Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - A doc

... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,in a landwhereeach of theuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomain of theuyuwhowasthecause of death.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971). A ComparativeStudy of AdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.Memoirs of theRoyalAsiaticSociety of Bengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPractices of theMinyongAbors of Assam,India."Anthropos49:58 8-6 04. Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III SOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirare a caste of cowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwellover a milliontoday:theynumbered750,000in ... Tomeanethnologistwhospeaks of theAryanrace,Aryanblood,Aryaneyesandhair,isasgreat a sinneras a linguistwhospeaks of a dolichocephalicdictionary,or a brachyce-phalicgrammar."FormanycenturiesaftertheirarrivalintheIndo-GangeticPlain,theAryanslivedashorsemenandcattleherders,clearingpatchesintheforestsandinhabitingsmallvillages,ratherthanlivingintheancienttownsthattheiran-cestorshadprobablyhelpedbringtoruin.Onlywiththestart of theIndianIronAge(about700B.C.)didAryantownsbegintoemerge;thisdevelopmentpresumes a background of settledfarmingintheplainsbythatera.Therehasbeenmuchspeculationaboutthesubsequentdevelopment of northernIndiansocietyandtheAryans'fur-thercolonization of thesubcontinent;aboutrelationsbe-tweenthemandtheconquered"Dasas"or"Dasyu"(namesmeaning"slaves"andprobablyreferringtoremnants of theearlierIndusValleypopulation);andabouttherise of thecastesystem.DuringtheVedicperiod(about1500to800B.C.)theAryansdevelopedtheenormouslyelaboraterituals of Brahmanism,theforerunner of Hinduism;andtheyformed a stratifiedsocietyinwhichtherudiments of thecastesystemwerealreadyapparent.Thustherewas a priestlycaste(Brahmana), a rulingnoblecaste(Rajanya), a warriorcaste(Kshatriya),andthemenialcaste(Sudra).PriortotheMauryanEmpire(321to185B.C.)therewasnoorganizedAr-yangovernmentwith a class of bureaucratstoadministerthelandthroughoutIndia.Instead,therewerenumerousrulingchieftains(rajan)whocommandedtheirarmiesandwereas-sistedbypurohitas,menwhocounseledandprotectedtherul-erswiththeirmagicalskills.Aslargerkingdomsemergedthepurohitabecamelike a combinedarchbishopandprimemin-ister,consecratingtheking,givinghimpoliticalcounsel,andperformingmajorsacrificesforhim.Theintroduction of irontechnologyledtourbanization,andby500B.C.many of thesekingdomshadanimportantmerchantclassinthetownswhowerealreadyusingcopperandsilvercoins.SiddharthaGautama,theBuddha,camefromtherulingfamily of onesuchkingdom(Kosala,nowinBiharState).SeealsoCastes,HinduBibliographyBurrow,Thomas(1975)."TheEarlyAryans."In A CulturalHistory of India,editedby A. L.Basham,2 0-2 9.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Childe,VereGordon(1926).TheAryans: A Study of Indo-EuropeanOrigins.London:KeganPaul,Trench,Triibner&Co.,Ltd.Reprint.1987.NewYork:DorsetPress.Thapar,Romila(1980)."IndiabeforeandaftertheMauryanEmpire."InTheCambridge Encyclopedia of Archaeology,ed-itedbyAndrewSherratt,25 7-2 61.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.PAULHOCKINGSAssameseETHNONYMS:noneTheterm"Assamese"isoftenusedtorefertothosewhoarecitizens of Assam:Mymensinghysettlers(fromBangladesh)andtea-gardenlaborersarethusincludedinitscoverage.Thetermcanalsobeusedtodescribetheindigenousorlong-settledinhabitants of thisnortheastIndianstate.TheBrahmaputraValleypopulationreached12.5mil-lionin1971;atthetime of the1961censustherewere16,307inhabitedvillagesinAssamwithanaveragepopulation of a littlemorethan500.About12millionpeoplespokeAssa-mesein1981.Thepeople of Assamhavebeendescribedassmallinstaturewithdarkyellowcomplexion,anindication of theirMongoloidorigin.Theirlanguagewasinpremoderntimestheeasternmostmember of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.TheAssameseforcenturieshaveoccupied a peripheralposition,bothgeographicallyandpolitically,inrelationtotherest of India.ThecountrywasoriginallyruledbytheAhoms, a ShanpeoplewhomigratedfromupperMyanmar(Burma),atthebeginning of thethirteenthcentury.Thesepeoplevariouslyappliedtheterms"Assam,""Asam,"or"Aham"totheircountry.TheAhomsmaintainedchronicles of themainevents of theirreign.Assamoriginallyconsisted of sixdistricts of thelowerBrahmaputraorAssamValley.Butwhenin1822 a chiefcommissionership of AssamwascreatedbytheBritishitwasextendedtoincludetwodistrictsintheSurmaValley,sixhillareas,andtwofrontiertracts.Villagersassociateonthebasis of membership of a localcenter of de-votionalworshipcalled a "namehouse"(namghar),whosemembersdescribethemselvesas"onepeople"(raij).Thereareusuallyseveralnamehousesin a village.Assamesehouse-holdscanbegradedintofiveeconomiccategories,chieflyonthebasis of income.Villagesarealsomadeup of familiesfrom a number of distinctcastes.RiceisthestapleinAssam.If a harvestisgoodthepeo-plemayrelaxandenjoytheirabundanceforthemonths8AnavilBrahmanstrivetomarrytheirdaughterstoDesaimenbutatthecost of largedowries.Hypergamyisalsopracticed.Thissystemper-mits a womantomarry a man of a higherbutnot a lowerso-cialstatusthanherown.AnavilBrahmanshave a preferenceforpatrilocality,patrilinealsystems of inheritance,andresi-denceinjointfamilygroups.Brahmanicidealsleadto a preferencefordowrymarriage.Thelaws of Manudistinguisheightdifferentforms of marriage, of whichfourareactuallyvariations of thedowrymarriage;anditisthesefourthataretheoreticallyrecommendedtoBrahmans.BibliographyMarriot,McKim(1968).'CasteRankingandFoodTransac-tions: A MatrixAnalysis."InStructureandChangeinIndianSociety,editedbyMiltonSingerandBernardS.Cohn,13 3- 171.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.VanderVeen,KlaasW.(1972).1GiveTheeMyDaughter.Assen:VanGorcum&Comp.N.V.LeSHONKIMBLEAndamaneseETHNONYM:MincopieOrientationIdentification.TheAndamanesearetheindigenoustribes of Negritohuntersandgatherers of theAndamanIslands.In1908,theterm"Andamanese"referredtothirteendistincttribalgroups,eachdistinguishedby a differentdialectandgeographicallocation.Todayonlyfourtribesremainandarereferredtocollectivelyas"Andamanese."ThefourextanttribesaretheOngees of LittleAndamanIsland,theSentine-lese of NorthSentinelIsland,theJarwas of theMiddleAndamans,andtheGreatAndamanese of StraitIsland.Location.TheAndamanIslands,whichcompriseanar-chipelago of 348islands,arelocatedintheBay of Bengalbe-tween10°30'and13°30'Nand92°20'and93°0'E.Thetotallandareais8,293squarekilometers, of whichabout7,464squarekilometersarecoveredwithtropicalrainforests.Thenorthernandcentralislandsarehilly,whilethesouthernislandsaresurroundedbyoffshorecoralreefsandarecriss-crossedwithtidalcreeks.Thesouthwesternandnorthwesternmonsoonscreate a rainyseasonthatlastsapproximatelyninetotenmonthseachyear;annualprecipitationis275to455centimeters.TheonlydryseasonontheislandsbeginsinFebruaryandendsinMarch.Demography.In1800,thetotaltribalpopulationontheislandswasestimatedatapproximately3,575.In1901,theestimatedroppedto1,895,andin1983,thetotaltribalpopu-lationwas269. Of the1983estimateonlythecount of 9GreatAndamaneseand98Ongeeswasaccurate.TheJarwasandtheSentineleseareisolatedbytopographyandbyeachtribe'shostilitytowardoutsiders.Since1789,thepopulation of nontribalpeoplesontheislandshassteadilyincreased.Thetotalnumber of outsidersontheislandswas157,552in1983comparedtothe269tribals.Theintrusion of outsidersanddiseasesintroducedbythem,suchasmeasles,ophthal-mia,andvenerealdisease,hascontributeddirectlytotheoveralldeclineintribalpopulationanditsdisproportionatemale/femaleratio.Theislands'expandingtimberindustryandthesettlement of increasingnumbers of nontribals,pri-marilyfrommainlandIndia,alsohavereducedthetotalareaavailableforusebythetribal.LinguisticAffiliation.Areallinguisticconnection of An-damanesewith South andSoutheastAsianlanguageareashasnotbeensystematicallyestablished.Andamaneseas a languagefamilyiscomposed of twomaingroups:Proto-LittleAndamanese,whichincludesOngee,Jarwa,andSentinelese;andProto-GreatAndamanese.Proto-GreatAndamaneseisfurthersubdividedintothreegroups:BeaandBaie of South Andamans;Puchikwar,Kede,Juwoi,Koi,andJko of MiddleAndamans;andBo,Chari,Jeru,andKora of NorthAnda-mans.Earlyethnographicaccountssuggestthateach of thetribalgroupsontheislandsspokemutuallyunintelligiblelan-guages.Yetlinguisticrecords,compiledbytheisland'sad-ministratorsandmorerecentresearch,suggest a greatdegree of overlapintermsusedbyeachgroup.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAndamanesearebelievedtoshare a culturalaffinitywithsome of theOrangAslis of insularSoutheast Asia. IthasbeenarguedthattheAndamanesearrivedfromtheMalayandBurmesecoastsbylandinlatequaternarytimesor,at a latertime,bysea.ThereisalsospeculationthattheAnda-manesecamefromSumatraviatheNicobarIslands.How-ever,thepreciseorigins of theAndamaneseremainscholarlyspeculationsthathavenotbeenthoroughlyinvestigatedandresearched.Theearlyrecordedhistory of theislandsbeganinearnestwiththeBritishin1788.Rapidchangesintradewindsinthearea,monsoons,andcoralreefssurroundingtheislandscausedmanyshipwrecks;thosefewwhosurvivedship-wreckswerekilledbytheAndamanese.Inaneffortto ... Thus,"Abor"suggestsonewhodoesnotsubmitallegiance(i.e.,onewhoishostile,barbarous,orsavage).ThealternativeviewconnectsthewordwithAbo,theprimordialmaninAbormythology.Thefinal-ristakentobesimilartofinal-rrintribaldesignationssuchasAorr,Simirr,andYim-chungrr,whichmeans"man."Inthe1960s,theAborbegancallingthemselvesAdisbecause of thenegativeconnotations of theirformername(seeAdiintheAppendix).Location.AborcommunitiesinIndiaareconcentratedonthebanks of theSiangandYamnerivers.Theirterritory,totalingsome20,000squarekilometers,hastheIndia-Tibetborderasitsnorthernboundary,Pasighatasitssouthernboundary,andGallongcountryandtheSiyomriverasitswesternboundary.Theregion'sgeographiccoordinatesare28°and29°N,by95°and96"E.Demography.Accordingtothe1971censustherewere4,733Abor. A UnitedBibleSocietiessurveysuggests a totalAdi-speakingpopulation of 84,026in1982.LinguisticAffiliation.TheAborspeakAdi(alsocalledMiri,Abor,Arbor,orMishing), a language of theTibeto-BurmanStockbelongingtotheSino-TibetanPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheAborsimmigratedtotheirIndianhomelandfromthenorthcrossingtheHimalayasintotheAssamValley.Eventu-allytheyretreatedintothehighlandregionsthattheycur-rentlyoccupy.Thecause of thismigrationisunknown,al-thoughnaturalcausesandpoliticalupheavalhavebeensug.gestedaspossiblecatalysts.Itisalsonotknownwhethertheymigratedas a solidbodyat a singlepointinhistory,orinsmallersubgroupsover a period of severalhundredyears.Be-tween1847and1862,theBritishgovernmenttriedunsuc-cessfullytoconquerall of Aborterritory.Followingthefailure of severalmilitaryendeavors, a treatywasreachedthatguar-anteedlimitedBritishhegemonyanduninhibitedtradeandcommunicationonthefrontier.Inspite of occasionaltreatyviolations,anuneasypeacewasmaintained.AfterthefinalBritishmilitaryactionagainsttheAbor(inresponsetothemurder of theassistantpoliticalofficerand a companion)in1912,thehillsnorth of Assamweredividedintowestern,central,andeasternsectionsforadministrativepurposes.Thelast of thesewerecollectivelygiventhename of SadiyaFron-tierTract.In1948,theTirapFrontierTractwasdividedintotheMishmiHillsDistrictandtheAborHillsDistrict.Finally,in1954,thename of theAborHillsDistrictwaschangedtotheSiangFrontierDivision.Sincethistime,theAborhaveundergoneconsiderableacculturation,whichhasresultedin a number of changesinthenature of villagelife,thelocaleconomy,socialstructure,andpoliticalorganization.SettlementsVillagesareusuallybuiltonhilltops(thoughintheplains,Abortendtofollowthelocalpractice of buildingvillagesonlevelland).Preferenceisgiventothoselocationsthataffordaccessto a riverby a slopinginclineononesideandthepro-tection of a verysteepdeclineontheotherside.Housesarebuiltonelevatedplatforms.Theyarearrangedinrowsex-tendingfromthetoptothebottom of thehill,andarecon-structedsothattherearside of thehousefacesthehillitself.Publicbuildingsin a typicalvillageincludethemoshup(bach-elors'dormitory),therasheng(singlefemales'dormitory),andgranaries.Inoldervillages,stonewallswithwoodenrein-forcementsarefound.Majorbuildingmaterialsarebamboo,wood,thatchinggrass,andcane.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themajorsub-sistenceactivitiesarehunting,fishing,gathering,agriculture,andbarter of surpluscropsforbasicnecessitiesandluxuries.Slash-and-burn(orjhum)agricultureisthenorm.Forestandundergrowtharecut,dried,andburned,afterwhichseedsareplanted.Soilfertilityismaintainedfor a period of onetothreeyearsusingthismethod.Agriculturallandisgradedac-cordingtolatentfertility,andcropsareassignedaccordingly.36AborFiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1962).TheApaTanisandTheirNeighbours.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Lal,Parmanand,andBimanKumarDasGupta(1979).LowerSiangPeople.Calcutta:Government of India.Roy,Sachin(1960).Aspects of Padam-MinyongCulture.Shillong:Notth-EastFrontierAgency.Simoons,FrederickJ.,andElizabethS.Simoons(1968). A CeremonialOx of India:TheMithaninNature,Culture,andHistory.Madison:University of WisconsinPress.Srivastava,L.R.N.(1962).TheGallongs.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.HUGHRPAGE,JRAgariaETHNONYMS:Agariya,AghariaAlthoughtheAgariaarenot a homogeneousgroup,itisbelievedtheywereoriginally a Dravidian-speakingbranch of theGondtribe.As a separatecaste,however,theydodistin-guishthemselvesfromothersbytheirprofessionasironsmelters.Theirpopulationwas17,548in1971,andtheywerewidelydispersedacrosscentralIndiaontheMaikalrangeinMandla,Raipur,andBilaspurdistricts of MadhyaPradesh.Thereareothercastes of AgariasamongtheLoharsaswell.TheAgaria'snamecomesfromeithertheHindugod of fireAgni,ortheirtribaldemonwhowasborninflame,Agyasur.TheAgarialiveintheirownsection of a villageortown,orsometimestheyhavetheirownhamletoutside of a town.Sometravelfromtowntotownworkingtheirtradeaswell.Asalreadyindicated,thetraditionaloccupation of theAgariaisironsmelting.TheygettheirorefromtheMaikalrange,pre.ferringstones of a darkreddishcolor.Oreandcharcoalareplacedinfurnacesthatareblastedby a pair of bellowsworkedbythesmelters'feetandchanneledtothefurnacethroughbambootubes, a processthatiskeptupforhours.Theclayin-sulation of thekilnisbrokenupandthemoltenslagandcharcoalaretakenandhammered.Theyproduceplowshares,mattocks,axes,andsickles.Traditionallybothmenandwomen(inBilaspurmenonly)collecttheoreandmakethecharcoalforthefurnaces.Atduskthewomencleanandpreparethekilnsforthenextday'swork,bycleaningandbreakingupthepieces of oreandroastingtheminanordinaryfire;thetuyeres(cylindricalclayventsfordeliveringairto a furnace)arerolledbyhandandmadebythewomenaswell.Duringsmeltingoperationsthewomenworkthebellows,andthemenhammerandfashiontheoreonanvils.Theconstruction of a newfurnaceisanim-portanteventinvolvingthewholefamily:themendigtheholesforthepostsanddotheheavywork,thewomenplasterthewalls,andthechildrenbringwaterandclayfromtheriver;uponcompletion, a mantra(prayer)isrecitedoverthefur-nacetoensureitsproductiveness.TherearetwoendogamoussubcastesamongtheAgaria,thePathariaandtheKhuntias.Thesetwosubgroupsdonotevensharewaterwitheachother.TheexogamousdivisionsusuallyhavethesamenamesastheGonds,suchasSonureni,Dhurua,Tekam,Markam,Uika,Purtai,Marai,toname a few.SomenamessuchasAhindwar,Ranchirai,andRattoriaare of HindioriginandareanindicationthatsomenorthernHinduspossiblyhavebeenincorporatedintothetribe.Indi-vidualsbelongingto a sectionarebelievedtoconstitute a lineagewith a commonancestorandarethereforeexoga-mous.Descentistracedpatrilineally.Marriagesareusuallyar-rangedbythefather.When a boy'sfatherdecidestoarrange a marriage,emissariesaresenttothegirl'sfatherandifac-ceptedpresentswillfollow.ContrarytoHindumarriagecus-toms,marriageispermittedduringthemonsoonswhenironsmeltingispostponedandthereisnowork. A bride-priceisgenerallypaid a fewdaysbeforetheceremony.AswiththeGonds,firstcousinsarepermittedtomarry.Widowmarriageisacceptedandisexpectedwithone'slatehusband'syoungerbrother,particularlyifheis a bachelor.Divorceisallowedforeitherpartyincases of adultery,extravagance,ormistreat-ment.If a womanleavesherhusbandwithoutbeingdivorced,theothermanbycustomisobligatedtopay a pricetothehusband.Evenamongthewidelydispersedsubgroups of theAgariatheretraditionallyhasbeendiscrimination:amongtheAsur,marriagewassanctionedbycustomwiththeChokh,althoughbothgroupsrefusedtomarrywiththeHinduLoharsubgroup,owingtotheirlowerstatus.ThefamilygodisDulhaDeo,towhomofferings of goats,fowl,coconuts,andcakesaremade.TheyalsosharetheGonddeity of theforest,BuraDeo.Lohasur,theirondemon,istheirprofessionaldeity,whomtheybelieveinhabitsthesmeltingkilns.DuringPhagunandontheday of DasahiatheAgariamakeofferings of fowlas a sign of devotiontotheirsmeltingimplements.Traditionally,villagesorcererswerere-cruitedduringtimes of sicknesstodeterminethedeitywhohadbeenoffended,towhomanatonementwouldthenbeoffered.BibliographyElwin,Verrier(1942).TheAgaria.Oxford:HumphreyMil-ford,OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916)."Agaria."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,byR.V.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.2, 3-8 .Nagpur:GovernmentPrintingPress.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOAbor5SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theprimaryallegiance of anindivid-ualistohisorherfamily.Thecohesion of largergroupswithinthesociety,suchassubclans,clans,andmoieties,canalsobeoccasionedbydisputesandconflictsthatthreatenoneormore of theconstituentmembers of theselargergroups.AmongtheAbor'sprimaryinstitutionsmustbein-cludedjhumagriculture,thenuclearfamily,themoshup,andtherasheng.Theanticipatedsecondaryinstitutions(i.e.,corereligiousbeliefs,ritualcults,andfolklorecorpus)alsoobtainamongtheAbor.Traditionally,socialstatuswasachievedthroughtheaccumulation of wealth.Today,educationandoccupationarealsoviewedassigns of status.PoliticalOrganization.Eachvillageisanautonomousunitwhoseaffairsareadministeredby a council(kebang).Councilmembershipconsists of clanrepresentativesandin-dividualvillagemembers.Everyaspect of villagelifeisgov-ernedbythekebang.Thisincludesthemediation of localdis-putes.Groups of villagesareorganizedintobangos,whicharegovernedby a bangocouncil.Disputesbetweenbangosaremediatedby a bogumbokang (a temporaryinterbangocouncilmadeup of bangoeldersfromthesamegroup).SocialControl.Sources of conflictwithinAborsocietyin-cludemaritalandfamilialdisputes,divorce,theft,assault,andinheritancedisputes.Theresolution of conflictandtheregulation of behaviorwithin...

