B kinase e (IKK-e)[28–31]. Although IRF-3 is located in the cytoplasm ... cytoplasm in an inactive state [28,29], phosphorylation (Ser3 85, 386,396, 398, 402, 4 05, and Thr404) of IRF-3 by TBK-1 and IKK-e induces dimerization and nuclear transloca-tion of IRF -3, leading...