Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume 2 - Oceania - E potx

... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts (e. g.,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeath of ... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts (e. g.,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeath of ... 54EasterIsland.sweetpotatoesbeingthemostimportant.Taro,yams,sugar-cane,bananas,gourds,turmeric,andarrowrootwerealsogrownwhileberriesandseabirdeggsweregathered.Fishpro-videdsomeprotein,althoughfishingwasneveramajorsub-sistenceactivity.EasterIslanderscontinuetofarmsmallplotstoday,althoughmaizeisnowthemajorcropandChileancui-sinehasreplacedthenativediet.Sincetheintroduction of sheepranching,sheepandcattleontheislandhavebeentheprimarysources of meat.Mostmaterialgoodsarenowob-tainedfromthestoreontheislandandfromtheChileangov-ernment.Inadditiontofarmingandfishing,EasterIslandersnowworkforthegovernment,inafewsmallbusinesses,andinthetouristindustry.IndustrialArts.EasterIslanderswerehighlyskilledstone-cuttersandstone-carvers,masons,woodcutters,andcanoemakers.Today,somecarvewoodimagesforthetouristtrade.Thestone-carvingtraditionhadalreadybeenabandonedatthetime of contact,thoughthelargestonestatuessurvivedanddrewtheattention of visitorstotheisland.EasterIsland-ersalsomadevariousutensils,implements,andtoolsfromstoneandwood,baskets,nets,mats,cordage,tapa(aclothmadefrombark),andbodyornaments.Trade.Because of theirisolation,EasterIslandersevi-dendydidnottradewithothergroupsinPolynesia.TherehasbeenconjecturethatsomecultureelementsdevelopedthroughcontactwithSouthAmerica,mostnotablythefacialimagesonthestonemonuments.Theseideasremainunproven.Division of Labor.Menwereresponsibleforplantingthegardens,fishing,andbuildingthestonestructures.Womenharvestedcropsandhandledmostdomesticchores.Therewasalsoaweil-definedoccupationalhierarchy,withexpertreciters of genealogiesandfolklore,stone-carvers,wood-carvers,andfishermenpaidfortheirserviceswithproduce.Stone-carverswereaprivilegedgroupwiththeroleandstatuspassedfromfathertoson.LandTenure.Intraditionaltimes,landwasownedbylineageswithdwellingandfarmplotsallotedtofamilies.Since1888Chilehasmaintainedownership of all of EasterIslandandhasrestrictedtheEasterIslanderstolandinandaroundHangoroa.Newlywedsaregivenafewacres of landfortheirusebytheChileangovernment.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Thepopulation of EasterIs-landwasdividedintotensubtribesorclans(mata),each of whichevidentlyoccupiedadistinctterritoryinprecontacttimes.Byhistorictimes,subtribemembersweremorewidelydispersedasaresult of exogamousmarriage,adoption,andcaptureduringwar.Thetenclansformedtwolargerdivisions,withonecontrollingthewesternhalfandtheothertheeast-ernhalf of theisland.KinshipTerminology.Traditionalkintermusagefol-lowedtheHawaiiansystem,whichhasbeenmodifiedovertimetoreflectchangesinfamilyorganization.