... a verylargeproportion of thepopulation.IndustrialArtsandDivision of Labor.Amongtheagri-culturalJat,traditionallyonlythemenworkinthefields,Jain109primeresponsibilityfordiggingthegrave,buttheKurumbapresentalsoassists.Whenallisready,thebodyisplacedinthegravesothatitfacestowardthenorth.ThelocalIrulapriest(pujari)thengazesat a lampandgoesinto a trance. A member of thebereavedfamilyaskshimifthedeathwasnat-uralortheresult of sorcery.Ifnatural,thegraveisfilledinrightaway.Ifsorcerywasthecause of death,elaborateritualusedtobeperformed;today,however,thepriestsays a simpleandhastyprayertoeaseanytorment of thespiritandtoen-ableittodepartpeaceably.Allthemournersthenleave. A highlightintheending of thesevendays of ritualpollutionamongthecloserelatives of thedeceasedisthedistribution of newclothingbytheKurumbatotheserelatives.Assoonaspossibleafterthefuneral,preferablywithin a month, a stone(oftenwaterwornandfrom a streambed,butsometimessculptedbynon-Irulas)isplacedintheancestraltempletogivethedeceased a placetostay.Because of thebeliefthat,without a stone,thespirit of thedeceasedwandersaroundandmaybecometroublesomeifitdoessofortoolong,thetimeissueisunderstandable.Afterpouring a littleoilonthestoneaspart of a prayerritualandleavingfoodanddrinkforthespirit of thedeparted,therelativesleave.Once a year,allthosewhohad a relativewhodiedwithintheyearparticipatein a finalceremony.Eachfamilypurchases a newclothandricegruelisprepared.Atthenearbyriverorstream,thegruelispouredoverthecloths,whicharethensetadrift.Inaddi-tiontohonoringthespirits of thosewhodiedwithintheyear,theIrulatherebyhonoralltheancestralspirits of therelatedpatricians.Aftergroupfeasting,dancingcontinuesintothenight.SeealsoBadaga;Kota;KurumbasBibliographyBuchanan,Francis(later,Buchanan-Hamilton)(1807). A JourneyfromMadrasthroughtheCountries of Mysore,Canara,andMalabar.Vol.2.London:W.Bulmer&Co.Jebadhas, A. William,andWilliam A. Noble(1989).'TheIrulas."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,28 1-3 03.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1965).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.20,Hallimoyar.Delhi:Manager of Publications,Government of India.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1966).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.23,Nellithorai.Delhi:Manager of Publications.Zvelebil,KamilV.(197 3-1 982).TheIrulaLanguage.3vols.Wiesbaden:OttoHarrassowitz.Zvelebil,KamilV.(1988).TheIrulas of theBlueMountains.ForeignandComparativeStudies /South AsianSeries,no.13.Syracuse,N.Y.:MaxwellSchool of CitizenshipandPublicAffairs,SyracuseUniversity.WILLIAM A. NOBLEAND A. WILLIAMJEBADHASJainETHNONYMS:nonePossiblytheoldestasceticreligioustraditiononEarth,Jainismisfollowedtodaybyabout3.5millionpeople,especiallyinRajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,Gujarat,Maharashtra,andKarnataka.AlongwithBuddhism,Jainismwasone of severalre-nunciatorymovements-theSramanaschools-thatgrewupinmodem-dayBiharandsouthernNepalinthesixthcenturyB.C.TheotherSrarnanamovements(includingBuddhism)gradu-allydiedoutinIndia,leavingJainismastheonlyonewithanunbrokensuccession of Indianfollowersdowntothepresentday.TheSramanaschools,indudingJainism,reactedagainstthecontemporaryform of Hinduism(knownasBrahmanism)andpositedthatworldlylifeisinherentlyunhappy-anendlesscycle of deathandrebirth-andthatliberationfromitisachievednotthroughsacrificesorpropitiatingthegodsbutthroughinnermeditationanddiscipline.ThuswhileJamsinIndiatodaysharemanysocialpracticeswiththeirHinduneigh-bors(indeed,severalcasteshavebothHinduandJainmem-bers),theirreligioustraditionisinmanywaysphilosophicallyclosertoBuddhism,thoughdistinctlymorerigidinitsasceti-cismthanBuddhismhasbeen.The"founder" of JainismistakenbymodernscholarstobeMahavira("greathero"),otherwiseknownasVardhamana(c.59 9-5 27B.C.);butthereisevidencethatJainpracticeswereinexistenceforsometimebeforehim.TheJaintextsspeak of a succession of prophets(tirthankaras)stretchingbackintomythologicaltime, of whomMahavirawasthetwenty-fourthandlast.Thetirthankarasaredistinguishedbythefactthattheyarethoughttohaveachievedliberation of theirsoulsthroughmeditationandausteritiesandthenpreachedthemessage of salvationbeforefinallyleavingtheirmortalbodies.Jainstodayworshipalltwenty-fourtirthan-karas,notinthesense of askingthemforboonsorfavors,butinmemory of thepaththeytaught.One of themostpopular of theJaintextsistheKalpaSutra,atleastpart of whichisca-nonicalandmaydatebacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,andwhichdescribes,amongotherthings,thelives of alltwenty-fourtirthankaras.Theessentialprinciple of Jainphilosophyisthatallliv-ingthings,eventhetiniestinsects,haveanimmortalsoul(iva),whichcontinuestobereincarnatedasitisboundandconstrainedbykarma -a form of matterthatisattractedtothesoulthroughgoodandbaddesiresinthisandinpastlives.Thustofreethesoulonemustperformausteritiestostripawaythekarma-matterandcultivateinoneself a detach-mentordesirelessnessthatwillnotattractfurtherkarma.Theprinciplemeanstothisendisthepractice of ahimsa,thelack of desiretocauseharmtoanylivingthing.Fromthisprinci-plearisesthemostcharacteristicfeatures of Jainlife:insis-tenceon a strictvegetariandiet,filteringdrinkingwater,run-ninganimalsheltersandhospitals,neverlyingorcausinghurttoothers,temporarilyorpermanentlywearing a gauzemasktopreventinsectsfromenteringthebody,andsweepingthegroundinfront of one'severystep.ForsomeJains,theirdevotiontoahimsaleadsthemtobeordainedasmonksandnunswholivethelife of wanderingascetics.MostJainstoday,however,arelaity,livingworldlyJatav113stillobserveHindumarriageritesandtillrecentlyfollowedHindufuneralcustoms;themajorityalsoemployedBrah-mansasfamilypriests.InmostvillagesinhabitedbySikhJatthereistheshrine of a Sikhmartyr of oldthatactsasanan-cestralfocusfortheminimallineage.Varioussupernaturalbeingsplay a roleinJatlifeandarecommontomostjatirre-spective of creed;beliefinmany of themiswidespreadintheregionas a whole.Arts.Thewomen of thenomadicJatareveryskilledinneedleworkandembroidervarioustextilesusingthreads of manycolorsinthedeltaregionbutmainlyblackandredinthenorth;tinypieces of mirrorarealsousedtodecoratethesetextiles.DeathandAfterlife.Jatholdconflictingviewsonlifeafterdeath.SomebelieveinthetraditionalHinduconcept of rebirth,othersbelieveingoingtoHellorHeaven,butmanybelievethatthereisnoexistenceafterdeathandthatthereisnoform of lifebesidesthepresentoneonEarth.SeealsoAhir;Baluchi;Gujar,Pathan;Punjabi;Rajput;SikhBibliographyHershman,Paul(1981).PunjabiKinshipandMarriage.Delhi:Hindustan.Kessinger,TomG.(1974).Vilayatpur,184 8-1 968:SocialandEconomicChangein a NorthIndianVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Lewis,Oscar(1958).VillageLifeinNorthernIndia.NewYork:RandomHouse.Pettigrew,Joyce(1975).RobberNoblemen: A Study of thePo-liticalSystem of theSikhJats.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Pradhan,M.C.(1966).ThePoliticalSystem of theJats of NorthernIndia.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Rao,Aparna(1986)."PeripateticMinoritiesinAfghanis-tan-ImageandIdentity."InDieethnischenGruppenAfghanistans,editedbyE.Orywal.Wiesbaden:L.Reichert.Westphal-Hellbusch,Sigrid,andHeinzWestphal(1968).ZurGeschichteundKulturderJat.Berlin:Duncker&Humblot.APARNARAOJatavETHNONYMS:Jadav,Jatava,Jatua;alsoknownasChamar,Harijan,ScheduledCaste,UntouchableOrientationIdentification.TheJatavsareanendogamouscaste of theChamar,orleatherworker,category of castesinIndia.Be-cause of thepollutingoccupation of leatherworkertheyrankamongtheUntouchablecastesclosetothebottom of India'scastehierarchy.Somesaythename"Jatav"isderivedfromthewordjat(cameldriver),whileotherssayitisderivedfrom"Jat,"thename of a non-Untouchablefarmingcaste.Manyjatavsthemselvessayitisderivedfromtheterm"Yadav,"thelineage of LordKrishna.Theyarealsoknownas a ScheduledCastebecause,asUntouchables,theyareincludedon a schedule of casteseligibleforgovernmentaid.MahatmaGandhigavetoUntouchablesthename"Harijans"or"chil-dren of god,"butJatavsrejectthetermanditsconnotations of Untouchablechildlikenessandupper-castepaternalism.Location.Jatavslivemostlyinthestates of UttarPradesh,Rajasthan,Haryana,andPunjab,aswellasintheUnionTer-ritory of DelhiinnorthwestIndia.Thisis a semiaridareawithrainfallmostlyinthemonsoonseason of JunetoAugustandlesserrainsinJanuary-February.Temperaturesrangefrom5.9°CinJanuary-Februaryto41.5°CinMay-June.Demography.Jatavsarenotlistedseparatelyinthecensus of IndiabutalongwithotherChamars.InthefourstatesmentionedaboveChamarsnumbered27,868,146,about9.9percent of thethosestates'population(1981).linguisticAffiliation.Jatavsspeakrelatedlanguages of theIndo-AryanFamily of languagesincludingHindi,Rajas-thani,andBrajBhasha,allusingtheDevanagariscript,aswellasPunjabiusingtheGurmukhiscript.Chamarsinotherparts of Indiaspeakotherlanguages of theIndo-AryanFam-ilyandlanguages of theunrelatedDravidianFamily,suchasTamilandTelugu.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOrigins of theJatavs,aswellasmostotherChamarandUn-touchablecastes,aremythical.SomesaytheJatavsaretheproduct of marriage of upper-casteJatswithChamarwomen.Jatavsthemselvesdenysuchorigins.InpreindependentIndiatheyclaimedupper-casteKshatriyaorwarriororigin.Inpost-independentIndiamanyhaveclaimedtobedescendants of India'sancientBuddhists.Thisclaimisinpart a rejection of Untouchablestatusandinpartanassertion of a politicalidentity of equalityrejectingthecastesystem.SettlementsInvillages,where90percent of India'sUntouchableslive,Jatavsliveinhamletsseparatefromnon-Untouchablecastes,whileincitiestheyliveinsegregatedneighborhoods.Inlargersettlementsincitiesthesemaybebrokendownintosubsec-tionswithseparateleadership.Housesaredenselygroupedin a nucleatedpattern.Housingstyleis of twotypes:kaccaandpakka.Kaccahomesaregenerallyoneroommade of mud, ... aremakingthemselvesfeltas a distinctivepresencewithinthewider South Asianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssembly of Listeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500Years of JainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPath of Purification.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.Institute of Indology.Sangave,Vilas A. (1959).JainaCommunity: A SocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargeparts of northernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Most of thesecommunitiesareintegratedas a casteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigration of thepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatare of entirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsare of thesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunities of peripateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andto a certainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulation of allsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsists of severalmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guages of theIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivision of labor,eachcastehaving a traditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasks of removingdeadcattlefromthevillageand of workingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottom of thesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependencies of thecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelike a distinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydeveloping a literatecadre of leaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulation of upper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepractice of untouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicy of "protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentages of pop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.Jatavshavetakenadvantage of thatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystem of government.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembers of theircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects. A majorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,provided a powerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadership of localcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehands of hereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscases of conflict,breaches of casterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncils of adultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowers of hereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetaken a politicalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepace of changeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevotees of theChamarsaintRaviDas. A num-ber of JatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismas a rejection of thecastesystemandasanasser-tion of theequality of allindividuals.Buddhismforthemis a politicalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedas a bodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.Beliefisinthemajordeities of Hindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepart of thepantheon.Ghosts of thosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fear of theevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincases of spiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonor of thegirl'sfamily,cooperation of neighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamilies of marrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipation of agnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyand of womentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenover a period of a year.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecomposition of vari-ousforms of poetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousforms of song.Medicine.Folkremediesareusedandpractitioners of Ayurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigration of soulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak). A sontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafter a number of days.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamars of Senapur: A Study of Jat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistory of theJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendants of thefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyare of Indo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginning of theChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunities of thearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecause of thebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecause of thesimilarpoliticalandeco-nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortherule of casteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-gins of theJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplace of origin.Inthesev-enteenthcentury a (Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedinthearea of BharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcome of manycenturies of rebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforces of theBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyears of theeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasion of thearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolled a majorpart of theareathroughclose-knitbands of armedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadership of thelandowningchiefs of well-definedterritor-ies.Because of theirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-trators of imperialIndiaas a 'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisday a verylargenumber of JataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpart of Punjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreation of anautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatas a wholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJat of variousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarization of no-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecades of theeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspices of Sikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedover a verylargeareawiththeexpansion of irrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansion of cul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin ... a verylargeproportion of thepopulation.IndustrialArtsandDivision of Labor.Amongtheagri-culturalJat,traditionallyonlythemenworkinthefields,Jain109primeresponsibilityfordiggingthegrave,buttheKurumbapresentalsoassists.Whenallisready,thebodyisplacedinthegravesothatitfacestowardthenorth.ThelocalIrulapriest(pujari)thengazesat a lampandgoesinto a trance. A member of thebereavedfamilyaskshimifthedeathwasnat-uralortheresult of sorcery.Ifnatural,thegraveisfilledinrightaway.Ifsorcerywasthecause of death,elaborateritualusedtobeperformed;today,however,thepriestsays a simpleandhastyprayertoeaseanytorment of thespiritandtoen-ableittodepartpeaceably.Allthemournersthenleave. A highlightintheending of thesevendays of ritualpollutionamongthecloserelatives of thedeceasedisthedistribution of newclothingbytheKurumbatotheserelatives.Assoonaspossibleafterthefuneral,preferablywithin a month, a stone(oftenwaterwornandfrom a streambed,butsometimessculptedbynon-Irulas)isplacedintheancestraltempletogivethedeceased a placetostay.Because of thebeliefthat,without a stone,thespirit of thedeceasedwandersaroundandmaybecometroublesomeifitdoessofortoolong,thetimeissueisunderstandable.Afterpouring a littleoilonthestoneaspart of a prayerritualandleavingfoodanddrinkforthespirit of thedeparted,therelativesleave.Once a year,allthosewhohad a relativewhodiedwithintheyearparticipatein a finalceremony.Eachfamilypurchases a newclothandricegruelisprepared.Atthenearbyriverorstream,thegruelispouredoverthecloths,whicharethensetadrift.Inaddi-tiontohonoringthespirits of thosewhodiedwithintheyear,theIrulatherebyhonoralltheancestralspirits of therelatedpatricians.Aftergroupfeasting,dancingcontinuesintothenight.SeealsoBadaga;Kota;KurumbasBibliographyBuchanan,Francis(later,Buchanan-Hamilton)(1807). A JourneyfromMadrasthroughtheCountries of Mysore,Canara,andMalabar.Vol.2.London:W.Bulmer&Co.Jebadhas, A. William,andWilliam A. Noble(1989).'TheIrulas."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,28 1-3 03.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1965).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.20,Hallimoyar.Delhi:Manager of Publications,Government of India.Nambiar,P.K.,andT.B.Bharathi(1966).Census of India,1961.Vol.9,Madras,pt.6.VillageSurveyMonographs,no.23,Nellithorai.Delhi:Manager of Publications.Zvelebil,KamilV.(197 3-1 982).TheIrulaLanguage.3vols.Wiesbaden:OttoHarrassowitz.Zvelebil,KamilV.(1988).TheIrulas of theBlueMountains.ForeignandComparativeStudies /South AsianSeries,no.13.Syracuse,N.Y.:MaxwellSchool of CitizenshipandPublicAffairs,SyracuseUniversity.WILLIAM A. NOBLEAND A. WILLIAMJEBADHASJainETHNONYMS:nonePossiblytheoldestasceticreligioustraditiononEarth,Jainismisfollowedtodaybyabout3.5millionpeople,especiallyinRajasthan,MadhyaPradesh,Gujarat,Maharashtra,andKarnataka.AlongwithBuddhism,Jainismwasone of severalre-nunciatorymovements-theSramanaschools-thatgrewupinmodem-dayBiharandsouthernNepalinthesixthcenturyB.C.TheotherSrarnanamovements(includingBuddhism)gradu-allydiedoutinIndia,leavingJainismastheonlyonewithanunbrokensuccession of Indianfollowersdowntothepresentday.TheSramanaschools,indudingJainism,reactedagainstthecontemporaryform of Hinduism(knownasBrahmanism)andpositedthatworldlylifeisinherentlyunhappy-anendlesscycle of deathandrebirth-andthatliberationfromitisachievednotthroughsacrificesorpropitiatingthegodsbutthroughinnermeditationanddiscipline.ThuswhileJamsinIndiatodaysharemanysocialpracticeswiththeirHinduneigh-bors(indeed,severalcasteshavebothHinduandJainmem-bers),theirreligioustraditionisinmanywaysphilosophicallyclosertoBuddhism,thoughdistinctlymorerigidinitsasceti-cismthanBuddhismhasbeen.The"founder" of JainismistakenbymodernscholarstobeMahavira("greathero"),otherwiseknownasVardhamana(c.59 9-5 27B.C.);butthereisevidencethatJainpracticeswereinexistenceforsometimebeforehim.TheJaintextsspeak of a succession of prophets(tirthankaras)stretchingbackintomythologicaltime, of whomMahavirawasthetwenty-fourthandlast.Thetirthankarasaredistinguishedbythefactthattheyarethoughttohaveachievedliberation of theirsoulsthroughmeditationandausteritiesandthenpreachedthemessage of salvationbeforefinallyleavingtheirmortalbodies.Jainstodayworshipalltwenty-fourtirthan-karas,notinthesense of askingthemforboonsorfavors,butinmemory of thepaththeytaught.One of themostpopular of theJaintextsistheKalpaSutra,atleastpart of whichisca-nonicalandmaydatebacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,andwhichdescribes,amongotherthings,thelives of alltwenty-fourtirthankaras.Theessentialprinciple of Jainphilosophyisthatallliv-ingthings,eventhetiniestinsects,haveanimmortalsoul(iva),whichcontinuestobereincarnatedasitisboundandconstrainedbykarma -a form of matterthatisattractedtothesoulthroughgoodandbaddesiresinthisandinpastlives.Thustofreethesoulonemustperformausteritiestostripawaythekarma-matterandcultivateinoneself a detach-mentordesirelessnessthatwillnotattractfurtherkarma.Theprinciplemeanstothisendisthepractice of ahimsa,thelack of desiretocauseharmtoanylivingthing.Fromthisprinci-plearisesthemostcharacteristicfeatures of Jainlife:insis-tenceon a strictvegetariandiet,filteringdrinkingwater,run-ninganimalsheltersandhospitals,neverlyingorcausinghurttoothers,temporarilyorpermanentlywearing a gauzemasktopreventinsectsfromenteringthebody,andsweepingthegroundinfront of one'severystep.ForsomeJains,theirdevotiontoahimsaleadsthemtobeordainedasmonksandnunswholivethelife of wanderingascetics.MostJainstoday,however,arelaity,livingworldlyJatav113stillobserveHindumarriageritesandtillrecentlyfollowedHindufuneralcustoms;themajorityalsoemployedBrah-mansasfamilypriests.InmostvillagesinhabitedbySikhJatthereistheshrine of a Sikhmartyr of oldthatactsasanan-cestralfocusfortheminimallineage.Varioussupernaturalbeingsplay a roleinJatlifeandarecommontomostjatirre-spective of creed;beliefinmany of themiswidespreadintheregionas a whole.Arts.Thewomen of thenomadicJatareveryskilledinneedleworkandembroidervarioustextilesusingthreads of manycolorsinthedeltaregionbutmainlyblackandredinthenorth;tinypieces of mirrorarealsousedtodecoratethesetextiles.DeathandAfterlife.Jatholdconflictingviewsonlifeafterdeath.SomebelieveinthetraditionalHinduconcept of rebirth,othersbelieveingoingtoHellorHeaven,butmanybelievethatthereisnoexistenceafterdeathandthatthereisnoform of lifebesidesthepresentoneonEarth.SeealsoAhir;Baluchi;Gujar,Pathan;Punjabi;Rajput;SikhBibliographyHershman,Paul(1981).PunjabiKinshipandMarriage.Delhi:Hindustan.Kessinger,TomG.(1974).Vilayatpur,184 8-1 968:SocialandEconomicChangein a NorthIndianVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Lewis,Oscar(1958).VillageLifeinNorthernIndia.NewYork:RandomHouse.Pettigrew,Joyce(1975).RobberNoblemen: A Study of thePo-liticalSystem of theSikhJats.London:Routledge&KeganPaul.Pradhan,M.C.(1966).ThePoliticalSystem of theJats of NorthernIndia.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Rao,Aparna(1986)."PeripateticMinoritiesinAfghanis-tan-ImageandIdentity."InDieethnischenGruppenAfghanistans,editedbyE.Orywal.Wiesbaden:L.Reichert.Westphal-Hellbusch,Sigrid,andHeinzWestphal(1968).ZurGeschichteundKulturderJat.Berlin:Duncker&Humblot.APARNARAOJatavETHNONYMS:Jadav,Jatava,Jatua;alsoknownasChamar,Harijan,ScheduledCaste,UntouchableOrientationIdentification.TheJatavsareanendogamouscaste of theChamar,orleatherworker,category of castesinIndia.Be-cause of thepollutingoccupation of leatherworkertheyrankamongtheUntouchablecastesclosetothebottom of India'scastehierarchy.Somesaythename"Jatav"isderivedfromthewordjat(cameldriver),whileotherssayitisderivedfrom"Jat,"thename of a non-Untouchablefarmingcaste.Manyjatavsthemselvessayitisderivedfromtheterm"Yadav,"thelineage of LordKrishna.Theyarealsoknownas a ScheduledCastebecause,asUntouchables,theyareincludedon a schedule of casteseligibleforgovernmentaid.MahatmaGandhigavetoUntouchablesthename"Harijans"or"chil-dren of god,"butJatavsrejectthetermanditsconnotations of Untouchablechildlikenessandupper-castepaternalism.Location.Jatavslivemostlyinthestates of UttarPradesh,Rajasthan,Haryana,andPunjab,aswellasintheUnionTer-ritory of DelhiinnorthwestIndia.Thisis a semiaridareawithrainfallmostlyinthemonsoonseason of JunetoAugustandlesserrainsinJanuary-February.Temperaturesrangefrom5.9°CinJanuary-Februaryto41.5°CinMay-June.Demography.Jatavsarenotlistedseparatelyinthecensus of IndiabutalongwithotherChamars.InthefourstatesmentionedaboveChamarsnumbered27,868,146,about9.9percent of thethosestates'population(1981).linguisticAffiliation.Jatavsspeakrelatedlanguages of theIndo-AryanFamily of languagesincludingHindi,Rajas-thani,andBrajBhasha,allusingtheDevanagariscript,aswellasPunjabiusingtheGurmukhiscript.Chamarsinotherparts of Indiaspeakotherlanguages of theIndo-AryanFam-ilyandlanguages of theunrelatedDravidianFamily,suchasTamilandTelugu.HistoryandCulturalRelationsOrigins of theJatavs,aswellasmostotherChamarandUn-touchablecastes,aremythical.SomesaytheJatavsaretheproduct of marriage of upper-casteJatswithChamarwomen.Jatavsthemselvesdenysuchorigins.InpreindependentIndiatheyclaimedupper-casteKshatriyaorwarriororigin.Inpost-independentIndiamanyhaveclaimedtobedescendants of India'sancientBuddhists.Thisclaimisinpart a rejection of Untouchablestatusandinpartanassertion of a politicalidentity of equalityrejectingthecastesystem.SettlementsInvillages,where90percent of India'sUntouchableslive,Jatavsliveinhamletsseparatefromnon-Untouchablecastes,whileincitiestheyliveinsegregatedneighborhoods.Inlargersettlementsincitiesthesemaybebrokendownintosubsec-tionswithseparateleadership.Housesaredenselygroupedin a nucleatedpattern.Housingstyleis of twotypes:kaccaandpakka.Kaccahomesaregenerallyoneroommade of mud,...

... notdramatically.LinguisticAffiliation.KotasspeaktheKotalanguageorKo-vMa-nt, a DravidianlanguagecloselyrelatedtoTodaandalsohavingstronglinguisticaffiliationswithveryearlyTamilandMalayalam.AllKotasspeakBadagaandTamilalso,ashistoricallytheyhavehadtocommunicatewithoutsidersinlanguagesotherthantheirown.HistoryandCulturalRelationsWhilesomescholarsandmembers of NilgiricommunitiesmaintainthattheKotaswereplacedintheNilgiristorenderservicesfortheirneighbors,theKotasbelievethemselvestobeautochthons.Theydescribe a godwhocreatedtheKotas,Todas,andKurumbasandtaughtthemtheskillstheytradi-138Kota A villageshouldhave a te-rka-ranandmundika-no-nforeach of theirtwoorthreeindigenousKotatemples.Foronereasonoranotherseveralvillageshavebeenunabletoreplacealltheirpriestsinrecentyears. A peculiarfeature of Kotapriest-hoodistheparticipation of thewives of thepriests.Infactthesewomenaresoimportantthat a priestcannolongerholdofficeifhiswifedies.Inmajorceremoniesnotonlythepriests'wives,butalsothegotga-m'swifeandthose of theotherceremonialhelpers(ca-tranga-rn)playinstrumentalroles.Whereasmostpractitionersareadults,youngboysareessentialinseveralceremonies.Forexample,indeathcere-monies a youngboycalledticvecmogactsasheadpriestand,amongotherthings,lightsthefuneralpyre.TheKotapriestsforwidelyrecognizedHindudeitiesarenotrelatedtothete.rka-ranormundika-no-nandhavenoritualinteractionwiththem.However,sometimesthewives of thesepriests,likethose of theircounterparts,playanintegralrole ... inthepast.Theirtraditionforsorceryremainsbutpersonalfearisnowlittlefeltbyneighboringtribespeople.TodaythequestionariseastowhethertheKurumbasaredescendedfromancientNilgiriancestorswhowereprimarilygatherersorfromfarmorerecentfarmingimmigrants.Theirlanguagebelongstothe South DravidianSubfamily.Ingen-eralthegroupshave a clanorganizationthatisexogamousandpatrilineal.Thetribespracticeendogamy.Cross-cousinmarriagesfrequentlyoccur.Traditionallythereare a number of officeswithinthetribeincludingthevillageheadman(maniagara)andpriest(mannugara).Theheadmanandas-sistantheadman'sofficesarehereditaryinthemaleline,whileeither a maleor a femalemaybe a priestorsorcerer.Traditionalreligiousbeliefsinvolveanancestorcultwithanemphasisonpollutionandpurity,whichparallelsothersuchbeliefsupheldinHinduismgenerally.TodayyoungpeopleareembracingbothHinduismandChristianityinadditiontothetraditionalbeliefs.SeealsoIrula;NayakaBibliographyKapp,DieterB.(197 8a) ."PiluKurumbaRiddles:Specimens of a South DravidianTribalLanguage."Bulletin of theSchool of OrientalandAfricanStudies41:51 2-5 22.London:Univer-sity of London.Kapp,DeiterB.(1978b)."ChildbirthandName-GivingamongtheAluKurumbas of South India."InAspects of Tri-balLifein South Asia. Vol.1,StrategyandSurvival.Proceed-ings of anInternationalSeminarheldinBeme,1977.EditedbyRupertRMoserandMohanK.Gautam,16 7-1 80.Bern:StudiaEthnologicaBernensia1.Kapp,DieterB.(1978c)."DieKindheits-undjugendritenderAlu-Kurumbas(Siidindien)."ZeitschriftfurEthnologie103:27 9-2 89.KappDieterB.(1980)."DieOrdinationdesPriestersbeidenAlu-Kurumbas(Sfidindien)."Anthropos75:43 3-4 46.Kapp,DieterB.(1982)."TheConcept of YamaintheReli-gion of a South IndianTribe."Journal of theAmericanOrien-talSociety102:51 7-5 21.Kapp,DieterB.(1985)."TheKurumbas'Relationshiptothe'Megalithic'Cult of theNilgiriHills (South India)."Anthro-pos80:49 3-5 34.Kapp,DieterB.,andPaulHockings(1989)."TheKurumbaTribes."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeo-graphy of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulHockings,23 2-2 48.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Misra,Rajalakshmi(1989)."TheMulluKurumbas."InBlueMountains:TheEthnographyandBiogeography of a South In-dianRegion,editedbyPaulHockings,30 4-3 59.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.SARAJ.DICK126Khasi.ReligiousPractitioners.Thepropitiation of thespiritsiscarriedoutbythelyngdoh(priest)orbyoldmenknowledge-ableintheart of necromancy.Otherpractitionersincludethesoh-bleiandsoh-blah(malefunctionarieswithlimitedsacer-dotalfunctions),thekasoh-blei,alsocalledka-soh-slaorka-lyngdoh(femalepriestswhomustbepresentattheoffering of allsacrifices),andthenongkhan(diviners).Thelyngdoh-whoisalwaysappointedfrom a specialpriestlyclan,whoholdshisofficeforlife,andwhomaybeone of severalwithin a state-isthechieffunctionary of thecommunalcults.Healsohascertaindutiesinconjunctionwithmaritallawsandhouseholdexorcism.Insomestates,thelyngdohsubsumestheresponsibilities of siem(chief)andruleswiththeassis-tance of a council of elders.Theduty of performingfamilyceremoniesisthesoleresponsibility of thehead of thefamilyorclanwhousuallyfulfillsthemthroughtheagency of thekni(maternaluncle).Femalepriestsmustassistatallsacrificesand,infact,aretheonlyfunctionariesinpossession of fullsacerdotalauthority.Thelyngdohexerciseshisdutiesasap-pointedagent of thekasoh-blei(femalepriest).Itisbelievedthatthissystemisanarchaicsurvivalfrom a periodinKhasihistorywhenthefemalepriestactedasherownagentintheoffering of sacrifice.Insomestates(e.g.,Nongkrem),thereis a highpriestesswhofunctionssacerdotallyandashead of state.Shedelegatestemporalresponsibilitiesto a sonornephewwhothenexercisesthemas a siem.Theadoption of Christianityby a largesegment of Khasisocietyhasresultedinimportantchanges.Thesacerdotalfunction of theyoung-estdaughter(responsible,intraditionalKhasiculture,forconductingburialservicesonbehalf of herparentsandforactingaschiefpractitioner of thefamilycult)hasbeenthreatenedbyChristianteachingandpractice(i.e.,theyoungestdaughter,if a Christian,islesslikelytofulfillherpriestlyresponsibilitiestoherfamily).Ceremonies.Dancingandmusicareimportantparts of Khasiritual,andtheNongkremDance(part of thepom-blangorgoat-killingceremony)isthemajorfestivalontheKhasicalendar.ItisdedicatedtoKaleiSynshar,fortheruling of theKhasi.Itspurposeistoensuresubstantialcropyieldandgoodfortuneforthestate.Itisheldinlatespring(usuallyinMay). A number of stateandcommunalritualsarealsoper-formed,inadditiontomanyceremoniesassociatedwiththehumanlifecycle(birth,marriage,death,etc.).Arts.Examples of decorativeartincludemetalgongs(withanimalengravings),implements of warfare(arrows,spears,bows,andshields),andmemorialslabs(withengravings).To a limitedextentwoodwork,jewelry,andotherindustrialman-ufacturesmaybesoclassified.Musicisanimportantpart of Khasireligiousceremonies(bothcommunalandclan-related),huntingexpeditions,andathleticevents(e.g.,arch-erycontests).Musicalformsincludeextemporaneousversethatissaidtoresemble,informandcontent, ... Koyas,anditsvariousprogramsandinstitutionshavebroughtthemmoreandmoreintotheorbit of Indianculture.Koyashavefromtimetotimeattemptedtofreethemselvesfromforeigndomination,andhavemountednu-merousrebellions,most of whichsucceededonlyforbriefpe-riods.Themostrecentrebellionoccurredinthe1950s,whenthemajority of KoyassupportedtheAndhraCommunistPartyandjoinedintheviolencethatmarkedtherelationsbe-tweenCongressandCommunistpartiesinAndhraatthattime.Koyascontinuetoberesentful of outsideencroachmentandareespeciallyunhappyaboutlandalienation,restrictionsontheuse of reserveforests,restrictionsonthedistillation of drinkingalcohol,theunjustprotection of rapaciousmoney-lenders,andrevenueassessments.SettlementsKoyasettlementsarelocatednearsources of dependablewatersupplysuchasponds,streams,or a commonwell.Vil-lagesvaryinsizefromthreetomorethansixtyhouses,butmostoftentheyconsist of betweenthirtyandfortyhouseswithpopulations of approximately200persons.Largervil-lagesareusuallycharacteristic of theriverineplain,andsmallerones of thehillsandjungle.Villagesaresometimesnucleated,especiallyintheplains,buttheyaremoreoftencomposed of scatteredhamletscontainingtwoormorehousesoccupiedbymembers of a minimallineageand/orbyin-marryingaffines.Koyahousesareconstructed of wood,thatch,clay,andwattle.Houses of wealthyfamiliesarelarger,haveseveralrooms,thickmudwalls,anddeep,well-maintainedthatchroofs.Poorerfamiliesliveinsmall,one-roomhouseswithwattlewallsandroofsthinlythatchedwithpalmfrondsratherthanthatchinggrass.Theaveragehousehastworooms, a loftand a veranda.Oneroomcontainsthehearthwherethefamilycookingisdone,andisstrictlyre-servedtomembers of thefamilyandminimallineage.Thean-cestorpot,inwhichofferingsaremadetotheancestors,iskeptnearthehearth.Grainisstoredinlargebasketslinedwithmudandcowdungandkeptintheloft.Housesareusu-allywindowlessandareventilatedonlybyanopeningundertheeavesandbyopendoors.ScatteredabouttheroomsandhangingfromtheraftersaretheKoyafamily'sfewmaterialpossessions-claypotsforstoringwater,brasspotsforcarry-ingwater,wovenbaskets,winnowingfans,brooms, a drum,bowandarrows, a spear, a smallmetalboxforvaluables,128Khojaoutthejama-at'ssanction,whichishowevergrantedif2,000rupeesaredepositedforthefirstwife'smaintenance. A curi-ouscustomfollowedontheapproach of deathisthat of samarchantaorthesprinkling of holywatertothereading of Das-Atatar.Theorganization of thecommunityisintheform of a fiscalcentralizationaroundthesacredperson of AghaKhan,butthereiscompletecongregationalindependenceinadministrativematters,includingevenquestions of excom-munication.Everycongregationhasitsownjama-atkhana,whichisboth a meetinghouseand a mosque.TheofficersaresometimesappointedbytheAghaKhan,buttheyareoftenelected.Theofferingsfortheimamarecollectedthroughthem.Thesecomprisethefixeddasandhortitheandvariousminorduesonspecialoccasions,eitherrecur-ringoroccasional.Khojasenjoy a goodbusinessreputationandaresaidtohave a keensense of competition.Theyaredescribedasneat,clean,sober,thrifty,andambitious,andenterprising,cool,andresourcefulintrade.Theyaregreattravelersbylandandsea,visitingandsettlingindistantcountriesforpurposes of trade.TheyhavebusinessconnectionswiththePunjab,Sind,Calcutta,SriLanka,Myanmar(Burma),Singapore,China,andJapan;withports of thePersianGulf,Arabia,andeastAfrica;andwithEngland,theUnitedStates,andAustralia.KhojahyouthsgoasapprenticesinforeignKhojahfirmsonsalaries of 200to2,000rupees a yearwithboardandlodging.TheKhojasnowenjoypowerfulpositionsinivory,horn,cot-ton,hide,mother -of- pearl,grain,spice,fishmaws,sharkfins,cottonseed,furniture,opium,andsilktrades.Theyhavealsogainedhighplacesintheprofessionsasdoctors,engineers,andlawyers.SeealsoBania;BohraBibliographyEnthoven,ReginaldE.(1921).'Kojah."InTheTribesandCastes of Bombay,editedbyReginaldE.Enthoven.Vol.2,21 8-2 30.Bombay:GovernmentCentralPress.SARWATS.ELAHIKohistaniETHNONYMS:Dard,Duberwal,Killiwal("villager"),Mayan,Mayr,PatanwalKohistanis a mountainousarealyingbetweentheIndusRiverandtheDurandLinethatformstheborderbetweenAf-ghanistanandPakistan;itstretchesnorthwardfrom35°Nandtheformerkingdom of SwatasfarasGilgit.TheKohi-stanishavealsobeencalledDardsbecausetheyspeakfourlanguages of thesmallDardicbranch of theIndo-AryanSub-family:Torwali,Gawri,EasternandWesternKohistani(butnotKashmiri,themostimportantlanguage of thisbranch).LiketheGujars,whoarealsofoundinKohistan,theKohi-stanispractisetranshumantpastoralism of sheepandgoats;butinthefertilevalleybottomstheyarealsoabletoplowandirrigatefields,growingmaize,millet,andothercrops. A fewlow-lyingareasproducewheatorrice;butonlyonecrop a yearispossible.ThusKohistanismovearoundseasonallybetweenfarmlandsatabout1,000metersandsummercampsallthewayupto4,500meters.Cattleandwaterbuffaloarekeptatthelowerelevations.Thehistory of thisareahasbeenasvariedastheterrain.Theearliestmention of SwatcanbefoundintheRigVeda,andtheninGreek(327B.c.)andChinese (A. D.519)records.TheareahassuccessivelybeenBuddhist,thenHindu,then(since A. D.1000)Muslim.TosomeextentindividualPakh-tunshavebeenabsorbedinrecenttimesintotheKohistaniethnicgroup,whichperhapsnumbers50,000today,althoughculturalinfluencehasmostlyflowedfromthePakhtuntotheKohistani.Becausetheareaissodiversegeographically,ittendstobepoliticallyfragmented,evenanarchic,andcontrolbythePakistanigovernmentisminimalatbest.Kohistanivillagesaremadeup of severalminimallineages,each of whichhasrepresentationon a villagecouncil,whichtendstobethehighestauthority.Asidefromthefarmers, a villagepopula-tionnormallyincludesblacksmithsandcarpenters(Pashto-speaking)and a fewfarmlaborersortenants.TheKohistanisareMuslims.Theyaremotivatedby a reverencefortheQurananditsteachings,as...

... Oriya215Boysandgirlsmarryafterpuberty,boysusuallyat1 6-2 0years.Thisfollows a periodinwhichbothsexessleepin a youthdormitory(dhumkuria).Boysarebrandedonthearmbeforebeingadmittedtothisinstitution.Thedormitorypro-vides a pool of agriculturallaborthatcanbehiredwhennec-essary.MostOraonsarefarmers,andinthepasttheyprac-ticedshiftingcultivation.Hunting,formerly of majorimportance,hasbeenreducedduringthepresentcenturytothestatus of a ceremonialevent;thereiseven a women'shuntingceremony,heldeverytwelveyears.Although a smallminority of thetribeareChristians,thegreatmajorityfollow a Hinduform of worship.Theirmainde-itiesarelocal,non-Sanskriticones,suchasChandi,Chau-thia,DadgoBurhia,GaonDeoti,andJairBudhi,namesonedoesnotencounterelsewhereinIndia. A remarkablefeature of Oraonsocietyisthatitisone of theveryfewonearth(alongwiththeneighboringMundasandMarias)thatpracticeshumansacrifice(calledotangaororkabyOraons).Althoughextremelyrare,evidencesuggeststhephenomenonismostprevalentinRanchiDistrict,Bihar.Duringthenineteenthcentury,Britishofficialsreported a muchbroaderincidence,occurringamongtheMunda,Oraon,Gond,Kond,andSantaltribes.Policerecordsshowthatevenaslateasthe1980stherewere a couple of sacrifices a yearamongtheMunda,Maria,andOraontribes,andperhapsslightlymoreifoneassumesthatnotallcasesreachedpoliceattention.Thesesacrificesare of courseillegalandaretreatedashomicideunderSection302 of theIndianPenalCode.Detection of culpritsismadeverydifficultbythefactthatsomevillagersbelievethesacri-ficesareessentialforthefertility of theirfields,andhencetheyarenotforthcomingwithanyinformation.Thehumansacrificesusuallyoccurinremoteplacesaroundthebegin-ning of thesowingseasonandtheassociatedfestival of Sar-hul.Thereasonspolicecandistinguishthesesacrificesfromotherforms of murderareseveral:(1)thetiming,tocoincidewiththesowingceremony;(2)thevictimisoftenanorphanor a homelessperson,someonewhowillnotbemissed;(3)usuallynopersonalanimositiescanaccountforthekill-ing;(4)thevictim'sthroatiscutwith a knife;(5)signs of puja(worship)arenormallyfoundnearthecorpse;and(6)part of onelittlefingerhasbeencutoffandismissing.Thislastitemispresumably a part of thehumanofferingthatthesacrificer(otanga)willburyinhisfield.Sometimesblood of thesacrificialvictimismixedwithseedgrainbeforeitissown.Inearliercenturiestheentirebodywasprobablycutupandparceledouttothevariousfieldsaround a village.Thedanger of detectionnowmakesthistoodifficult.Thesacrificeisnor-mallyofferedto a vindictivegoddessthoughttocontrolthefertility of thesoil.If a humanvictimcannotbecaughtintimeforthesowingceremony,itissaidthathair,sputum,orsomeotherhumanbodilyleavingsaremixedwithhen'sbloodas a tokenofferingtothisgoddess.SeealsoMundaBibliographyHermanns,Matthias(1973).DieOraon.Diereligios-magischeWeltanschanungderPrimitivstammeIndiens,no.3.Wiesbaden:FranzSteinerVerlag.Roy,SaratChandra(1915).TheOraon of ChotaNagpur.Calcutta:BrahmoMissionPress.Roy,SaratChandra(1928).OraonReligionandCustom.Ranchi:ManinIndiaOffice.Russell,R.V.,andHiraLal(1916).'Oraon."InTheTribesandCastes of theCentralProvinces of India,editedbyRV.RussellandHiraLal.Vol.4,29 9-3 21.London:Macmillan.Reprint.1969.Oosterhout:AnthropologicalPublications.Sachchidananda(1963)."SomeRecentEvidence of HumanSacrifice."InAnthropologyontheMarch:RecentStudies of In-dianBeliefs,Attitudes,andSocialInstitutions,editedbyL.K.BalaRatnam,34 4-3 51.Madras:TheBookCentre.Sachchidananda(1964).CultureChangeinTribalBihar:MundaandOraon.Calcutta:BooklandPrivateLimited.PAULHOCKINGSOriyaETHNONYMS:Odia,Odiya;adjective:Odissi,Orissi(OrissaninEnglish)OrientationIdentification.InOrissaStateinIndia,theOriyaconsti-tutetheregionalethnicgroup,speakingtheOriyalanguageandprofessingtheHindureligion,tobedistinguishedfromanOriya-speakingagriculturalcastecalledOdiafoundincentralcoastalOrissa.SomeOriyaliveintheadjoiningstates.TheOriyalanguageandethnicgrouparepresumablyderivedfromthegreatUdraorOdrapeopleknownsinceBuddhistandpre-BuddhistMahabharataepictimes.Location.Thestate of Orissaislocatedbetween17°49'and22034'Nand81029'and87029'E,covering155,707squarekilometersalongthenortheasternseaboard of India.Thelargemajority of theOriyaliveinthecoastaldistrictsandalongtheMahanadiandBrahmanirivers.OrissafallsinthetropicalzonewithmonsoonrainsfromJune-JulytoSeptember-October.WesternOrissaisafflictedwithrecur-ringdrought.Demography.Thelastnationalcensusin1981recordsthepopulation of Orissaas26,370,271persons,with a popu-lationdensity of 169personspersquarekilometerascom-paredto216forIndiaas a whole. Of thetotalpopulation of Orissa,84.11percentspeakOriya.Althoughrural,Orissa'surbancenterswith5,000ormorepersonsrosefromcontain-ing8.4percent of thepopulationin1971(81towns)to11.79percentin1981(108towns).Most of theninety-threeScheduledCastes,whichconstitute15.1percent of Orissa'spopulation,speakOriya. Of the23.1percent of Orissa'spop-ulationcategorizedasScheduledTribes,manyspeakOriyaasOriya217Trade.Invillages,peddlingandweeklymarketsweretheusualcommercialchannels.Since World War11rationshopshavesoldscarceessentialcommodities.Division of Labor.Menplow,sow,andcarrygoodswith a polebalancedontheshoulder,whereaswomencarrythingsontheirhead,weed,andtransplantthefields.Harvestingisdonebybothsexes.Whilemenfishandhunt,womenper-formhouseholdchoresandtendbabies.Traditionally,amonghigher-casteandhigher-classfamilies,womendidnotworkoutsidehome.Nowadaysmenandsomewomenareen-gagedinsalariedservice,butonlylower-casteandlower-classwomenundertakewagelabor.LandTenure.BeforeIndependencelandunderagricul-turehadincreasedsubstantially.However,because of thehighrate of populationgrowthandsubdivision of landhold-ings,thenumber of marginalfarmersandthelandlessin,creasedsharplythereafter.FollowingIndependencesomelandabovethestatutoryceilingorfromthecommonpropertyresourceswasdistributedamongthelandless,weakersections of society.Large-scaleindustrialandirrigation-cum-powerprojectsdisplacedpeopleandaddedtotheranks of thelandless.All of thishasresultedinvariouscategories of ten-ancyandcontractualleaseoflandforsubsistencecultivation.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Traditionallyandcurrently,threepatterns of familyorganizationhaveobtained:(1)themultihouseholdcompoundswheretheseparatefamilies of thesons of thecommonfatherarehousedasanextendedfamily;(2)jointfamilieswithallthebrotherslivingtogether,with a commonkitchen,withorwithouttheparentsliving(morecommoninvillagesthantowns);(3)severalfamiliesbelongingto a patrilineageamongwhomkinobligationscon-tinue,residinginneighboringvillages.Descentispatrilineal.KinshipTerminology.Thesocialemphasisonseniorityinageanddifferentiationbysexandgenerationareobserved.KinshipterminologyfollowstheHawaiiansystem.Fictiveorritualkintermsareusedwidelyandareexpressedinrespectandaffectionandalsoinmeetingappropriatekinobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Althoughpolygynywaspracticedearlier,mostmarriagestodayaremonogamous.Mostmarriagesevennowarealsoarrangedbyparents,thoughsomearebasedonthemutualchoice of themarriagepartners.OnlyinwesternOrissaandsouthernOrissaiscousinmarriagepracticed.Marriagepartnersmustnotbelongtothesamegotra(mythi-calpatrilinealdescentgroup).Bride-priceamongthelowerandmiddlecasteshasbeenreplacedby a morecostlydowryforthebridegroomamongallclassesandcastes.Aftermar-riage,residenceispatrilocal,withthebrideassumingthegotra of thehusband.Nowadaysresidencetendstobeneo-localneartheplace of work.TheHindumarriagewasideallyforthislifeandbeyond,butsince1956divorcehasbeenper-mittedunderlegalprocedures.DomesticUnit.Livingin a familyisconsiderednormalandproper.Mostfamiliestodayinbothvillagesandtownsarenuclear,thoughsomearejointfamilies.Membersworkingandlivingoutsideusuallyvisittheresidualfamilyandshrinesoccasionally.Oftenlandiscultivatedjointlybysharingthefarmexpenses.Recentlytherehasbeen a tendencytoreducethesize of theruralhouseholdthroughfamilyplanning.Inheritance.Traditionallyonlysonsinheritedlandandotherimmovableproperties.Theeldestsonwasgivenanad-ditionalshare(jyesthansha).Since1956thewidowanddaughtershavebeenlegalcosharersinallproperty.Socialization.Parents,grandparents,andsiblingscareforinfantsandchildrenandprovideinformal-and,recently,formal-educationbeforeschool.Education of girlsisstillnotcommonbeyondprimaryschool.Physicalpunishmenttodiscipline a childiscommon,thoughinfantsareusuallysparedandcuddled.Respectforseniorsinallsituationsandthevalue of educationareemphasized,especiallyamongthehigherclasses.SociopoliticalOrganizationOrissais a stateintheRepublic of India,whichhasanelectedpresident.Thegovernoristhehead of OrissaState,andthechiefministeristheelectedhead of thegovernment of Orissa.SocialOrganization.TraditionalOriyasocietyishierarchi-callyorganizedprimarilyonthebasis of caste(andsubcaste)andoccupationsandsecondarilyonthebasis of socialclass.Thehighestcastes,Brahman,arepriestsandteachers of theGreatTradition.Belowthemindescendingorder of statusare:theKshatriya,warriorsandrulers;theVaisya,ortraders;andtheSudra,orskilledandunskilledworkersandserviceholders.Theoccupationsinvolvingmanualandmenialworkarelowinstatus,andpollutingoccupationslikeskinningdeadanimalsormakingshoesareassociatedwiththelowestcastes,theUn-touchables.Ascriptivestatusinthecastesystemissometimescheckednowbyacquiredstatusintheclasssystem.InruralOrissapatron-clientrelationshipsarecommonandsocialmo-bilityisdifficultPoliticalOrganization.Orissaisdividedintothirteendis-tricts(tilla),andeachdistrictisdividedintosubdivisions(tahsils)foradministrativepurposes,intopolicestations(thana)forlaw-and-orderpurposes,andintocommunitydevelopmentblocs(blok)fordevelopmentpurposes.Therearevillage-clustercommittees(panchayatjwithelectedmem-bersand a head(sarpanch)forthelowestlevel of self.administrationanddevelopment.Thecommunitydevelop-mentblochas a panchayatsamitiorcouncil of panchayatsheadedbythechairman,withallthesarpanchasmembers.Eachcasteorpopuloussubcastein a group of adjacentvil-lagesalsohad a jatipanchayatforenforcingvaluesandinsti-tutionaldiscipline.Thetraditionalgrampanchayat,consist-ing of theleaders of severalimportantcastesin a village,wasformaintainingharmonyandtheritualcycle.SocialControlandConflict.Warfarebetweenadjacentprincedomsandvillagescameto a stopunderBritishrule.Thepolicestations(thana)maintainlawandorderintheruralareas.ReligionandExpressiveCultureHinduism of varioussectsis a centralandunifyingforceinOriyasociety.TheoverwhelminglyimportantVaishnavasecthavetheirsupremedeity,Jagannatha,wholordsitoverthere-216ut ... Jtheirmothertongue.With34.23percentliteracyin1981comparedto26.18percentin1971,OrissatrailsbehindmanyIndianstates,especiallyinfemaleliteracy.linguisticAffiliation.OriyabelongstotheIndo-AryanBranch of theIndo-EuropeanFamily of languages.ItsclosestaffinitiesarewithBengali(Bangla),Assamese(Asamiya),Maithili,Bhojpuri,andMagahi(Magadhi).TheOriyaspo-keninCuttackandPuridistrictsistakenasstandardOriya.TheOriyalanguagehas a distinctivescript,traceabletosixth-centuryinscriptions.Ithasthirteenvowelsandthirty-sixcon-sonants(linguistically,spokenOriyahassixvowels,twosemivowels,andtwenty-nineconsonants).HistoryandCulturalRelationsOrissahasbeeninhabitedsinceprehistorictimes,andPaleo-lithic,Mesolithic,Neolithic,andChalcolithicculturalre.mainsabound.BythefourthcenturyB.C.therewas a central-izedstateinOrissa,thoughthehillareasoftennurturedindependentprincedomsmostlyevolvingout of tribalpoli-ties.In261B.C.,Orissa,thenknownasKalinga,wascon-queredbytheEmperorAshokaafter a bloodyKalingawar,leadingtotheconversion of thekinginto a nonviolentBud-dhistwhospreadBuddhismin Asia. Intheearlysecondcen-turyB.C.EmperorKharavela, a Jainbyreligionand a greatconqueror,hadthefamousqueen'scave-palace,Rani-gumpha,cutintothemountainnearBhubaneswar,withex-quisitesculpturesdepictingdancersandmusicians.BotheasternandwesternOrissahadfamousBuddhistmonaster-ies,universities,andcreativesavants.Startinginthefirstcen-tury A. D.,accordingtoPlinyandothers,therewasextensivemaritimetradeandculturalrelationsbetweenOrissa(Ka-linga,Kling)andSoutheastAsiancountriesfromMyanmar(Burma)toIndonesia.OrissawasruledunderseveralHindudynastiesuntil1568,whenitwasannexedbytheMuslimkingdom of Bengal.In1590,OrissacameundertheMogulempire,untiltheMarathasseizeditin1742.In1803itcameunderBritishrule.Asearlyas1817theagriculturistmilitia(Paik) of OrissarevoltedagainsttheBritishinone of thefirstregionalanticolonialmovements.In1936Orissawasde-clared a province of BritishIndia,andtheprincelystateswithanOriyapopulationweremergedintoOrissain194 8-1 949.The cultures andlanguages of south India,westernIndia,andnorthernIndia-andalsothose of thetribalpeoples-haveenrichedtheculturalmosaicandthevocabulary of theOriya.SettlementsIn1981,88.21percent of thepeople of Orissalivedinvilages.In1971,51,417villages of Orissarangedinpopulationfromlessthan500persons(71.9percent),50 0-9 00persons(18.8percent),1,00 0-1 ,999persons(7.5percent),tomorethan2,000persons(1.78percent).TheOriyavillagesfallintotwomajortypes:linearandclustered.Thelinearsettle-mentpatternisfoundmostlyin ... PuriandGanjamdistricts,withhousesalmostin a continuouschainonbothsides of theinterveningvillagepathandwithkitchengardensattheback of thehouses.Cultivatedfieldssurroundthesettlement.Intheclusterpatterneachhousehas a compoundwithfruittreesand a kitchengarden.TheScheduledCastesliveinlin.earorclusterhamletsslightlyawayfromthemain-settlement,withtheirownwatertanksor,today,theirownwells.Inthefloodedcoastalareasonefindssomedispersedhouses,eachsurroundedbyfieldsforcultivation.IntraditionalOrissa,twostyles of houses(ghara)werecommon.Theagriculturistsandhighercasteshadhouses of a rectangulargroundplanwithroomsalongallthesides(khanja-ghara),leavinganopenspace(agana)inthecenter.Mudwallswith a gabledroof of thatchmade of paddystalksorjunglegrass(moredurable)werecommon.Themoreaffluenthaddouble-ceilinghouses(atughara)withtheinnerceiling of mudplastersupportedbywoodenorbambooplanks.Thisconstructionmadeitfire-proofandinsulatedagainstthesummerheatandwinterchill.Theentranceroomwasusually a cowshed,ascattlewerethewealth of thepeople.Menmetvillagersandguestsonthewidefrontveranda.Poorerpeoplehadhouseswithmudwallsandstraw-thatchedgableroofs,withoutenclosedcourtyardsordoubleceilings.Thesmokefromthekitchenescapedunderthegabledroof.TheOriyahad,incommonwitheast-ernIndia, a woodenhuskinglever(dhenki)inthecourtyardfordehuskingpaddyriceormakingriceflour.Nowadayshouseswithlargewindowsanddoors,roofs of concrete(tiledorwithcorrugatedironorasbestossheets),walls of brickandmortar,andcementfloorsarebecomingcommoneveninre-motevillages.Inthetraditionalhouse,thenortheasterncor-ner of thekitchenformedthesacredsite of theancestralspir-its(ishana)forfamilyworship.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Subsistencecul-tivation of paddyisubiquitousasriceisthestaplefood.Double-cropping,sometimeseventriple-croppinginirrigatedfields,andsingle-croppingindrought-affectedorrain-fedareasareallcommon.Large-scalefarmingwithheavyagricul-turalmachineryisstilluncommon.Plowingwithtwobullocksortwobuffaloisusual,with a woodenplow.Onlyrecentlyhaveironplowsbeencomingintouse.Cashcropslikesugar-cane,jute,betelleavesonraisedmounds,coconutsandarecanuts(betelnuts)aregrownincoastalOrissa,andpulsesandoilseedsindrought-proneareas.Recentlycoffee,cocoa,car-damom,pineapples,andbananashavealsobeenraisedon a commercialscale.Fisharecaughtintrapsandnetsfromvil-lagetanks,streams,rivers,coastalswamps,andalsointhefloodedpaddyfields.Fishingboatswithoutboardmotorsandtrawlersarenowadaysusedatsea.Thedomesticanimalsin-cludecows,goats,cats,chickens,ducks,andwaterbuffaloamongthelowestcastes,aswellaspigsanddogsamongtheurbanmiddleclass.IndustrialArts.Mostlargevillageshadcastes of artisanswhoservedtheagriculturaleconomyinformertimes.Car-penters,wheelwrights,andblacksmithswereabsolutelynec-essary.Somevillageshadpotterswithpotterywheelsandweaverswithcottagelooms(cottonwasformerlygrownandyamspun).Today,industrialproductsaredisplacingthevil-lageproductsexceptforthewoodenplowandcartwheels.Somecottageindustries,especiallythehandloomedtextiles(includingtheweaving of ikat,cottontextilesthataretiedanddyed),areproducingforexport.Brassandbell-metalutensilsandstatuesandsilverandgoldfiligreeornamentshave a wideclientele.214OkkaligaOkkaligaETHNONYMS:GangadikiraOkkalu,thepeasantcaste,Vokkaliga,WokkaligaTheOkkaligasarethedominantlandowningandculti-vatingcasteinthemulticastepopulation of southernKarnatakaStateinsouthwesternpeninsularIndia.Amongthehundreds of villagesinwhichOkkaligasliveisRampura(population1,523,735 of whomareOkkaligas,ca.1955),whichisthefocus of thisentryandwhichdisplaysmany of thefeaturestypical of OkkaligavillagesinIndia.Thevillage of RampuraislocatedontheMysore-Hogurbusroadabout32kilometersfromMysore.Thevillageis a cluster of housesandhutswiththatchedortiledroofs;nar-row,unevenwindingstreetsrunningbetweentherows of houses.Surroundingthevillagearenumerousplotsownedbyindividuallandowners.Rampuraisaninterdependentunit,largelyself-sufficient,havingitsownvillageassembly(panchayat),watch,ward,officials,andservants.Inthemulticastevillage of Rampuratherelationship of castesap-pearstobedeterminedmorebytheeconomicpositions of thevariousmembersthanbytradition.Asagricultureisthepri-maryway of lifethepeasantsarethedominantcaste.Thehe-reditaryheadman(patel)andhereditaryaccountant(shan-borg)arebothpeasants.Theheadman'sresponsibilityistorepresentthevillagetothegovernmentandviceversa.Theaccountantkeeps a register of howmuchlandeachhead of a familyorjointfamilyhasandtheamount of taxontheland.Theelders of thedominantcastearespokespersonsforthevillageandowetheirpowernottolegalrightsderivedfromthestatebuttothedominantlocalposition of theircaste.Theelders of thedominantpeasantcasteinRampuraadmin-isterjusticenotonlytomembers of theirowncastegroupbutalsotoallpersons of othercasteswhoseektheirintervention.Agriculturedominatesvillagelife.Thecultivation of riceisthemainactivityinthevillage.Meticulousattentiontoandirrigation of thericeisnecessarythroughouttheperiod of cul-tivation,therainyseasonfromJunetoJanuary.Theconclu-sion of theharvestismarkedbythefestival of Sankranti.Dur-ingthedryseasonothersocialactivitiessuchasweddingsoccur.Each of theseventeencasteslivinginRampurahas a dis-tinctivetraditionwithstrongtieswiththesamecasteinvil-lagesnearby.Thevillagehas a verticalunity of manycasteswhereaseachcastehas a horizontalunitythroughalliancesbeyondthevillage.OthermajorcastesandtheirtraditionaloccupationsincludetheKuruba(shepherd),theMusalman(artisanandtrader),Holeya(servantandlaborer),andtheMadiga(Harijans).Althoughpaddyandmilletgrainwereprincipallyusedintrade,moneyisusedmorefrequentlytoday.Maintenance of casteseparationwasachievedthroughideas of purityandpollution.Beliefsandbehaviorsincludingdiet,occupation,andritualdistinguishhigherfromlowercastes.Twoexamples of thisaretherulesgoverningtheac-ceptance of waterorcookedfoodbetweencastesandtherule of casteendogamy.Atonetimeitwascustomaryfortwofamilies,onebe-longingtoanuppercasteandtheothertoanUntouchablecaste,tobelinkedin a master-servantrelationship(jajmani).Independencehasbegun a process of socialchangeinwhichmany of thetraditionalformsandordershavebeenreplaced.TheregionallanguageisKannadaandtheprincipalreli-gionisHindu.TheprincipaltemplesinRampuraarethetem-ples of Rama,Basava,HattiMad,andKabbalaDurgadaMan.Theseareendowedwithagriculturalland.Thekingroupisagnaticwithpreferenceforcross-cousinmarriage.TraditionallytheOkkaligasliveinjointfamilieswiththewifejoiningthehome of herhusband'sfamily.SinceIndependencethejointfamilieshavetendedtobecomesmaller.Thereis a fairlystrictsexualdivision of laborwithfewwomenworkingoutsidethehome.Boysworkonthelandearly,whilegirlsworkinandaroundthehouse.AnOkkaligaisburiedonhisorherancestralland;andthelandisanim-portantpart of one'slifefromanearlyage.BibliographyBanerjee,Bhavani(1966).MarriageandKinship of theGan-gadikaraVokkaligas of Mysore.DeccanCollegeDissertationSeries,no.27.Poona:DeccanCollege.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930).'GangadikiraOkkalu."TheMysoreTribesandCastes3:17 5- 185.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Srinivas,M.N.(1963)."TheSocialStructure of a MysoreVillage."InIndia'sVillages,editedbyM.N.Srinivas,2 1-3 5.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Srinivas,M.N.(1976).TheRememberedVillage.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.SARAJ.DICKOraonETHNONYMS:Dhangad,Dhangar,Dhanka("farmworker"),Kisan,Kuda,Kurukh,Kurunkh,Orao,UraonTheOraonsareone of thelargesttribesin South Asia, numbering1,702,663personsatthe1971census.Abouthalf of themliveinBihar,mainlyontheChotaNagpurPlateau;theremainderareinMadhyaPradesh,Orissa,andWestBengal.Theyspeak a DravidianlanguageknownasKurukh.OraonsarecloselyrelatedtotheneighboringMundatribe,andtheheadman of anOraonvillageiscalledmunda.AlthoughtherearenosubcastesamongtheOraons,theKudas('navvies")andKisans("cultivators"),havingtheirdistinctoccupations,tendtomarryamongthemselves.Be-yondthis,Oraonsobservevillageandclanexogamy.Thepat-rilinealextendedfamilyistheidealresidentialunit,butnu-clearfamiliesarenearlyascommon.Ontheaverage a familycontainsfivetosevencoresidentmembers....

... theyearisdrywithoccasionalshowers.Demography.Thepopulation of Keralaaccordingtotheestimatefor1987isabout27.6million,withChristianscom-prisingabout21percent of thepopulation.InKeralaabout93percent of theChristiansareSyrianChristians;theresthavebeenconvertedbyEuropeanmissionaries.inguisticAffiliation.Ninety-sixpercent of KeralapeoplespeakMalayalamandabout2.37percentspeakTamil.Thelatterresidemainlyintheborderareasadjacenttothestate of TamilNadu.Thosewhoareontheborder of IarnatakaStatespeakTuluandKannada.MalayalamwastheIastlanguageintheDravidianGrouptodevelop a distinctftrmandlitera-ture.UntiltheninthcenturyAD.,Keralawas a part of Tam-ilakamandthelanguage of theKeralaregionwasTamil.GraduallyMalayalamcameundertheinfluerce of SanskritandPrakritwiththespread of Aryaninfluxnce.SanskritwordsandsentencesarefreelyusedinMalayalm.Keralahaditsownscripts(lipis)fromearlydays.ThemodrnMalayalamscriptisadoptedmainlyfromthegranthscript(bookscript).Malayalamwithitsfifty-threelettersperhapsex-pressesbypropermarksthemostextensivephnoloamongalltheIndianlanguages.Withmorethan74percentliteracy,thehighestinIndia,Keralahasdeveloped a vealth of litera-tureunmatchedinanyotherregion.Themorethanfortynewspapersarereadbyintellectualsaswetworking-classfarmersandfactorylaborers.ThebestknownisMalayalaManoramna(firstpublishedin1888)with a readlership of closeto a million,thelargestinIndia.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThoseunfamiliarwiththehistory of ChristiarityinIndiaarelikelytoconsiderit a by-product of Westerncolonialism.ThetraditionisthatSaintThomas,thedisciplecfJesusChrist,landedin A. D.52atMaliankaranearCtanganoreandpreachedthegospel.Itisbelievedthathevisiteddifferentparts of Keralaandconverted a goodnumber of localinhabi-tants,includingmanyfromtheliterateupper-casteNambu-diriBrahmans.ItseemsthatSaintThomasestablishedchurchesinsevenplacesinKerala.ThepresentChristianpopulationclaimsdescentfromthisearlyorigin,thoughtherehasbeenmuchscholarlydebateoverthedate of SaintThomas'sarrival.TheyarepopularlyknownasSyrianChris-tiansinview of theSyriac(classicalform of Aramaic)liturgyusedinchurchservicessincetheearlydays of ChristianityinIndia.TheyarealsoknownasNazaranis(followers of JesustheNazarene).Thesurvival of thechurchinKeralaisverymuch a result of thedevelopment of anindigenouscharacterandadaptationtolocaltraditions.SyrianChristianscametorankaftertheBrahmansandasequals of theNayars.Thesur-vival of SyrianChristiansinKeralawasalso a result of thebe-nevolenceandtolerance of therulersinTravancore,Cochin,andMalabarwhodonatedlandandhelpedfinanciallytobuildchurches.Theearlychurchreceivedthisaidpartlybe-cause of thefavorableimpressioncreatedbytheChristians,whoservedtherulersinvariouscapacities,aswellasrespectforthereligion.SyrianChristiansremainedanindependentgroupandcontinuedtogetbishopsfromtheEasternOrtho-doxchurchinAntiochinSyria.AfterthePortuguesearrivalin1498,theygraduallyestablishedtheirpowerandwereeagertobringallChristiansundertheChurch of Rome.Withsu-periororganizationalskillandPortuguesehelp,BishopAlexisdeMenezeswassuccessfulinestablishingtheRomanCatho-licchurchasthedominantchurch of theMalabarCoast(Kerala).However,whenthePortuguesepowerdeclinedbytheearlyseventeenthcentury,thehold of theRomanCatho-licchurchinKeralaweakened,andallegiancetotheSyrianOrthodoxtraditionwasreaffirmedinfront of animprovisedcrossatMattancherryin1653,aneventknownasCoonanKurisuSatyam.Atpresent,Syriantraditionisquitewelles-tablished,thoughRomanCatholicchurchmembersaremorenumerous.SettlementsWhilemost of ruralIndiais a series of discretevillagessepa-ratedbyopenfields,inKeralatherearenosuchconcentra-tions.Instead,housesarescatteredoverthecountrysidein a dispersedpatternwithsomesurroundinglandintensivelycul-tivatedwithriceandtropicalvegetablesandfruittrees.Every5to10kilometers,therearesmallandlargetownsranginginsizefrom5,000to50,000inhabitants.Thereis a railwayrun-ningfromnorthto south aswellaspavedroadscrisscrossingthestate,usedforregularbusservicerunbythestateaswellasprivatecompanies.Inthelowlandareas,therearerivers,canals,andbackwatersprovidingtransportfacilitieswithmotorboatsandmanuallyoperatedsmallandlargeboats.Thereareschools,hospitals,andcollegesinlargertowns.Peopleareconscious of a highlevel of hygiene;theywearcleanclothes,brushtheirteethbeforethefirstmeal,andrinsetheirmouthsaftereverymeal.Theybatheonce a dayoreventwiceinthishumidclimate.Townsaswellasthecoun-trysidearefairlycleanandpeopleuseprivatetoiletsratherthanopenfields(unliketherest of ruralIndia).Thetradi-tionalconstruction of houseswassimilartothat of theupper-casteHindus.Thebuildingswereconstructedmostly of wood;teakwascommonlyused.Thefront of thehouseal-waysfacedeast.Everyhousehad a storageroomforrice(paddy).Furnishingsweresimple:cotsweremade of wood,andintraditionaltimes,peoplesquattedontheflooronwovenpalm-leafmats.Modemhousesarebrickand of con-temporarydesign,withelectricityavailabletoall.Thewell-to-dohavemodemamenitiesincludingcolortelevision.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Agriculturere-mainsthemainoccupationandnearlyhalf of thepopulationdependsonagriculture,growing a variety of tropicalvegeta-bles,fruits,spices,andrice.Animalpowerisrarelyusedex-ceptforplowinginsomericefields.Bullockcartshavemostly254SantalDomesticUnit.Householdunitstendtowardextendedratherthannuclearfamilies,withsonsandtheirwivesre-maininginthepaternalhousehold.Itis,however,commonforsonstoseparatebeforethedeath of thefather,sometimesatthelatter'sinitiative.Itisalsocommontoextendnuclearhouseholdsbytheunmarriedsister of thewifeorthroughotherarrangements.Nuclearhouseholdsareanever-present,thoughnumericallyrelativelyunimportant,alternative.Levi-rateandsororatearenotuncommoninthecase of thedeath of eitherspouse.Inheritance.InheritancerulesarecomplexamongtheSantals,butlandisusuallydividedamongthebrothers,withsmallerportionsgoingtodaughtersasdowry.Incertaincases,unmarriedgirlsmayinheritland,buttheirlandrevertstobrothersonmarriage.Socialization.Themoststrikingfeature of socializationamongSantalsistherole of grandparents of bothsexes.Itisthroughthemthatchildrenreceivetheirculturaleducation,evensometimestotheextent of grandmothersinitiatingtheirgrandsonssexually.Childrenaredisciplinedbyteasingratherthanpunishment;whilebreast-feedingisprolonged,toilettrainingisachievedatanearlyage.Childrenhavetoworkearly;otherwiseeducationisveryliberal,withmuchemphasisoncleanliness.Boysareinitiatedattheage of 8or10,whenthefivetri-balmarksarebrandedontheirforearmsby a maternaluncle.GirlsaretattooedbyHinduorMuslimspecialistsattheage of 14,followingthefirstmenstruationceremony,whichshowsHindufeatures.Atthisage,girlsareconsideredtobesexuallymature.Moderneducationisstill a problem,because of a lack of teachersinoutlyingareas.Thereis,however,lessdifferenceinschoolattendancebetweenboysandgirlsthanamongthenontribals.Christianchildrenreceivemoreandbettereducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Although,asnoted,thereis a tradi-tionalhierarchy of clans,theSantalsarebasicallyegalitarian,thuscontrastingstronglywiththeirHinduneighbors.Eco-nomically,however,thereareconsiderabledifferencesinwealthandstatus.Theclansandsubclans,ontheonehand,andthevillagesandregions,ontheother,arethemostim-portantinternaldivisions.Theseniormalemember of thelocaldescentgroupenjoys a certainauthorityandprestigede-rivedfromritualfunctions,asdothereligiousspecialists(priestsandlojhas)andthechiefs.Proficienthuntersandor-atorslikewiseacquireprestige.Politicalleadersinthemodemarena,likethecharismaticleaders of thepast,becomesources of authority.Districtchiefs(parganasandd&sman-jhis)mayenjoy a considerablestatuswhensuccessfulinthesettlement of disputes.Differences of wealthareexpressedintheabilitytoemployservants.Thewell-to-doSantalfamiliesemploylaborerson a contractbasisandsometimesgrantthemland.PoliticalOrganization.Ingeneral,authoritytendstoward a charismaticratherthan a traditionalpattern.Atthevillagelevel,themostimportantpoliticalinstitutionisthevillageas-sembly,whichhasnohead.Thisinstitutiondirectlycon-frontsthe"council of thefiveelders,"whorepresentthe"fivebrothers" of theSantaltraditionandarethevillagechief,themessenger of ... theother20percentconsist of IndianSindhiswhoareHinduandwhomigratedfromPakistantoIndiaafterthepartitionin1947.Sindhiwomenaresecludedbehindtheclaywalls of houseandcompound;thispractice of purdahisstrictamonglandlordsandotherfamilieswhoclaimrespectabilityaccord-ingly.Insomeruralareas,whenwomenleavetheirhousestheynotonlygoveiledbutsometimesarefollowedby a smallboyringing a handbellandcallingout,'Pass!"Menhearingthesignalturntoward a walluntilthepartyhashurriedpast.However,Sindhimencentertheirsociallifein a specialbuildingcalledotak,which,unliketheirhomes,isnoten-closedincompoundwalls.Herelandlordswhoaspiretolocalpowermeettheirfollowers.Itisanhonortobe a landlord,butamonglandlordsfurtherprestigecomesfromhavingfamilymembers,evendaughters,whoareformallyeducatedandhaveprofessionalcareersorpossesspoliticalpower.Insidetheotak,friendsjointogethertodrinkrefreshments,includ-ingbetel-nutmixturesandalcoholicbeverages.Heremenalsoplaycards,watchcockfights,and,intheevening,listentoprofessionalmusiciansorwatchhiredfemaledancers.TheSindhilanguageisspokenbylessthan4percent of thepopulation of Pakistan.IthasfewerdialectsthanPunjabi268SoraSoraETHNONYMS:Sahara,Saora,Saura,Savar,Savara,Sawar,SawaraOrientationIdentification.TheSoraare a "tribal"peoplelivinghistor-icallyonthemarginsbetweenshiftingpoliticalcentersincen-tralIndia.Theythink of themselvesasadivasi(tribal),butalsoas"Hindu,"inconsciousoppositiontothesmallen-claves of ChristianSoras.Culturally,Soraintheplainsaresimilartosurroundingcastesbutinthehillstheyretain a dis-tinctivecharacter.Location.TheSoraliveinKoraputandGanjamdistricts of thestate of Orissaandinneighboringparts of AndhraPra-desh,especiallySrikalkulamDistrict.TheLanjiaSora,wiohavebeenstudiedmainlybyVerrierElwinandPiersVitebs-yliveinthehillyjungles,whileseveralothervirtuallyupstu-dgroups(e.g.,Sarda,Kapu)liveintheplains.Thisarticleref!rstotheLanjiaSora.Withintheirterritorytherearesettlementts of variousOriyaandTelugucastes,withsomegovernmentemployees.ThesesettlementsaredominatedbytheOriya-speakingPano(Pan,Dom),whotradewiththeSora.ThSoraliejustontheborderbetweentheNorthIndian a- d South Indiancultureareas.TothenortheastaretheInco-AryanOriyaandtothe south theDravidian-speakingTelupTothenorthwestaretheDravidian-speakingbut"tribal"Kond(Khond).Theevidence of someplace-namesalongthecoastbetweenPuriandVisakhapatnam,areasthatnowspeakOriyaorTelugu,suggeststhattheSoraformerlywerefarmorewidespreadandhavesincebeenforcedintotheinteriororhavesurvivedonlythereas a separategroup.Sinceearlythiscentury,Sora.havemigratedtotheteagardens of Assamfortemporarywagelaborandsomehaveremainedthere.Morerecentlytheyhavemigratedtoroad-buildingprojectsinArunachalPradesh,thoughconditionstherearelesscondu-civetosettling.Demography.The1971censuslistsabout521,187Sora, of whomatleasthalfspeaktheSoralanguage.Thedemno-graphicpictureiscomplicatedbecausepeoplearoundtheedge of ... theyearisdrywithoccasionalshowers.Demography.Thepopulation of Keralaaccordingtotheestimatefor1987isabout27.6million,withChristianscom-prisingabout21percent of thepopulation.InKeralaabout93percent of theChristiansareSyrianChristians;theresthavebeenconvertedbyEuropeanmissionaries.inguisticAffiliation.Ninety-sixpercent of KeralapeoplespeakMalayalamandabout2.37percentspeakTamil.Thelatterresidemainlyintheborderareasadjacenttothestate of TamilNadu.Thosewhoareontheborder of IarnatakaStatespeakTuluandKannada.MalayalamwastheIastlanguageintheDravidianGrouptodevelop a distinctftrmandlitera-ture.UntiltheninthcenturyAD.,Keralawas a part of Tam-ilakamandthelanguage of theKeralaregionwasTamil.GraduallyMalayalamcameundertheinfluerce of SanskritandPrakritwiththespread of Aryaninfluxnce.SanskritwordsandsentencesarefreelyusedinMalayalm.Keralahaditsownscripts(lipis)fromearlydays.ThemodrnMalayalamscriptisadoptedmainlyfromthegranthscript(bookscript).Malayalamwithitsfifty-threelettersperhapsex-pressesbypropermarksthemostextensivephnoloamongalltheIndianlanguages.Withmorethan74percentliteracy,thehighestinIndia,Keralahasdeveloped a vealth of litera-tureunmatchedinanyotherregion.Themorethanfortynewspapersarereadbyintellectualsaswetworking-classfarmersandfactorylaborers.ThebestknownisMalayalaManoramna(firstpublishedin1888)with a readlership of closeto a million,thelargestinIndia.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThoseunfamiliarwiththehistory of ChristiarityinIndiaarelikelytoconsiderit a by-product of Westerncolonialism.ThetraditionisthatSaintThomas,thedisciplecfJesusChrist,landedin A. D.52atMaliankaranearCtanganoreandpreachedthegospel.Itisbelievedthathevisiteddifferentparts of Keralaandconverted a goodnumber of localinhabi-tants,includingmanyfromtheliterateupper-casteNambu-diriBrahmans.ItseemsthatSaintThomasestablishedchurchesinsevenplacesinKerala.ThepresentChristianpopulationclaimsdescentfromthisearlyorigin,thoughtherehasbeenmuchscholarlydebateoverthedate of SaintThomas'sarrival.TheyarepopularlyknownasSyrianChris-tiansinview of theSyriac(classicalform of Aramaic)liturgyusedinchurchservicessincetheearlydays of ChristianityinIndia.TheyarealsoknownasNazaranis(followers of JesustheNazarene).Thesurvival of thechurchinKeralaisverymuch a result of thedevelopment of anindigenouscharacterandadaptationtolocaltraditions.SyrianChristianscametorankaftertheBrahmansandasequals of theNayars.Thesur-vival of SyrianChristiansinKeralawasalso a result of thebe-nevolenceandtolerance of therulersinTravancore,Cochin,andMalabarwhodonatedlandandhelpedfinanciallytobuildchurches.Theearlychurchreceivedthisaidpartlybe-cause of thefavorableimpressioncreatedbytheChristians,whoservedtherulersinvariouscapacities,aswellasrespectforthereligion.SyrianChristiansremainedanindependentgroupandcontinuedtogetbishopsfromtheEasternOrtho-doxchurchinAntiochinSyria.AfterthePortuguesearrivalin1498,theygraduallyestablishedtheirpowerandwereeagertobringallChristiansundertheChurch of Rome.Withsu-periororganizationalskillandPortuguesehelp,BishopAlexisdeMenezeswassuccessfulinestablishingtheRomanCatho-licchurchasthedominantchurch of theMalabarCoast(Kerala).However,whenthePortuguesepowerdeclinedbytheearlyseventeenthcentury,thehold of theRomanCatho-licchurchinKeralaweakened,andallegiancetotheSyrianOrthodoxtraditionwasreaffirmedinfront of animprovisedcrossatMattancherryin1653,aneventknownasCoonanKurisuSatyam.Atpresent,Syriantraditionisquitewelles-tablished,thoughRomanCatholicchurchmembersaremorenumerous.SettlementsWhilemost of ruralIndiais a series of discretevillagessepa-ratedbyopenfields,inKeralatherearenosuchconcentra-tions.Instead,housesarescatteredoverthecountrysidein a dispersedpatternwithsomesurroundinglandintensivelycul-tivatedwithriceandtropicalvegetablesandfruittrees.Every5to10kilometers,therearesmallandlargetownsranginginsizefrom5,000to50,000inhabitants.Thereis a railwayrun-ningfromnorthto south aswellaspavedroadscrisscrossingthestate,usedforregularbusservicerunbythestateaswellasprivatecompanies.Inthelowlandareas,therearerivers,canals,andbackwatersprovidingtransportfacilitieswithmotorboatsandmanuallyoperatedsmallandlargeboats.Thereareschools,hospitals,andcollegesinlargertowns.Peopleareconscious of a highlevel of hygiene;theywearcleanclothes,brushtheirteethbeforethefirstmeal,andrinsetheirmouthsaftereverymeal.Theybatheonce a dayoreventwiceinthishumidclimate.Townsaswellasthecoun-trysidearefairlycleanandpeopleuseprivatetoiletsratherthanopenfields(unliketherest of ruralIndia).Thetradi-tionalconstruction of houseswassimilartothat of theupper-casteHindus.Thebuildingswereconstructedmostly of wood;teakwascommonlyused.Thefront of thehouseal-waysfacedeast.Everyhousehad a storageroomforrice(paddy).Furnishingsweresimple:cotsweremade of wood,andintraditionaltimes,peoplesquattedontheflooronwovenpalm-leafmats.Modemhousesarebrickand of con-temporarydesign,withelectricityavailabletoall.Thewell-to-dohavemodemamenitiesincludingcolortelevision.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Agriculturere-mainsthemainoccupationandnearlyhalf of thepopulationdependsonagriculture,growing a variety of tropicalvegeta-bles,fruits,spices,andrice.Animalpowerisrarelyusedex-ceptforplowinginsomericefields.Bullockcartshavemostly254SantalDomesticUnit.Householdunitstendtowardextendedratherthannuclearfamilies,withsonsandtheirwivesre-maininginthepaternalhousehold.Itis,however,commonforsonstoseparatebeforethedeath of thefather,sometimesatthelatter'sinitiative.Itisalsocommontoextendnuclearhouseholdsbytheunmarriedsister of thewifeorthroughotherarrangements.Nuclearhouseholdsareanever-present,thoughnumericallyrelativelyunimportant,alternative.Levi-rateandsororatearenotuncommoninthecase of thedeath of eitherspouse.Inheritance.InheritancerulesarecomplexamongtheSantals,butlandisusuallydividedamongthebrothers,withsmallerportionsgoingtodaughtersasdowry.Incertaincases,unmarriedgirlsmayinheritland,buttheirlandrevertstobrothersonmarriage.Socialization.Themoststrikingfeature of socializationamongSantalsistherole of grandparents of bothsexes.Itisthroughthemthatchildrenreceivetheirculturaleducation,evensometimestotheextent of grandmothersinitiatingtheirgrandsonssexually.Childrenaredisciplinedbyteasingratherthanpunishment;whilebreast-feedingisprolonged,toilettrainingisachievedatanearlyage.Childrenhavetoworkearly;otherwiseeducationisveryliberal,withmuchemphasisoncleanliness.Boysareinitiatedattheage of 8or10,whenthefivetri-balmarksarebrandedontheirforearmsby a maternaluncle.GirlsaretattooedbyHinduorMuslimspecialistsattheage of 14,followingthefirstmenstruationceremony,whichshowsHindufeatures.Atthisage,girlsareconsideredtobesexuallymature.Moderneducationisstill a problem,because of a lack of teachersinoutlyingareas.Thereis,however,lessdifferenceinschoolattendancebetweenboysandgirlsthanamongthenontribals.Christianchildrenreceivemoreandbettereducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Although,asnoted,thereis a tradi-tionalhierarchy of clans,theSantalsarebasicallyegalitarian,thuscontrastingstronglywiththeirHinduneighbors.Eco-nomically,however,thereareconsiderabledifferencesinwealthandstatus.Theclansandsubclans,ontheonehand,andthevillagesandregions,ontheother,arethemostim-portantinternaldivisions.Theseniormalemember of thelocaldescentgroupenjoys a certainauthorityandprestigede-rivedfromritualfunctions,asdothereligiousspecialists(priestsandlojhas)andthechiefs.Proficienthuntersandor-atorslikewiseacquireprestige.Politicalleadersinthemodemarena,likethecharismaticleaders of thepast,becomesources of authority.Districtchiefs(parganasandd&sman-jhis)mayenjoy a considerablestatuswhensuccessfulinthesettlement of disputes.Differences of wealthareexpressedintheabilitytoemployservants.Thewell-to-doSantalfamiliesemploylaborerson a contractbasisandsometimesgrantthemland.PoliticalOrganization.Ingeneral,authoritytendstoward a charismaticratherthan a traditionalpattern.Atthevillagelevel,themostimportantpoliticalinstitutionisthevillageas-sembly,whichhasnohead.Thisinstitutiondirectlycon-frontsthe"council of thefiveelders,"whorepresentthe"fivebrothers" of theSantaltraditionandarethevillagechief,themessengerof...

... features of ordinarylifeinthesubcontinent.Withoutclaiminganyfa-vorites,wewillsimplypointtothework of AhmadAli,MulkRajAnand,BankimChandraChatterjee,NiradC.Chaud-huri,AnitaDesai,RuthPrawerJhabvala,HanifKureishi,ManoharMalgonkar,KamalaMarkandaya,VedMehta,W.D.Merchant,RohintonMistry,RK.Narayan,RajaRao,SalmanRushdie,KushwantSingh,andRabindranathTagore(theirmanybooksarenotlistedinthefollowingbibliogra-phy). Of BritishliteraturedealingwiththeoldIndiathereis a massiveamount:mostoutstandingsurelyareRudyardKipling'sshortstories,E.M.Forster's A PassagetoIndia(1924),andLeonardWoolf'sVillageintheJungle(1913). A fineintroductiontoIndianreligionsandphilosophywaseditedbydeBary(1958), a newedition of whichwasre-centlyprepared.Verysimilarinitscoverage of HinduismandBuddhism,andlikethepreceding volume featuringmanytranslationsfromtheclassics,isRadhakrishnanandMoore(1957).AnothersuccinctintroductiontoIndianphilosophyisBishop(1975). A concisedictionary of HinduismisStutleyandStutley(1977);Garrett(187 1-1 873),thoughold,mayalsoberecommended.Thenaturalhistory of thesubcontinenthasbeenstudiedinincredibledetail,andsothereare,forexample,excellenthandbooksontheflora of eachregion(most of themnowquiteold,however). A superbnewencyclopedicsurveythatcoversflora,fauna,geography,geology,andclimatologyin a single volume iseditedbyHawkins(1986).Alsoveryusefulforitsbotanical,zoological,andhistoricalinformation(al-thoughnotforitsout -of- dateeconomicdata)isWatt(1908),whichis a one -volume abridgment of A Dictionary of theEconomicProducts of Indiathathewrotein188 5-1 893. A modem encyclopedia that ... highmountainsinthenorth,valleysinthecenter,andforestsinthe south. Anindependentnationanddemo-craticmonarchysince1949,itsaffairsarecloselymanagedbyIndia.In1990thepopulationwasestimatedat1,500,000.Dzongkaistheofficiallanguage,withNepaliandEnglishalsowidelyspoken.ThecapitalisThimphu.Seventy-fivepercent of thepeopleareBuddhistandBuddhismistheofficialstatereligion.India(Republic of India)isthelargestandmostpopu-lous of thenations of South Asia. The1991census of Indialists844millioninhabitants(probablyanundercount)or16percent of the world& apos;spopulation.Indiaoccupiessome3,166,000squarekilometers.Itbecame a democraticrepublicin1950andiscomprised of twenty-fourstatesandsevenunionterritories.Itis a member of theBritishCommon-wealth of Nations.Thepopulation of Indiaiscomposed of anincrediblydiversemix of differentreligions,languagegroups, cultures, andsocialcategories.NewDelhiisthecapital.Maldives(Republic of Maldives)isanislandnationcomposed of over2,000islands(201inhabited)locatedintheIndianOcean640kilometerssouthwest of SriLanka.Thelandareacovers300squarekilometers,withnoislandhavinganareagreaterthan13squarekilometersandnonerisingover2metersabovesealevel.Thepopulationin1991was228,000with57,000livinginthecapitalcity of Male.ThenationallanguageisDivehiandthestatereligionisIslam.Mauritiusisanislandnationlocated1,280kilometersofftheeastcoast of MadagascarintheIndianOcean.Itiscomposed of themainislands of MauritiusandRodriguesandthesmallerislands of AgalegaandSaintBrandon.The11tL1VU"ULW1txxviIntroductionandCulturePublishedinWesternLanguagesfromtheSixteenthCenturytothePresentDay.2vols.BibliothecaAsiatica,no.5.Zug:InterDocumentation.Hawkins,R.E.,ed.(1986). Encyclopedia of IndianNaturalHistory.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress;Bombay:BombayNaturalHistorySociety.Hutton,JohnH.(1963).CasteinIndia:ItsNature,Function,andOrigins.4thed.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Johnson,Gordon,etal.,eds.(198 7-) .TheNewCambridgeHistory of India.4pts.innumerousvolumes.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Kulke,Hermann,andDietmarRothermund(1986). A His-tory of India.Totowa,N.J.:Barnes&Noble.Kumar,Dharma,TapanRaychaudhuri,etal.,eds.(1982).TheCambridgeEconomicHistory of India.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Lannoy,Richard(1971).TheSpeakingTree: A Study of In-dianCultureandSociety.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1974.Majumdar,RC.,etal.,eds.(195 1-1 969).TheHistoryandCulture of theIndianPeople.11vols.Bombay:BharatiyaVidyaBhavan.2nded.197 0-1 988.Majumdar,R.C.,H.C.Raychaudhuri,andKalikinkarDatta(1961).AnAdvancedHistory of India.London:Macmillan.Maloney,Clarence(1974).Peoples of South Asia. NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma.dras:OrientLongman.Mandelbaum,DavidG.(1970).SocietyinIndia.2vols.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress.Masica,ColinP.(1976).Defining a LinguisticArea: South Asia. Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Michell,George,andPhilipDavies(1989).ThePenguinGuidetotheMonuments of India.2vols.NewYork:VikingPenguin;London:Penguin.Muthiah,S.,etal.,eds.(1987). A SocialandEconomicAtlas of India.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Patterson,MaureenL.P.(1981). South AsianCivilizations: A BibliographicSynthesis.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Radhakrishnan,Sarvepalli,andCharles A. Moore,eds.(1957). A SourceBookinIndianPhilosophy.Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.Numerousreprints.Raheja,GloriaG.(1988)."India:Caste,Kingship,andDom-inanceReconsidered."AnnualReview of Anthropology17:49 7-5 22.Rapson,E.J.,etal.,eds.(192 2-1 937).TheCambridgeHis-tory of India.5vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Robinson,Francis,ed.(1989).TheCambridge Encyclopedia of India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andtheMaldives.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Schwartzberg,JosephE.,ed.(1978). A HistoricalAtlas of South Asia. Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Sebeok,Thomas A. ,etal.,eds.(1969).CurrentTrendsinLinguistics.Vol.5,Linguisticsin South Asia. TheHagueandParis:Mouton.Shapiro,MichaelC.,andHaroldF.Schiffman(1981).Lan-guageandSocietyin South Asia. Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass.Singh,R.D.(1971).India: A RegionalGeography.Varanasi:BenaresHinduUniversity.Smith,Vincent A. (1958).TheOxfordHistory of India.RevisedbyPercivalSpearetal.Oxford.ClarendonPress;numerousreissues.Spate,0.H.K.,etal.(1972)IndianandPakistan.3rded.London:Methuen.Srinivas,M.N.,etal.,eds.(197 2-1 974). A Survey of ResearchinSociologyandSocialAnthropology.3vols.Bombay:PopularPrakashan.Stutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDictio-nary of Hinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Litera-ture,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.Thapar,Romila,andPercivalSpear(196 5-1 966). A History of India.2vols.Harmondsworth:Penguin.Toussaint,Auguste(1966).History of theIndianOcean.Chi-cago:University of ChicagoPress.Tyler,Stephen A. (1973).India:AnAnthropologicalPerspec-tive.PacificPalisades:Goodyear.Vidyarthi,L.P.(1979).Rise of AnthropologyinIndia: A SocialScienceOrientation.AtlanticHighlands,N.J.:HumanitiesPress.Watt,George(188 5-1 893). A Dictionary of theEconomicProducts of India.London:W.H.Allen.Reprint.188 9-1 896.6vols.in10.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrint-ing.Reprint.1972.Delhi:PeriodicalPublications.Watt,George(1908).TheCommercialProducts of India,BeinganAbridgement of 'TheDictionary of theEconomicProd-ucts of India."London:Dutton.Reprint.1966.NewDelhi:Today&Tomorrow'sPrinters&Publishers.TheWealth of India: A Dictionary of IndianRawMaterialsandIndustrialProducts.(194 8-1 990)Delhi:Council of ScientificandIndustrialResearch.-ofnlTIVULOTiSShigerulijimaThakaliDepartment of HumanitiesandSocialSciencesTokyoInstitute of TechnologyTokyoJapanHiroshiIshiiNewarInstitutefortheStudy of Languagesand Cultures of Asia andAfricaTokyoUniversity of ForeignStudiesTokyoJapanK.IshwaranLingayatDepartment of SociologyYorkUniversityNorthYork,OntarioCanadaGeorgeKurianSyrianChristian of KeralaDepartment of SociologyUniversity of CalgaryCalgary,AlbertaCanadaMurrayLeafPunjabiUniversity of TexasatDallasDallas,TexasUnitedStatesFredericK.LehmanChinDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of IllinoisatUrbana-ChampaignUrbana,IllinoisUnitedStatesNancyE.LevineNyinbaDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngelesLosAngeles,CaliforniaUnitedStatesOwenM.LynchJata,Department of AnthropologyNewYorkUniversityNewYork,NewYorkUnitedStatesJuneMcDanielBaul;BengaliShakta;BengaliVaishnawaDepartment of ReligiousStudiesCollege of CharlestonCharleston, South CarolinaUnitedStatesEmestineMcHughGurungDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of CaliforniaatSanDiegoLaJolla,CaliforniaUnitedStatesLX...

... theVaisnava-SahajiydCult of Bengal.Chi-cago:University of ChicagoPress.McDaniel,June(1989).TheMadness of theSaints:EcstaticReligioninBengal.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singer,Milton,ed.(1971).Krishna:Myths,Rites,andAtti-tudes.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.JUNEMcDANIELBhilETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.TheBhilsarethethird-largest(aftertheGondsandSantals)andmostwidelydistributedtribalgroupinIndia.Althoughtheirracialoriginremainsundetermined,theyhavebeenvariouslyclassifiedasGondids,asProto-AustraloidVeddids,andas a subsection of the"Mundarace."Thename'Bhil"isbelievedtohavebeenderivedfromvilluorbill,whichinmostDravidianlanguagesisthewordfor"bow,"inreferencetotheweaponthat,untilrecenttimes,theyseemedalmostalwaystobecarrying.ManyUrduspeak-ers,however,equatetheterm'Bhil"withtheEnglish"aborig-inal,"leadingtospeculationthatthetermis a genericoneas-sociatedwith a number of tribesincontiguousareasbearingculturalsimilarities.RecentworkontheBhilsappearstoin-dicatethatwhathasalwaysbeentreatedasonetribalgroupinfactisheterogeneousinnature.Thisisreflectedinthe1961censusbythenumeroustribesthataretobefoundunderthename of 'Bhil."Itseemsbesttoconsidertheterm"Bhils"ascovering a number of subtribesthatincludetheBarelas,Bha-galia,Bhilalas,Dhankas,Dholi,Dublas,Dungri,GamitsorGamtas,Garasias,Mankars,Mavchis,Mewasi,Nirle(Nilde),Patelia,Pathias,Pavadas,Pawra,Rathias,Rawal,Tadvis,Talavias,Vasavas,andVasave.TheDhankas,Tadvis,Pava-das,andtheGamitsorGamtasmayrefertothemselvesasseparatetribes,oratleastasdistinctfromthemainstock,withtheDhankasevenhavinganoriginmyththatupholdstheirderivationfromtheRajputs.TheBhilalasaregenerallyacknowledgedas a mixture of BhilsandRajputs.Yetthemembers of eachtriberegardthemselvesasbelongingtoanethnicunitseparatefromtheirneighborsandhavedeveloped a sharedtribalconsciousness.TheareasinhabitedbytheBhilsremainsome of themoreremoteandinaccessibleparts of Indiatoday.Theiruniquescatteredsettlementpatternhashinderedgovernmenteffortstoprovideservicesashastheirgeneraldistrust of governmentofficials.Recentstudies of theprogressmadebytheHinduBhagatmovementappeartoin-dicatethattheremaybe a process of transformationfromtri-balgrouptocasteunderwayamongtheBhils.Location.TheareaoccupiedbytheBhilistheforestedlands of theVindhyaandSatpurahillsinthewesternportion of centralIndiabetween20°and25°Nand73"and77°E.Straddlingtheborders of AndhraPradesh,Gujarat,MadhyaPradesh,Maharashtra,andRajasthanstates,most of thister-ritory,traditionallyreferredtoas"Rewakantha" (a Gujaratitermforthedrainage of theRewa,anothernamefortheNar-madaRiver),isthehomeland of peoplescollectivelyreferredtoastheBhil.Demography. A totalnumber of 5,172,129peoplearetobefoundundertheheading of 'Bhilsincludingothersub-tribes"inthe1971census.Thelargestconcentration,1,618,716strong,isfoundinMadhyaPradesh.InGujaratthereare1,452,987Bhils,whilethereare1,431,020inRaja-sthan.InMaharashtra678,750registeredasmembers of thetribalgroup.TheBhilsas a wholerecordedanastounding64.5percentincreaseinpopulation(from2,330,278to3,833,331)duringthedecade195 1-1 961,butthisremark-ableratemaybeinlargepartattributabletothereclassifica-tion of thetribalgroupinthecensus.Between1961and1971,theBhilpopulationregistered a muchmoremoderate45.9percentgrowthrate.LinguisticAffiliation.ThenumerousandvariedBhilidia-lectsspokenbytheBhilbelongtotheIndo-AryanFamily of languagesandexhibitdivergentlevels of RajasthaniandGu-jaratiinfluence. A radius of 32to48kilometersappearstobethelimit of eachdialect'sboundaries.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAlthoughempiricalevidenceislacking,theBhilarecreditedwiththeearliestoccupation of theirarea;withsuccessiveim-migrations of Rajputsandconflictswithperiodicwaves of 32Bengalibasicruleandmatrilateralcousinmarriageisalsoforbidden.Bycontrast,asIslamraisesnobarriertocousinmarriage,itsoccurrenceamongBengaliMuslimsiscommon,althoughempiricalstudiesshowthatitisneitherpervasivenorneces-sarilypreferred.Similarlypolygyny,rareandstronglydiscour-agedamongBengaliHindus,is of coursepermittedtoBengaliMuslims,althoughitsactualrate of occurrenceisnothigh.Divorceamonghigh-casteHindusisstronglydiscouragedand,atleastuntilrecently,hasalwaysbroughtgreatstigma.Islamdiscouragesbutnonethelesspermitsdivorce,andthusitsrateamongBengaliMuslimsismuchhigherthanamongBengaliHindus.Finally,amonghigh-casteHindus,widowre-marriage-despite a century of legislationoutlawingthean-cientcustom of proscribingit-isstillgreatlyfrownedupon.Islamplacesnobarrieronremarriageforeithersexafterspou-saldeathordivorce,althoughtheincidence of remarriage of elderlyMuslimwidowsisnothigh.ForbothHindusandMuslimspatrilocal/virilocalpostmaritalresidencepatternsaremuchpreferredandalmostuniversallypracticed,atleastintheruralareas.Neolocalnuclear-familyhouseholdsaremuchmorecommonamongurbanprofessionalfamiliesinbothWestBengalandBangladesh.DomesticUnit.ThroughoutruralBengalthepatrilineallyextendedfamilyhomesteadissubdividedintoitsnaturalseg-ments,calledparibar,consisting of men,theirwives,theirchildren,andotherdependents,whoformthebasicsubsis-tence-producingandconsumingkinshipunits.Theeconomicandsocial"jointness" of theparibarisunderlinedbytheshar-ing of a commonkitchenorhearth,aswellastheownershiporcontrol of landand/orotherproductiveassets,ifany.Inheritance.AmongBengaliHindus,inheritanceisgov-ernedbythedayabhagasystem of customarylawinwhich a manhassolerightsinallancestralpropertyuntilhisdeathandcaninprinciplepassitontohissurvivorsinanymannerthathewishes.Unlesshemakes a willtothecontrary,uponhisdeath a man'ssonsaretoinheritequallyallpropertyas a matter of survivorship,not a matter of right;hiswifeanddaughtershavenoclaimbyrighttoany of hisproperty,buttheydohavetherighttomaintenancesolongastheyarede-pendentontheirsonsorbrothers.AmongMuslimsinheri-tanceis of coursegovernedbyIslamiclaw,whichpermits a man'sfemaledependentstoinherit a portion of hisproperty;sincesonsareexpectedtobethesoleprovidersfortheirfami-lies,thelawpermitsthemtoreceivemore of a father'sprop-ertythandodaughters.InactualBengaliMuslim(atleastrural,peasant)practice,however,daughterscommonlyforgooraredeprived of theirinheritance of immovablepropertyinfavor of theirbrothers,assumingthatiftheyneedtoreturntotheirnatalhomesafterwidowhoodordivorcetheirbrotherswilltakecare of them.Althoughjointretentionanduse of thefather'spropertybyhissonsistheculturalidealforbothHindusandMuslims,inpracticethesubdivision of a man'spropertybeginsnotlongafterhisdeath,andtheformationorfurtherproliferation of thedomesticunitsdiscussedabovebegins.Socialization.Childrenlearnproperbehaviorfrompar-entsandoldersiblings,graduallybecomingdifferentiatedac-cordingtogenderastheymature.Thepattern of olderchil-drencaringfortheiryoungersiblingsiswidespread.Whilesmallchildren of bothsexesarewarmlyindulged,asgirlsap-proachphysicalmaturitytheirmovementsoutsidethehouse-holdaregraduallycurtailedinanticipation of therelativere-strictionsthatbothhigh-casteHinduandMuslimadultwomenwillexperienceformost of theirchild-bearingyears.SchoolsaboundthroughoutBengal,butwhetherandhowlong a childwillattenddependmuchupongenderaswellasthesocialstandingandfinancialcondition of thefamily.Schoolsforreligiouseducation-HindupathsalasforboysandIslamicmadrassasopentobothsexes-arefoundevery-whereandcommonlyattended,atleastduringchildhoodyears.SociopoliticalOrganizationWestBengalis a federalstatewithintheRepublic of India,withitsownelectedgovernorandlegislature;italsosendsrepresentativesto a bicameralnationalparliament.Bangla-deshisanindependentsovereignrepublicwithanelectedpresidentand a unicameral,electednationalassembly(theJatiyaSangsad).SocialOrganization.BengaliHindusocietyisorganizedalongthelines of theHinducastesystem,inwhicheveryindi-vidualis a memberbybirth of a corporate,ranked,endoga-mousoccupationalgroup,called a caste(jati).One'splaceinsocietyisdeterminedbytherank of one'scaste,andthelatterisdeterminedbytherelativeprestige-measuredbythede-gree of ritualpurityorimpurity-associatedwiththecaste'straditionaloccupation.Thecastestraditionallyassociatedwithreligiousleadershipareconsideredtobethemostpurerituallyandsohavethehighestrank.Atthebottom of thehi-erarchyarefoundthosecasteswhoseoccupations,becausetheyinvolvedirectorindirectcontactwithsuchdefilingsub-stancesasbloodandhumanexcretaormaybeassociatedwithdeathinsomeway,areconsideredtobethemostrituallyimpure.Thecustomsgoverningmuch of theindividual'sexis-tencearethose of hisorhercastecommunity;thewealth of one'sfamilyisalsocorrelatedwithone'scasteranking;theprobabilitythat a personwillreceive a highdegree of educa-tionisalsorelatedtocastestatus,and of coursemostpeoplemarry a member of theircasteaswell.Individualupwardso-cialmobilityishighlyrestrictedinthiskind of socialsystem,butitispossiblefor a wholecastetoelevateitsactualrankinitslocalhierarchyifitsmembersbecomewealthyandattempttoemulatenormsandcustoms of thehighercastes.CertaincastesfoundelsewhereinIndia,notablythoseassociatedinthepastwithroyalty(i.e.,theKshatriyavarna)andtheper-formance of traditionalrulingfunctions,havenotbeenhis-toricallypresentinBengal.Anywherefromsixto a dozencastegroupsmightbefoundin a typicalBengaliHinduvil-lage,butvillagesinBengaltendtobelesshighlystratified,inthesensethattheytendtohave a ... theVaisnava-SahajiydCult of Bengal.Chi-cago:University of ChicagoPress.McDaniel,June(1989).TheMadness of theSaints:EcstaticReligioninBengal.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Singer,Milton,ed.(1971).Krishna:Myths,Rites,andAtti-tudes.Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.JUNEMcDANIELBhilETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.TheBhilsarethethird-largest(aftertheGondsandSantals)andmostwidelydistributedtribalgroupinIndia.Althoughtheirracialoriginremainsundetermined,theyhavebeenvariouslyclassifiedasGondids,asProto-AustraloidVeddids,andas a subsection of the"Mundarace."Thename'Bhil"isbelievedtohavebeenderivedfromvilluorbill,whichinmostDravidianlanguagesisthewordfor"bow,"inreferencetotheweaponthat,untilrecenttimes,theyseemedalmostalwaystobecarrying.ManyUrduspeak-ers,however,equatetheterm'Bhil"withtheEnglish"aborig-inal,"leadingtospeculationthatthetermis a genericoneas-sociatedwith a number of tribesincontiguousareasbearingculturalsimilarities.RecentworkontheBhilsappearstoin-dicatethatwhathasalwaysbeentreatedasonetribalgroupinfactisheterogeneousinnature.Thisisreflectedinthe1961censusbythenumeroustribesthataretobefoundunderthename of 'Bhil."Itseemsbesttoconsidertheterm"Bhils"ascovering a number of subtribesthatincludetheBarelas,Bha-galia,Bhilalas,Dhankas,Dholi,Dublas,Dungri,GamitsorGamtas,Garasias,Mankars,Mavchis,Mewasi,Nirle(Nilde),Patelia,Pathias,Pavadas,Pawra,Rathias,Rawal,Tadvis,Talavias,Vasavas,andVasave.TheDhankas,Tadvis,Pava-das,andtheGamitsorGamtasmayrefertothemselvesasseparatetribes,oratleastasdistinctfromthemainstock,withtheDhankasevenhavinganoriginmyththatupholdstheirderivationfromtheRajputs.TheBhilalasaregenerallyacknowledgedas a mixture of BhilsandRajputs.Yetthemembers of eachtriberegardthemselvesasbelongingtoanethnicunitseparatefromtheirneighborsandhavedeveloped a sharedtribalconsciousness.TheareasinhabitedbytheBhilsremainsome of themoreremoteandinaccessibleparts of Indiatoday.Theiruniquescatteredsettlementpatternhashinderedgovernmenteffortstoprovideservicesashastheirgeneraldistrust of governmentofficials.Recentstudies of theprogressmadebytheHinduBhagatmovementappeartoin-dicatethattheremaybe a process of transformationfromtri-balgrouptocasteunderwayamongtheBhils.Location.TheareaoccupiedbytheBhilistheforestedlands of theVindhyaandSatpurahillsinthewesternportion of centralIndiabetween20°and25°Nand73"and77°E.Straddlingtheborders of AndhraPradesh,Gujarat,MadhyaPradesh,Maharashtra,andRajasthanstates,most of thister-ritory,traditionallyreferredtoas"Rewakantha" (a Gujaratitermforthedrainage of theRewa,anothernamefortheNar-madaRiver),isthehomeland of peoplescollectivelyreferredtoastheBhil.Demography. A totalnumber of 5,172,129peoplearetobefoundundertheheading of 'Bhilsincludingothersub-tribes"inthe1971census.Thelargestconcentration,1,618,716strong,isfoundinMadhyaPradesh.InGujaratthereare1,452,987Bhils,whilethereare1,431,020inRaja-sthan.InMaharashtra678,750registeredasmembers of thetribalgroup.TheBhilsas a wholerecordedanastounding64.5percentincreaseinpopulation(from2,330,278to3,833,331)duringthedecade195 1-1 961,butthisremark-ableratemaybeinlargepartattributabletothereclassifica-tion of thetribalgroupinthecensus.Between1961and1971,theBhilpopulationregistered a muchmoremoderate45.9percentgrowthrate.LinguisticAffiliation.ThenumerousandvariedBhilidia-lectsspokenbytheBhilbelongtotheIndo-AryanFamily of languagesandexhibitdivergentlevels of RajasthaniandGu-jaratiinfluence. A radius of 32to48kilometersappearstobethelimit of eachdialect'sboundaries.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAlthoughempiricalevidenceislacking,theBhilarecreditedwiththeearliestoccupation of theirarea;withsuccessiveim-migrations of Rajputsandconflictswithperiodicwaves of 32Bengalibasicruleandmatrilateralcousinmarriageisalsoforbidden.Bycontrast,asIslamraisesnobarriertocousinmarriage,itsoccurrenceamongBengaliMuslimsiscommon,althoughempiricalstudiesshowthatitisneitherpervasivenorneces-sarilypreferred.Similarlypolygyny,rareandstronglydiscour-agedamongBengaliHindus,is of coursepermittedtoBengaliMuslims,althoughitsactualrate of occurrenceisnothigh.Divorceamonghigh-casteHindusisstronglydiscouragedand,atleastuntilrecently,hasalwaysbroughtgreatstigma.Islamdiscouragesbutnonethelesspermitsdivorce,andthusitsrateamongBengaliMuslimsismuchhigherthanamongBengaliHindus.Finally,amonghigh-casteHindus,widowre-marriage-despite a century of legislationoutlawingthean-cientcustom of proscribingit-isstillgreatlyfrownedupon.Islamplacesnobarrieronremarriageforeithersexafterspou-saldeathordivorce,althoughtheincidence of remarriage of elderlyMuslimwidowsisnothigh.ForbothHindusandMuslimspatrilocal/virilocalpostmaritalresidencepatternsaremuchpreferredandalmostuniversallypracticed,atleastintheruralareas.Neolocalnuclear-familyhouseholdsaremuchmorecommonamongurbanprofessionalfamiliesinbothWestBengalandBangladesh.DomesticUnit.ThroughoutruralBengalthepatrilineallyextendedfamilyhomesteadissubdividedintoitsnaturalseg-ments,calledparibar,consisting of men,theirwives,theirchildren,andotherdependents,whoformthebasicsubsis-tence-producingandconsumingkinshipunits.Theeconomicandsocial"jointness" of theparibarisunderlinedbytheshar-ing of a commonkitchenorhearth,aswellastheownershiporcontrol of landand/orotherproductiveassets,ifany.Inheritance.AmongBengaliHindus,inheritanceisgov-ernedbythedayabhagasystem of customarylawinwhich a manhassolerightsinallancestralpropertyuntilhisdeathandcaninprinciplepassitontohissurvivorsinanymannerthathewishes.Unlesshemakes a willtothecontrary,uponhisdeath a man'ssonsaretoinheritequallyallpropertyas a matter of survivorship,not a matter of right;hiswifeanddaughtershavenoclaimbyrighttoany of hisproperty,buttheydohavetherighttomaintenancesolongastheyarede-pendentontheirsonsorbrothers.AmongMuslimsinheri-tanceis of coursegovernedbyIslamiclaw,whichpermits a man'sfemaledependentstoinherit a portion of hisproperty;sincesonsareexpectedtobethesoleprovidersfortheirfami-lies,thelawpermitsthemtoreceivemore of a father'sprop-ertythandodaughters.InactualBengaliMuslim(atleastrural,peasant)practice,however,daughterscommonlyforgooraredeprived of theirinheritance of immovablepropertyinfavor of theirbrothers,assumingthatiftheyneedtoreturntotheirnatalhomesafterwidowhoodordivorcetheirbrotherswilltakecare of them.Althoughjointretentionanduse of thefather'spropertybyhissonsistheculturalidealforbothHindusandMuslims,inpracticethesubdivision of a man'spropertybeginsnotlongafterhisdeath,andtheformationorfurtherproliferation of thedomesticunitsdiscussedabovebegins.Socialization.Childrenlearnproperbehaviorfrompar-entsandoldersiblings,graduallybecomingdifferentiatedac-cordingtogenderastheymature.Thepattern of olderchil-drencaringfortheiryoungersiblingsiswidespread.Whilesmallchildren of bothsexesarewarmlyindulged,asgirlsap-proachphysicalmaturitytheirmovementsoutsidethehouse-holdaregraduallycurtailedinanticipation of therelativere-strictionsthatbothhigh-casteHinduandMuslimadultwomenwillexperienceformost of theirchild-bearingyears.SchoolsaboundthroughoutBengal,butwhetherandhowlong a childwillattenddependmuchupongenderaswellasthesocialstandingandfinancialcondition of thefamily.Schoolsforreligiouseducation-HindupathsalasforboysandIslamicmadrassasopentobothsexes-arefoundevery-whereandcommonlyattended,atleastduringchildhoodyears.SociopoliticalOrganizationWestBengalis a federalstatewithintheRepublic of India,withitsownelectedgovernorandlegislature;italsosendsrepresentativesto a bicameralnationalparliament.Bangla-deshisanindependentsovereignrepublicwithanelectedpresidentand a unicameral,electednationalassembly(theJatiyaSangsad).SocialOrganization.BengaliHindusocietyisorganizedalongthelines of theHinducastesystem,inwhicheveryindi-vidualis a memberbybirth of a corporate,ranked,endoga-mousoccupationalgroup,called a caste(jati).One'splaceinsocietyisdeterminedbytherank of one'scaste,andthelatterisdeterminedbytherelativeprestige-measuredbythede-gree of ritualpurityorimpurity-associatedwiththecaste'straditionaloccupation.Thecastestraditionallyassociatedwithreligiousleadershipareconsideredtobethemostpurerituallyandsohavethehighestrank.Atthebottom of thehi-erarchyarefoundthosecasteswhoseoccupations,becausetheyinvolvedirectorindirectcontactwithsuchdefilingsub-stancesasbloodandhumanexcretaormaybeassociatedwithdeathinsomeway,areconsideredtobethemostrituallyimpure.Thecustomsgoverningmuch of theindividual'sexis-tencearethose of hisorhercastecommunity;thewealth of one'sfamilyisalsocorrelatedwithone'scasteranking;theprobabilitythat a personwillreceive a highdegree of educa-tionisalsorelatedtocastestatus,and of coursemostpeoplemarry a member of theircasteaswell.Individualupwardso-cialmobilityishighlyrestrictedinthiskind of socialsystem,butitispossiblefor a wholecastetoelevateitsactualrankinitslocalhierarchyifitsmembersbecomewealthyandattempttoemulatenormsandcustoms of thehighercastes.CertaincastesfoundelsewhereinIndia,notablythoseassociatedinthepastwithroyalty(i.e.,theKshatriyavarna)andtheper-formance of traditionalrulingfunctions,havenotbeenhis-toricallypresentinBengal.Anywherefromsixto a dozencastegroupsmightbefoundin a typicalBengaliHinduvil-lage,butvillagesinBengaltendtobelesshighlystratified,inthesensethattheytendtohave a ... de-fendtherefugee.Petitionsforsuchsanctuarymustbegranted,accordingtothecode of Baluchmayar.Formalpub-lictaunting,inverseaswellasindirectspeech,provides a fur-thermechanismbywhichcompliancewiththeBaluchicode of behaviorisenforced.Conflict.Thewarriortradition of theBaluchiextendsbackthroughouttheirhistory,reachingitsfullestfloweringintheeleventhtofourteenthcenturies,at a timecoincidentwiththeirneedtoestablish a settlementbasefromwhichtoconducttheirseminomadicway of life.DuringtheimperialperiodtheBritishimposed a policy of pacificationupontheregionandenforceditbymaintaining a substantialgarrisonpresence.TheBaluchireputationforproducingfiercewarri-orsistodayrecalledprimarilyintheactivities of the"freefighters" of theBaluchinationalistmovement.Baiga21diangovernments)havenotbeencharacterizedbylong-standingconflict.Theonlymajorissue of contentionhasbeenthat of Baigaagriculturalpractice.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheBaigaworship a plethora of deities.Theirpantheonisfluid,thegoal of Baigatheologicaleduca-tionbeingtomasterknowledge of anever-increasingnumber of deities.Supernaturalsaredividedintotwocategories:gods(deo),whoareconsideredtobebenevolent,andspirits(bhut),whoarebelievedtobehostile.SomeHindudeitieshavebeenincorporatedintotheBaigapantheonbecause of a sacerdotalrolethattheBaigaexerciseonbehalf of theHin-dus.Some of themoreimportantmembers of theBaigapan-theoninclude:Bhagavan(thecreator-godwhoisbenevolentandharmless);BaraDeo/BudhaDeo(oncechiefdeity of thepantheon,whohasbeenreducedtothestatus of householdgodbecause of limitationsplacedonthepractice of bewar);ThakurDeo(lordandheadman of thevillage);DhartiMata(motherearth);Bhimsen(raingiver);andGansamDeo(protectoragainstwildanimalattacks).TheBaigaalsohonorseveralhouseholdgods,themostimportant of whicharetheAji-Dadi(ancestors)wholivebehindthefamilyhearth.Magical-religiousmeansareusedtocontrolbothanimalsandweatherconditions,toensurefertility,tocuredisease,andtoguaranteepersonalprotection.ReligiousPractitioners.Majorreligiouspractitionersin-cludethedewarandthegunia,theformer of a higherstatusthanthelatter.Thedewarisheldingreatesteemandisre-sponsiblefortheperformance of agriculturalrites,closingvil-lageboundaries,andstoppingearthquakes.Theguniadealslargelywiththemagical-religiouscure of diseases.Thepanda, a practitionerfromtheBaigapast,isnolonger of greatpromi-nence.Finally,thejanpande(clairvoyant),whoseaccesstothesupernaturalcomesbymeans of visionsanddreams,isalsoimportant.Ceremonies.TheBaigacalendarislargelyagriculturalinnature.TheBaigaalsoobservefestivalsatthetimes of Holi,Diwali,andDassara.DassaraistheoccasionduringwhichtheBaigaholdtheirBidaobservance, a sort of sanitizingcere-monyinwhichthemendispose of anyspiritsthathavebeentroublingthemduringthepastyear.Hinduritesdonot,how-ever,accompanytheseobservances.TheBaigasimplyholdfestivalsduringthesetimes.TheChertaorKichrahifestival (a children'sfeast)isobservedinJanuary,thePhagfestival(atwhichwomenareallowedtobeatmen)isheldinMarch,theBidriceremony(fortheblessingandprotection of crops)takesplaceinJune,theHarelifestival(toensuregoodcrops)isscheduledforAugust,andthePolafestival(roughlyequiv-alenttotheHareli)isheldinOctober.TheNawafeast(thanksgivingforharvest)followstheend of therainyseason.DassarafallsinOctoberwithDiwalicomingshortlythereafter.Arts.TheBaigaproducefewimplements.Thusthereislit-tletodescribeinthearea of thevisualarts.Theirbasketrymaybesoconsidered,asmaytheirdecorativedoorcarving(thoughthisisrare),tattooing(chiefly of thefemalebody),andmasking.Frequenttattoodesignsincludetriangles,bas-kets,peacocks,turmericroot,flies,men,magicchains,fishbones,andotheritems of importanceinBaigalife.Mensometimeshavethemoontattooedontheback of a handand a scorpiontattooedon a forearm.Baigaoralliteraturein-cludesnumeroussongs,proverbs,myths,andfolktales.Danc-ingisalsoanimportantpart of theirpersonalandcorporatelives;itisincorporatedintoallfestalobservances.ImportantdancesincludetheKarma(themajordancefromwhichallothersarederived),theTapadi(forwomenonly),Jharpat,Bilma,andDassara(formenonly).Medicine.FortheBaiga,mostillnessistraceabletotheactivity of oneormoremalevolentsupernaturalforcesortowitchcraft.Littleisknown of thenaturalcauses of disease,thoughtheBaigahavedeveloped a theoryaboutvenerealdis-eases(all of whichtheyplacewithin a singleclassification).Themostfrequentcurecitedforthecure of sexuallytrans-mitteddiseasesissexualintercoursewith a virgin.Anymem-ber of theBaigapantheonmaybeheldresponsibleforsend-ingsickness,asmaythemata,"mothers of disease,"whoattackanimalsandhumans.Theguniaischargedwiththere-sponsibility of diagnosingdiseaseandwiththeperformance of thosemagical-religiousceremoniesrequiredtoalleviatesickness.DeathandAfterlife.Afterdeath,thehumanbeingisbe-lievedtobreakdownintothreespiritualforces.Thefirst(jiv)returnstoBhagavan(wholivesonearthtotheeast of theMaikalHills).Thesecond(chhaya,"shade")isbroughttothedeceasedindividual'shometoresidebehindthefamilyhearth.Thethird(bhut,"ghost")isbelievedtobetheevilpart of anindividual.Sinceitishostiletohumanity,itisleftintheburialplace.Thedeadarebelievedtoliveinthesamesocioeconomicstatusintheafterlifethattheyenjoyedwhilealiveonearth.Theyoccupyhousessimilartothoseinhabitedbythemduringtheiractuallifetimes,andtheyeatall of thefoodthattheygaveawaywhentheywerealive.Oncethissup-plyisexhausted,theyarereincarnated.Witchesandwickedpersonsdonotenjoysuch a happyfate.However,nocounter-parttotheeternalpunishment of thewickedfoundinChris-tianityobtainsamongtheBaiga.SeealsoAgaria;BhuiyaBibliographyChattopadhyaya,Kamaladevi(1978).TribalisminIndia.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Das,Tarakchandra(1931).TheBhumijas of Seraikella.Cal-cutta:University of Calcutta.Elwin,Verrier(1939).TheBaiga.London:JohnMurray.Elwin,Verrier(1968).TheKingdom of theYoung.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1960).TheGondandBhumia of EasternMandla.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.Misra,P.K.(1977)."Patterns of Inter-TribalRelations."InTribalHeritage of India.Vol.1,Ethnicity,Identity,andInterac-tion,editedbyS.C.Dube,8 5-1 17.NewDelhi:VikasPub-lishingHouse.Roy,SaratChandra(1935).TheHillBhuiyas of Orissa-withBaiffa19resultinsomenegativeBaigasentiment.Christianmission-aryeffortshavemetwithlittlesuccessamongtheBaiga.Elwinobservedthattraditionalvillagelifehadbeguntodecay(because of prohibitionsagainstbewarandhunting,theef-fects of theHinducastesystem,andthepressuresimposedbyforcedmodernization)andthattheBaiganolongerproducedthoseitemsnecessaryfordailysurvival.SettlementsTheBaigabuildvillageseitherintheform of a largesquareorwithhousesalignedonthesides of a broadstreet(approxi-mately10metersinwidth).Villagesarelocatedinareascon-venientforcultivationwithconsiderationalsobeinggiventotheaestheticvalueanddegree of isolation of theintendedsite.Villagelocationsvary(jungles,highhills,andvalleys),but,wheneverpossible, a locationatop a steephill(withlim-itedaccessbyfootpath)ispreferred.Thevillageboundary(mero)ismarkedby a largeexpanse of land(approximately30meterswide)andisdelimitedbyintermittentlyplacedpiles of stones.Theboundaryisreinforcedby a magicwallin-tendedtoprotectagainstwildanimalsanddisease.Thevil-lageburialplace(marqhat)islocatedwithinthisboundary.Thefourthside of thevillage(whichisopen)isprotectedbyeither a bambooorcactushedge.Individualresidenceunitswithinthevillagearedetachedstructuresconnectedbynar-rowroads.Surroundingthevillageonefindsbari(landsetasideforthecultivation of tobacco,maize,andsweetpota-toes).Pighouses(guda)areattachedtoeachhousewithinthevillagesquare.Cattlesheds(sar)aresimilarinstructuretoandbarelydistinguishablefromhumanhabitations.Plat-forms(macha)fordryingandstoringmaizearefoundinthecenterorattheside of thevillagesquare.Granaries,corpo-ratehouses,temples,andshrinesareabsentfromBaigavil-lages. A smallcompound(chatti)forusebytravelersandoffi-cialsislocatedoutsidethevillagesquare.Oftenthesesquaresaredominatedby a singlefamilyanditsrelatives;members of otherfamiliesbuildtheirhousesinsmallgroupsatsomedis-tancefromthemainarea of habitation. A typicalBaigahouseisrectangularinshape.Itusuallyhas a smallverandaand a singleentrance.Theinteriorisdividedintotwopartsbygrainbinsor...

... eldersisstressed.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Chakmasocietyishierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasis of age,sex,occupation,power,religion,wealth,andeducation.Anolderpersonisinvariablyre-spectedby a youngerperson.Thehusbandismorepowerfulthanthewifeinthefamily;and a manisaffordedmorestatusoutsidethefamily.PowerisunequallydistributedinChakmasociety(seebelow).Thesocietyisalsohierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasis of religiousknowledgeandpracticeasfollows:monks,novices,religiouslydevotedlaymen,andcommoners.Educatedpersonswhoareengagedinnonagri-culturalworkareespeciallyrespected.Wealthalsoinfluencesbehaviorindifferentaspects of sociallife.PoliticalOrganization.Theentirehillregion of south- easternBangladesh(whichisdividedintothethreepoliticalandadministrativedistricts of Rangamati,Khagrachhari,andBandarban)isalsodividedintothreecircles,eachhavingitsownindigenousname:MongCircle,ChakmaCircle,andBohmangCircle.Eachcircle,with a multiethnicpopulation,isheadedby a rajaorindigenouschief,whoisresponsibleforthecollection of revenueandforregulatingtheinternalaf-fairs of villageswithinhiscircle.TheChakmaCircleisheadedby a Chakmaraja(theMongandBohmongcirclesbyMarmarajas).Unlikethesituationintheothertwocircles,ChakmaCircle'schieftaincyisstrictlyhereditary.Eachcircleissubdividedintonumerousmouzaor"reve-nuevillages"(alsoknownasgram,or'villages"),eachunder a headman.Heisappointedbythedistrictcommissioneronthebasis of therecommendation of thelocalcirclechief.Thepost of headmanisnotintheoryhereditary,butinpracticeusuallyitis.Theheadmanhas,amongotherthings,tocollectrevenueandmaintainpeaceanddisciplinewithinhismouza.Finally,eachmouzacomprisesaboutfivetotenpara(alsocalledadam).Thesearehamlets,eachwithitsownkarbariorhamletchief.Heisappointedbythecirclechief,inconsulta-tionwiththeconcernedheadman.Thepost of karbarialsoisusuallyhereditary,butnotnecessarilyso.Eachhamletcom-prises a number of clusters of households.Thehead of a householdorfamilyisusually a seniormalemember,thehus-bandorfather.Inadditiontothesetraditionalpoliticalarrangements(circle,village,andhamlet,eachhaving a chieforhead),thelocalgovernmentsystem(imposedbythecentralgovem-ment)hasbeeninoperationsince1960.Fortheconvenience of administration,Bangladeshissplitintofourdivisions,eachunder a divisionalcommissioner.Eachoneisfurthersubdividedintozila,ordistricts.Theadministrativehead of a zilaiscalled a deputycommissioner.Eachzilaconsists of sev-eralupazilaorsubdistricts,headedbyanelectedupazilachairman(electedbythepeople).Heisassistedby a govern-mentofficerknownasupazilanirbahi,theofficerwhoisthechiefexecutivethere.Eachupazilaconsists of severalunionparishadorcouncils.AnelectedChairmanheads a unionparishad.Severalgrammakeup a unionparishad.Thisad-ministrativesetupisalsofoundinthedistricts of thehillre-gion.TheChakmaandotherethnicminorityhillpeopleareincreasinglyacceptingthislocalgovernmentalsystembe-causethegovernmentundertakesdevelopmentprojectsthroughthisstructure.SocialControl.Traditionallythevillageheadmanwouldsettledisputes.Ifcontendingpartieswerenotsatisfiedwiththearbitration,theymightmakeanappealtotheChakmaraja,thecirclechief.Traditionallyhewasthehighestauthor-itytosettlealldisputes.Todaytheycanmovetothegovem-mentcourtsiftheyarenotsatisfiedwiththeraja'sjudgments.AlthoughChakmawereusuallyexpectedtogettheirdisputessettledeitherbytheheadmanorraja,theyarenowatlibertytogotothesecourts.Inrecenttimes,dependingonthena-tureandseriousness of disputes,theChakmaareincreasinglydoingthisratherthansettlingdisputeslocally.Conflict.Inthepast,theChakmafoughtagainsttheBrit-ishimperialgovernmentseveraltimesbutfailed.Inrecenttimes(since1975),theyhavebecomeaware of theirrights.Theydonotliketheinflux of thenontribalpopulationinthehillregion,andtheyconsideritanimportantcause of theirgrowingeconomichardships.Therefore,since1975,someChakma(and a fewfromothertribes)havefoughttobanishnontribalpeoplefromthehillregion.Thegovernmentistry-ingtonegotiatewiththeChakmaandothertribalelitestosettlethismatter.Ithasalreadygivensomepolitical,eco-nomic,andadministrativepowerstoelectedrepresentatives of theChakmaandotherhillpeople.Theserepresentatives(whoaremostlyhillmen)aretryingtonegotiatewiththeChakma(andother)agitatorsonbehalf of thegovernment.Manydevelopmentprojectshavealsobeenundertakenbythegovernmentinthehillregion,sothattheeconomiccondition of theChakmaandotherethnicpeoplesmightimprovegradually.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheChakmaareBuddhists.Thereis a Buddhisttemple(kaang)inalmosteveryChakmavillage.TheygivegiftstothetempleandattendthedifferentBud-dhistfestivals.TheChakmafollowTheravadaBuddhism,theirofficialandformalreligion.Buddhismdominatestheirlife.Indeed,itisnow a unifyingforceinthesoutheasternhillregion of Bangladesh,asBuddhismisthecommonreligion of Chakma,Marma,Chak,andTanchangya.TheseethnicgroupscelebratetogetheratoneannualBuddhistfestivalcalledKathinChibarDan,inwhichtheymakeyam(fromcotton),giveitcolor,drytheyam,weavecloth(formonks),andformallypresentthiscloth(aftersewing)tothemonksin a function.TheChakmaalsobelieveinmanyspiritbeings,including a fewHindugoddesses.Some of thesearemalevo-lentwhileothersarebenevolent.Theytrytopropitiatemalev-olentspiritsthroughtheexorcistsandspiritdoctors(baidyo).Theyalsobelieveinguardianspiritsthatprotectthem.Themalevolentspiritsarebelievedtocausediseasesanddestroycrops.ReligiousPractitioners.ManyChakmagotothetemplestolistentothesermons of themonksandnovices.Theyalsogivefoodtothemonks,novices,andtheBuddha'saltar.Themonksreadsermonsandparticipateinlife-cyclerituals,buttheydonottakepartinvillagegovernmentaffairs.Inaddi-tiontothemonks,exorcistsandbaidyoarebelievedtomedi-atebetweenhumansandthe world of spiritsthroughincanta-tions,charms,possession,andsympatheticactions.ChitpavanBrahman69ityinmanyChitpavans'speech.Thelasttracesmaybeseeninthepopulardidacticbook of shortsketchesbySaneGuruji(189 9-1 950),ShyamchiAi(Shyam'sMother),publishedin1933andstillreadforenjoyment,moraltales,anditsculturalimportance.HistoryandCulturalRelationsFromthebeginning of theeighteenthcenturytothecontem-poraryperiod,Chitpavanshaveplayed a partinthehistory of Indiafarbeyondtheirnumbers.Unheard of beforethelateseventeenthcentury,theChitpavansbegantheirrisetofamewiththeappointment of BalajiVishwanathBhataspeshwa(primeminister)toShahu,thegrandson of thefounder of theMarathaKingdom,Shivaji.Balajiraisedtheoffice of thepeshwatodefactorule of theMarathaEmpire,andfrom1713untiltheirdefeatbytheBritishin1818,thepeshwasruledone of thelastlargeindependentkingdomsinIndia.Duringthisperiod,ChitpavansfromtheKonkanjoinedthemilitaryandadministrativeranks of theMarathaEmpireinlargenumbers.Chitpavansservednotonlyinthecities of theMarathi-speakingareabutalsointheotherkingdoms of theMarathaexpansion:Gwalior,Baroda,Indore.EvenaftertheBritishvictoryoverthepeshwa,one of theimportantChitpavanadministrativefamilies,that of thePatwardhans,waslefttorulesevensmallprincelystatesinsouthernMarathaterritory.Thepeshwahimselfwasexiledtothenorthlestheform a nucleus of rebellion,andtheBritishruledwhatthenbecamepart of BombayPresidency.NanaSaheb,theheir of thepeshwa,becamefromhisexilenearKanpur(Cawnpore)one of theimportantfiguresinthe1857rebel-lionagainsttheBritish.UnderBritishrule,theChitpavansquicklytooktoEng-lisheducation,andmost of thefamousnames of Marathahistoryfromthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesarefromthiscaste:theearlyreformerandessayistHariGopalDeshmukh(Lokahitawadi)(182 3-1 892);reformersandna-tionalistsonanall-IndiascaleMahadeoGovindRanade(184 2-1 901)andGopalKrishnaGokhale(186 6-1 915),whomGandhicalledone of hisgurus;themostfamousMaharashtrianwoman of thenineteenthcentury,educatorandChristianconvertPanditaRamabai(185 8-1 922);theradicalpatriotBalGangadhar(Lokamanya)Tilak(185 6- 1920);theHindurevivalistVinayakDamodarSavarkar(189 3-1 966);orientalistsPandurangVamanKane(188 0- 1972)andRamchandraNarayanDandekar(b.1909);econ-omistD.R.Gadgil(190 1-1 971);MahatmaGandhi's"spiri-tualsuccessor,"VinobaBhave(189 5-1 982);anthropologistIravatiKarve(190 5-1 970);cricketerD.B.Deodhar(b.1891);andmanyothers.EvenMaharashtra's"terrorists"wereChitpavan,fromthenineteenth-centuryrebelWasudeoBalwantPhadke,throughtheChapekarbrothersinthe1890s,toNathuramVinayakGodse,Gandhi'sassassinin1948.Thenationalistactivities of theChitpavans,bothradi-calandmoderate,causedconsiderablehatredandfearonthepart of someBritons,andtherearemanyreferencestothear-rogantand"untrustworthy"ChitpavansintheRajliterature.Maharashtrianstodayarejustifiablyproud of themanycon-tributionstoIndiannationalismmadebyChitpavans.Withtherise of Gandhiafter1920,theMaharashtraareaceasedtobe a maincenter of Indianpoliticallife,andsuchChitpavanpoliticalfiguresasTilak'ssuccessor,N.C.Kelkar,hadlittlepoweronthenationalscene.Thenon-Brahmanpoliticalmovementbroughtthelargecaste of theMarathastothefore,anditisclaimedthatChitpavanN.R.Gadgilbroughtthenon-BrahmanleadershipintotheIndianNationalCongresstostrengthenthat ... most of theChinesebusinessmenspeakEn-glishandanotherlocallanguage,theyspeak a Chineselan-guageinthehomeandonlyveryrarelymarry a non-Chinesespouse.MostmarriagesarearrangedinthetraditionalChi-nesemanner.BibliographyChang,Sen-Dou(1968)."TheDistributionandOccupa-tions of OverseasChinese."GeographicalReview58:8 9-1 07.Poston,DudleyL.,Jr.,andMei-YuYu(1990)."TheDistribu-tion of theOverseasChineseintheContemporary World. "InternationalMigrationReview24:48 0-5 08.ChitpavanBrahmanETHNONYM:KonkanasthaOrientationIdentification."Chitpavan,"sometimesspelled"Chitta-pavan,"maymeaneither'purefromthepyre"or'pureinheart."AnothernameforthisBrahmancaste of theMarathi-speakingarea of westernIndiais'Konkanastha,"whichmeans"being of theKonkan,"thecoastalstripbetweentheArabianSeaandtheWesternGhats(mountains) south of thecity of Bombay.The'purefromthepyre"meaning of Chitpavanis a referencetoanoriginmythclaimingthatthecastewascreatedbythegodParashuramfrombodies of ship-wreckedsailors,purifiedonthepyre,restoredtolife,andtaughtBrahmanrites.Thismythisfoundinthe"SahyadriKhanda" of theSkandaPurana, a chapterprobablycompiledby a DeshasthaBrahman,one of the"original"Brahmans of theMarathi-speakingarea,andhencenotalwaysflatteringtoChitpavans.Members of thecasteare ... generallyveryfair,oftenhaveaquilinenoses,andfrequentlypossessgray,blue,orgreeneyes.AtvarioustimesithasbeenspeculatedthattheywereoriginallyTurks,Iranians,Egyptians,Greeks,Jews,Berbers,orpeoplefromfarther south ornorthinIndia.Location.Theoriginalhome of theChitpavanswasaroundthecity of ChipluninRatnagiriDistrict,thenorthernpart of theKonkan,andsomederivethename"Chitpavan"from'Chiplun."Intheeighteenthcenturymembers of thecastemovedthroughouttheDesharea(theMarathi-speakingheartland,inlandfromthecoastalmountains)andinBritishtimestoallthecities of theMarathi-speakingarea,especiallyPune,Sangli,andWai,andbeyond.SinceIndianindependencein1947,manyhavemigratedabroad.Demography.NocensusrecordsoncastesotherthanUntouchableshavebeenkeptsince1931.MaureenPattersonestimatesthattherearenowaround250,000Chitpavans,roughly13percent of theBrahmans of thestate of Maharash-tra,lessthan1percent of thatarea'spopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.Marathiisspokenbyallpeople na-tivetoMaharashtra;it isanIndo-Europeanlanguagecon-tainingelementsfromtheDravidianLanguageFamily.Untilrecently,therewas a "Chitpavanibhasa," a distinctivenasal-Ghenchu61Arts.TheChakmaarenotedfortwoarts,musicandweav-ing.Thebamboofluteispopularamongyoungmen,andgirlsplayonanotherkind of flute.Songsandepicpoemsaresung.Weavingisanessentialaccomplishment of women.Theymakecomplextapestrieson a back-straploomcalled a ben.Theydotheirownspinninganddyeing.Ceremonies.ChakmaobservebothBuddhistandnon-Buddhistceremonies.Theyobservethedays of birth,enlight...

... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithas a piousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,with a runwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaare a mainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking. A manmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergets a largershare of fishthanthefishingcrew. A boatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeen a vitalsource of income,andnowthereis a modemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlyto a fewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsis a remarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryis a duty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherightto a plot of landfor a houseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginis a combination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,and a maleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples: A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerely a fewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthat a closeestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents. A smallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshave a thrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermiteven a briefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J. A. (1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyform a smallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy, A. (1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuch a peopleinhabiting a tract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedas a hunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyond a singlecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact, a distinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch," a termusedbylinguiststodesignate a smallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.Thereisalso a territorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslike a garlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywas a nexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthan a kilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowed a crudebirthrate of 43per1,000and a growthrate of 3.5percent a year.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people, a quarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithas a piousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,with a runwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaare a mainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking. A manmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergets a largershare of fishthanthefishingcrew. A boatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeen a vitalsource of income,andnowthereis a modemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlyto a fewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsis a remarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryis a duty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherightto a plot of landfor a houseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginis a combination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,and a maleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples: A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerely a fewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthat a closeestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents. A smallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshave a thrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermiteven a briefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J. A. (1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyform a smallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy, A. (1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuch a peopleinhabiting a tract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedas a hunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyond a singlecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact, a distinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch," a termusedbylinguiststodesignate a smallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.Thereisalso a territorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslike a garlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywas a nexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthan a kilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowed a crudebirthrate of 43per1,000and a growthrate of 3.5percent a year.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people, a quarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryend of theEurasianchain of thatlanguagestock.Thereisanunderlyingcomponent of Tamil-Malayalam.SinceconversiontoIslam,numerousAra-bicandPersianwordshavebeenborrowed.Thebounds of thelanguageareclear,butthethreesouthernatollsandMalikuhavetheirowndialects.Thescriptisunique,inventedforDivehithreecenturiesagofrom a combination of ArabicandIndianprinciples of script.Itsuitsthelanguagewellandiseasytolearn.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheMaldiveswereknowntoveryearlyIndianseafarers,suchassailedfromGujaratinthemiddle of thefirstmillenniumB.c.andsettledinSriLanka,andarementionedinearlyworkssuchastheBuddhistJdtakatalesandtheSriLankanepics.EarlysettlementwasevidentlyfromKerala,diffusedthroughtheLakshadvip(Laccadive)Islandsbyfishermenandbythekings of Keralawhomadeconquestsbysea,accordingtoTamilliterature of theearlycenturies A. D.TheMaldiveswereperhapstouchedbyIndonesianculture(whichpassedthroughtoMadagascar)roughlyatthesametime,andtheis-landswerewellknowntoclassicalGreekgeographers.Per.siansbegantradingabouttheseventhcentury.ThecountrywasconqueredseveraltimesbyTamilandKeralakingsinmedievalcenturies.ThemostsignificantsettlementwasbySinhalasfromSriLanka,perhapsbypoliticalexiles,whichgavetheMaldivestheirlanguage,theoldSinhalascript,TheravadaBuddhism,andSriLankanbeliefsandfoods.This ... oldcultureiscomprised of threemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephase of Arabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ing of English.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremade of localvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothose of otherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildings of coralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithas a piousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.Nearbyistheairportisland of Hulule,with a runwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaare a mainstay of theeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking. A manmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergets a largershare of fishthanthefishingcrew. A boatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekinds of milletsgrownandtarointhe south. Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeen a vitalsource of income,andnowthereis a modemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlyto a fewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefit of mapsandchartsis a remarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsource of cowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunit of 192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiples of 4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryis a duty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomies of other South Asiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.Division of Labor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjob of twistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecases of theseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomost of thehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.Boatcrewsandleaders of Islamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorparts of islandstoprominentpeopleforcollection of produce,aspart of itssystem of control.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherightto a plot of landfor a houseandgardenintheirisland of registration.InFueMulakuinthe south, residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginis a combination of DravidianandArabwithelements of NorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,and a maleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).Thematrilinealvariant of theDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansin South Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples: A World EthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,23 2-2 36.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).People of theMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:7 4-1 03.Europeansin South Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:Whiletheimpact of Europeonthe South Asiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumber of Eu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerely a fewtens of thou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthat a closeestimateisdif-ficult.)Butevenintheheyday of Britishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000Europeansinall of South Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-Indians of the South Asianmainland,andtheBurghers of SriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeople of part-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategories of Europeansasbeingresidentin South Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.Technicalspecialistsfromthe World HealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmost South Asiancountries.Students of anthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents. A smallnumber of veryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetime of independencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.Whilethe South Asianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestill of someimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.Atanygiventimetherearesomethousands of Australian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearch of religiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtradition of Hinduspirituality.Some of thesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenter of Auroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshave a thrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.Thegreatmajority of thesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(Many of India'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-Europeansfromother South Asiancountries.)80Europeansin South Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpact of theBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesin South Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistories of the"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothis volume. Spacedoesnotpermiteven a briefreview of theadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiod of Brit-ishadministration of most of thesubcontinent.Wemayinsteadhighlightthecontribution of EuropeansfromIndiatothearts.Bestknown of courseistheliterarycontribution of RudyardKipling(186 5-1 936),one of twoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore). Of numerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.Theartisticimpact of theBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildings of NewDelhi.Lessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpact of thisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquity of schoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;French of India;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,179 3- 1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomen of VictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J. A. (1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeography of a South IndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,33 4-3 59.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,160 8- 1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.French of IndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(name of townandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritory of PondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)Whilelegallystillcitizens of FranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituency of Nice.Theyform a smallminority,accountingforlessthan3percent of thepresentpopulation of Pondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifact of theFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishment of FrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajority of theseFrenchareHindusorChristians of localormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percent of themspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuch of theirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansin South Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrench of India(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:25 2-2 73.Ramasamy, A. (1987).History of Pondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-ety of Pondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,175 0- 1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuch a peopleinhabiting a tract of theupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbank of theInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptions of theGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedas a hunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villages of from400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyond a singlecommunity.Whileall of thismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitants of Gilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact, a distinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeak of the'Dardicbranch," a termusedbylinguiststodesignate a smallgroup of languages of theIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorth of Pakistan. Of these,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.Thereisalso a territorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpart of theupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).Tribes of theHindooKoosh.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRaces of Dardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguage of theRepublic of theMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheisland of Maliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechain of atollsthatap-pearslike a garlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.Thecountrywas a nexus of IndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands, of which201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthan a kilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthto south andclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorth of theMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherparts of thearchipelago.Demography.As of 1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspart of theCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecause of stormsthatinterruptedimports of food,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowed a crudebirthrate of 43per1,000and a growthrate of 3.5percent a year.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecause of themomentum of Islamictradition.Malehas57,000people, a quarter of allDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhala of SriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... Dimension of theFamilyinIndia: A FieldStudyin a GujaratVillageand a Re-view of OtherStudies.Berkeley:University of CaliforniaPress;NewDelhi:OrientLongman.Shah,Ghanshyam(1989)."CasteSentimentsandDomi-nanceinGujarat."InDominanceandStatePowerinModernIndia,editedbyFrancineFrankelandM.S. A. Rao.Delhi:OxfordUniversityPress.GHANSHYAMSHAHGurkhaETHNONYM:Gurkhali"Gurkha"isnotthename of anethnicgroupbutratherthenamegiventhoseNepalesenationalswhoserveintheBritisharmy.Gurkhasaredrawnfrom a number of NepaleseethnicgroupsincludingtheGurung(whocontributethe84Garodispute,themattercangobeforethecivilcourt of thedistrictcouncil.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TherearetwofaithsprevalentamongtheGaros:nativeandChristian.Peoplewhofollowthetradi-tionalfaithareknownasSongsarek.Differenceinreligionhasnotbroughtanysplitinthepopulation.Thetraditional world of theGarosincludes a number of spiritswhobehavelikehumanbeingsbuthavenoshape.TheyareSaljong,thespirit of thesunandfertility;Gaera,thespirit of strengthandthethunderbolt;Susume,thespirit of wealth.Propitiationforeachisfollowedbythesacrifice of ananimalandanoffering of beer. A ChristianGaroissupposedtoavoidsuchpractices.Ogresandbitingspirits(mite)alsooccur.ReligiousPractitioners. A Garoreligiouspractitionerisknownaskamal.Thewordisusedtomean'specialist";thus a midwifemaybe a kamal. A kamalderivesneitherspecialpriv.ilegenorprestigefromhisorherservicetothesociety.Ceremonies.Alltraditionalannualfestivalswerecon-nectedwiththedifferentstages of shiftingcultivation:Agal-maka,Maimua,Rongchugala,Ahaia,Wangala,etc.WangalaisconsideredtobethenationalfestivalamongtheGaros,takingplaceOctober-December.When a member of a familybecomesChristian,herefusestoparticipateinSongsarekfestivals.Arts.TheGarosusedtomakethefollowingitems:carvedwoodenshields(spee);baskets of differenttypes;differentva.rieties of drums-gambil,kram,andnakik;pipes(adil)made of buffalohorn;flutes of bamboo;gonogina(Sew'sharp)made of bamboo.Medicine.Theyuse a variety of herbalmedicinesforallsorts of ailments,andtheyclaimtohaveherbalmedicineforbirthcontrolalso.DeathandAfterlife.Theybelievethatafterdeathhumanbeingsandanimalsturnintospiritsknownasmemang("ghosts").Thesememangareconsideredcounterparts of humanbeings.BibliographyBurling,Robbins(1956)."GaroKinshipTerminology."ManinIndia36:20 3-2 18.Burling,Robbins(1963).Rengsanggri:FamilyandKinshipin a GaroVillage.Philadelphia:University of PennsylvaniaPress.Dalton,EdwardTuite(1872).DescriptiveEthnology of Ben-gal.Calcutta:Superintendent of GovernmentPrinting.Re-print.1960.Calcutta:IndianStudiesPast&Present.Das,K.N.(1982).SocialDimension of GaroLanguage.Ph.D.dissertation,GauhatiUniversity.Grierson,George A. ,ed.(1903).TheLinguisticSurvey of India.Vol.3,pt.2.Calcutta:Government of India.Reprint.1967.Delhi:Motilal-Banarsidass.Majumdar,D.N.(1980). A Study of CultureChangeinTwoGaroVillages of Meghalaya.Gauhati:GauhatiUniversityPress.Playfair,Alan.(1909).TheGaros.London:Nutt.Roy,SankarKumar(1977). A Study of CeramicsfromtheNe-olithictotheMedievalPeriodofAssam:AnEthnoarchaeologicalApproach.Ph.D.dissertation,GauhatiUniversity.Roy,SankarKumar(1981)."Aspects of NeolithicAgricul-tureandShiftingCultivation,GaroHills,Meghalaya."AsianPerspectives24:19 3-2 21.Tayang,J.(1981).Census of India,1981.Series14,Meghalaya,paperno.1.Shillong:Directorate of CensusOp-erations,Meghalaya.SANKARKUMARROYGondETHNONYM:KoiOrientationIdentification.TheGondsareanimportantandnumer-oustribe,residingatthepresenttimemainlyinGondavana,"theLand of theGonds,"theeasternmostdistricts of MadhyaPradesh,formerlytheCentralProvinces of India.Theywerefirstcalled"Gonds"(hillmen)bytheMogulrul-ers.TheycallthemselvesKoiorKoitir;themeaning of thelatternameisunclear.Location.WhiletheGondlivemainlyinMadhyaPradesh,importantclusterslivealsointheadjoiningdistrictstothenorth,west,and south of Gondavana.Many of thesesubsec-tionshaveassumeddifferenttribalnamesso ... isnotnecessaryforhimtomarryforcompanionshiporevenforhelpincultivation,astheaverageholding of a Grasiaissmallandheisabletodoallagricul-turalworkevenifhehas a smallfamily.Themainreasonsfor a mantotakemorethanonewifeareeitherthathisfirstwifecannotbearchildrenorthatshehasonlyfemalechildren.SociopoliticalOrganizationTheGrasiasworkwithin a joint-familysystemwherethesonsstaywiththefamilyuptothetimetheirchildrenbecomeadults.Onlyonrareoccasionsdothesonsliveseparatelyfromtheirparentsduetodomesticquarrels.Separationusu-allyoccurs,however,afterthefather'sdeath.Onlyunmarriedsistersandminorunmarriedbrotherscontinuetolivewiththefamily of one of theolderbrothers.ReligionTheGrasiasbasicallyworshiptheHindugodsandrespectthecowandarethusalmostHinduized,eventhoughtheytendtoholdontotheiroriginalbeliefinspiritsandfearghosts,spirits of thedead,andblackmagic.SeealsoBhilBibliographyDave,P.C.(1960).TheGrasiasalsoCalledDungriGrasias.Delhi:BharatiyaAdimjatiSevakSangh.LeSHONKIMBLEGujarETHNONYMS:Gujareta,Gujjar,GujjaraTheGujarsare a historicalcastewhohavelenttheirnametotheGujaratDistrictandthetown of GujaranwalainthePunjab,thepeninsulaandstate of Gujarat,andtheareaknownasGujargashinGwalior.Theynumbered56,000per-sonsin1911, of whichthemajoritybelongedtotheHoshan-gabadandNimardistricts.(In1971therewere20,634GujarsenumeratedinHimachalPradeshalone.)InthoseprovincesthecasteisprincipallyfoundintheNarmadaValley.ThecasteisbroadlydividedalongreligiousandgeographiclinesintotheMuslimGujars(whoalsosharemanyHinducustomswiththeirHinduGujarbrethrenandarethusnotfullyac-ceptedintotheMuslimmajority)innorthernIndiaandPaki-Gujarati89stanandtheHindupopulationinthecentralregions of India.GujarsspeakGujari, a dialect of Rajasthani,anIndiclanguage of theIndo-IranianSector of theIndo-EuropeanFamily.InHimachalPradeshthelanguageismixedwithWesternPahari.GujarswriteintheUrduscript.Theorigins of theGujarsareunknown;however,severaltheoriesplacethemeitheras a branch of theWhiteHunswhooverranIndiainthefifthandsixthcenturiesoras a branch of theKushandivision of theYueh-Chitribe,whichcontrolledmuch of northwesternIndiaduringtheearlycen-turies of theChristianera.InthepasttheGujarswereconsid-eredmaraudersandvagrants.Todaytheyarelaw-abidingpas-toralistsandcultivators.ManyGujarswereconvertedtoIslamatvarioustimesandindifferentplaces,beginningwiththeattack of Mahmud of GhaznionSomnathinGujaratin1026.TheGujars of OudhandMeerutdatetheirconversiontothetime of Timurin1398,whenhesackedDelhiandforci-blyconvertedthem.By1525,whenBaburinvaded,hediscov-eredthattheGujarinthenorthernPunjabhadalreadybeenconverted.Untilthe1700stheconversionscontinuedundertheMogulrulerAurangzeb,whoconvertedtheGujar of HimachalPradeshatthepoint of a sword.ThePathansandBaluchidrovetheGujarconvertsfromtheirland,forcingtheminto a nomadicexistence.TheGujarsaredividedintoHinduand ... theGujaratipopulationaretribalswhopredominantlyliveintheeasternhillybelt.Sixty-ninepercent of thepopulationliveinruralareasand31percentliveinurbanareas.Ahmadabad,Surat,Vadodara,andRajkotarelargecities.linguisticAffiliation.Gujaratiisconsideredbylinguiststobe a member of theoutercircle of Indo-Aryanlanguages:itispartlyPrakriticandpartlySanskriticinorigin. A number of Arabic,Persian,Urdu,andEuropean-particularlyPortu-gueseandEnglish-wordshavebecomepart of thelanguage.Thereareseveraldialects.Importantamongthem,basedonregion,areKathiawadi,Kachchh,Pattani,Charotari,andSurati.Therearealsocaste-orcommunity-baseddialects,suchasNagari,AnavlaorBhathala,Patidari,Kharwa,Musalmani,Parsi,etc.Differenttribalgroupshavetheirowndialectsthatbear a closeaffinitytoGujarati.ThedistinctiveGujaratiscripthasthirty-fourconsonantsandelevenvowels.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheterritorywasknownas"GurjaraBhoomi,""GurjaraDesh,""Gurjaratta,"or"GurjarMandal"-meaningabode of theGurjarpeople-betweenthefifthandninthcenturies A. D.Thename of theareaknownas"Gujarat"wasrecognizedfromthetenthcenturyduringtheSolankiperiod,whenMul-rajalaidthefoundation of hiskingdomwithitscapitalatAn-hilwadPatan.DuringBritishruletheareawasdividedinto a number of nativestatesandestatesandBritishadministra-tivedistricts,whichwere a part of theBombaypresidency.Afterindependencein1947,thenativestatesmergedintotheIndianUnion. A group of statesformedSaurashtraState;themainlandGujaratbecame a part of BombayStateandKachchhwascentrallyadministered.Butas a result of furtherreorganization of thestatesin1956,SaurashtraandKachchhweredissolvedasseparatestatesandbecame a part of BombayState.Then,because of demandsfor a separatelin-guisticstate,Gujarat,Saurashtra,andKachchhformedtheseparatestate of Gujaratin1960.SettlementsAmong18,114villages,8percentaresmallwith a population of lessthan200persons;and49(0.2percent)arelargewithmorethan10,000peopleineach.Thesettlementpattern of eachvillageiseitherclusteredordispersed.Clusteredvillagesaredividedintosubclustersconsisting of a group of familiesbelongingtothesamecasteorcommunity.Thedominantcasteresidesinthecenter,andtraditionallyUntouchablecastesliveontheperiphery of thevillage.Inthedispersedpatternmainlyfoundamongtribals,eachfamily-nuclearorjoint-livesonitsownfarm. A templeorpublicplatformunder a largetreeis a centralplacewheremalesfromupperandmiddlecastesmeetandspendtheirsparetime.Today,most of themiddle-sizedandbigvillageshaveprimaryschools,oneortwoshops,grazingland,and a cremationground.Thereare255townsorurbanagglomerations.Allbuteleven of thesetownshave a populationunder100,000.Many of themareexpandedvillageswherecasteorcommu-nityclustersformneighborhoodlocalities.Twostyles of housingarecommoninurbanandruralGujarat.Thefirstisthesturdymodernkindmade of brickandconcrete,withmorethantworoomsand a separatekitchen.Thesecondis a tenement of mud,stone,andwood.Theroofsare of locallymadetilesorthatch.(Numericaldatafrom1981census.)EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Despiterapidindustrialdevelopment,agricultureoccupies a prominentplaceintheeconomy of thestate.Itcontributesanaverage of 35to40percent of thestate'sdomesticproducts.Sixty-twopercent of theworkersengagedinagricultureareeitherculti-vatorsorlaborers.Althoughagricultureisnotfullymecha-nized,use of tractorshasincreasedconsiderablyinrecentyears.Themajorfoodcropsarebajri,jowar,rice,andwheat.Cotton,groundnut,tobacco,andsugarcanearemajorcom-mercialcrops:theyoccupyabout40percent of thetotalculti-vatedarea of thestate.Cattle,buffalo,sheep,goats,chickens,horses,camels,monkeys,donkeys,andpigsarethemaindo-mesticanimals.Bullocksareusedforagriculture,cowsandbuffaloformilk. A cooperativedairyindustryhasdeveloped.IndustrialArts.Artisansinruralareasareengagedinpot-tery,silver-andbrass-ornamentmaking,embroidery,hand-loomconstructionandfurnituremaking.Despitegovernmentsupport,thesecraftsarerapidlydisappearing.Gujaratisone of themosthighlyindustrializedstatesinIndia.Themajorindustriesaretextiles,plastics,chemicals,andengi-neering.Interms of incomegeneratedfrommanufacturing,Gujaratrankssecondinthecountry.Trade.Tradeis a primaryoccupation of Gujaratis.TheHinduandJainBaniasarethetradingcastes.InthiscenturythePatidarshaveemergedasentrepreneurs.Inaddition,theParsisandMuslimBohrasarealsotraders.Gujarathasbeenwellconnectedbytraderouteswithinthecontinentandalsowithothercountries.Historically,theGujaratispossessed...