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Intraditionaltimes,mostmarriagesweremo-nogamous,thoughsomewealthymenhadmorethanonewife.Marriagesweregenerallyarranged,withinfantbetrothalnotuncommon.Today,marriageisbyfreechoice,althoughthefathers of boththegroomandbrideareinvolvedinap-provingandmakingarrangementsforthemarriage.Mar-riagesaremarkedbythreeceremonies-acivilceremony,churchceremony,andalargefeasthostedbythegroom'sfather-reflectingthesurvival of atraditionalpractice.Uponmarriage,thecouplegenerallylivewithonefamilyortheotheruntilmaterialscanbeobtainedtobuildtheirownhome.Inthepast,manymarriagesendedindivorce,whichcouldbeinitiatedbyeitherpartyforvirtuallyanyreason.TheRomanCatholicchurchhasmadedivorcemoredifficultandlessfrequent.DomesticUnit.Inthepast,thebasicfamilyandresiden-tialunitwasthelaterallyextendedfamilycomposed of broth-ers,theirwives,andtheirchildren.Today,thenudearfamilyisthenorm,althoughotherrelativessuchasgrandparentsandbrothersmightalsobepresent.Inthepastandtoday,thefatherwastheauthorityfigure,althoughtodaythewife'sfa-therhasmorepowerthanthehusband'sfatherandason-in-lawwilloftenseekhisfather-in-law'sapprovalforeducationalandcareerdecisions.UnderChileaninfluence,therole of godparent(compadre)hasdeveloped,andgodparentsoftenplayaroleinchildrearing.Inheritance.Inthepastandtoday,bothmenandwomencouldinheritandbothmenandwomencouldleaveproperty.Socialization.Pubertyintraditionaltimeswasmarkedforboysandgirlsbysecludingthemonanislandforsomemonthsandthenholdinglargeseparatefeastsattheend of theseclusionperiod.Theseritesdisappearedlongago,andpubertyisnolongermarkedbyritual.TheChileangovern-mentprovidesaschoolforelementaryeducationandsomeEasterIslandersattendhighschoolinChile.SocialandPoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inadditiontosocialdistinctionsbasedonkinship,EasterIslandtraditionallyhadfourdistinctsocialclasses:noblemen(anki);priests(ivi-atua);warriors(matatoa);andservantsandfarmers(kio).Therulerwasthemainhighchief(ariki-mau)whotracedhisstatustodescentfromHotu-matua,thefounder of theisland.Inreality,arikiwereinvestedwithconsiderablemanaandweresubjecttonu-meroustaboos,althoughtheyhadlittleactualpower.Littleisknownabouttheactivities of priests,astherolehaddisap-pearedbythetimemissionariesarrived.Kiowerewarcaptiveswhoworkedforothersorpaidtributeintheform of percent-age of theircrops.PoliticalOrganizato.Asnotedabove,thenominalrul-erscamefromthearikiclass,withsuccessiontotheposition of highchiefgoingtotheoldestsonatthetime of hismar-riage.However,sincethismarriagewasoftendelayedmanyyearsbeyondthat of mostEasterIslanders,chiefsoftenheldtheirpositionforsomeyears.Atthetime of sustainedcon-tact,warriorsweretheactualpoliticalleaders,reflectingalonghistory of fightingamongthesubtribesandthealmostcontinuousfightingthatfollowedthekidnapping of menin18 62. Today,theEasterIslandersaregovernedbyChile,withaChileangovernor,civilservice,andpoliceforceprovidingservices.EasterIslanderrepresentationisthroughthemayor of Hangoroa.56Eipodenareasandcoversthemountainsaboveabout 2, 400me-tersuptothetreelineat3,500meters.Annualrainfallin197 5-1 976was590centimeters,withrainmostlyfallingdailyintheafternoonsandevenings.Temperaturesrangefromabout1 1-1 3°to 21 -2 5 °C.Littleseasonalchangeistobeobserved,butthetime of flowering of aparticulartree(Eodiasp.)istakenbytheEipoasamarker of certainfeastsandotheractivities.In1976twosevereearthquakesde-stroyedlargeareas of gardenlandandsomevillages;itislikelythatsimilarcatastropheshaveoccurredinthepast.Demography.TheEiponumbereddoseto800peoplein1980;indicationsarethatthepopulationisgrowing.linguisticAffiliation.Eipo, of whichtherearethreedia-lects,isamember of theMekFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages,clearlyseparatefromtheOklanguagestotheeast,theYaliandDanilanguagestothewest,andlanguagesspo-kentothenorthandsouth.Localpeopletraditionallyunder-stand-and,toalesserextent,speak-oneortwodialectsorlanguagesotherthantheirown.Childrenusuallylearntheirspeechfromtheirmothers(who,duetorules of exogamy,oftencomefromdifferentvalleys)andoftendonotadoptthedialectspokenbythemajorityinaparticularvillage.BahasaIndonesia,unknownbeforethe1970s,isslowlygaininggroundasalinguafranca.HistoryandCulturalRelationsNoarchaeologicaldataareavailablefortheMekregion,andethnohistoricsurveysaremissingaswell.Itisprobable,how-ever,thatparts of theMekareahavebeeninhabitedformanythousands of years.Linguisticandhistoricalresearchontheintroductionanddiffusion of tobaccoshowsthattheMek(andtheirOkneighborstotheeast)mayhavebeencentralinthisprocess,andcomparativestudiesonreligiousbeliefsprovethatimportantconcepts (e. g.,that of amythicalances-tralcreator)havetraveledfromeasttowest.Whileitisun-knownasyetatwhattimethesweetpotato(lpomoeabatatas)wasintroduced,onecanconcludefromthesignificance of taro(Colocasiaesculenta)inallceremonialreligiouscontextsthatthislatterfoodplantwas of vitalimportanceinpre-Ipomoeantimes.ThefirstknowncontactbyoutsiderswithMekpeopleswasmadebyateam of Dutchsurveyorsearlyinthiscentury;theymetagroup of peoplenearMountGoliathinthesouth of theareaandreportedthefirstrecordedwords of aMeklanguage.Someothergroupswerecontactedin1959inthecourse of aFrenchexpeditionacrossWestNewGuinea.Itsleader,PierreGaisseau,laterreturnedwithafilmteamandIndonesianmilitarypersonnelin1969,parachutingintothesouthernEipoValleywheretheyconductedasmallbutsoundsurveyontheareaandthepeople.Members of aninterdisciplinaryGermanresearchteamconductedresearchintheEipoValleyandsomeadjacentareasbetween1974and1980.SettlementsThevillages of theEipoandtheirneighborsintheMekareahave30 -2 5 0inhabitantsandareusuallybuiltonspotsthatfacilitatedefense.Oneormorecircularmen'shouses(whichoftenhavesacredfunctions)occupyconspicuousplaces,ei-therinthecenterorattheend of thevillage.Themuchsmallerandlesswell-builtfamilyhouses,also of circularshapebutsometimeswithrectangularroofs,arethelocationsforfamily-centeredactivities.Womenstayinseclusionhouses,usuallysituatedattheperiphery of thevillage,duringmenstruation,childbirth,andpuerperium,andsometimesduringseriousillnessesandforsanctuary.Allmen'shousesandmostfamilyhouseshaveelevatedfloorsandacentralfireplace.Protectionagainstthecold of thenightisnotveryadequate.Duetomissioninfluence,whichchieflyemploysDanievangelistsandteachers,Danihousestylesarebecom-ingfashionable.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheEipoandtheMekingeneralareskillfulhorticulturalistsandmaketheirgardensinvariousplaces:sometimesonsteepself-drainingmountainslopes,butalsoinflat,wetareaswhereditchingandbuildingmoundsareparticularlyimportantforthemainstaplecrop,sweetpotatoes.Mulchingiswidespread.Fallowperiodsarefifteenyearsormore;sufficientregeneration of thesoilisjudgedbythesize of atree(Trematomentosa)thatsoonstartstogrowinoldgardens.Numerousvarieties of taro,some of whichreachconsiderablesizeandweight,arealsocultivated.Theyarereservedforceremonies,especiallyfeastsforguests.Othercultigensincludeleafygreens(whichcon.tributemost of thevegetableprotein,especiallyformen),ba-nanas,sugarcane,ediblepitpit,nativeasparagus(Setariapalmifolia),variouspandanusspecies,andotherwildfoods.Beans,cheyote(Secchiumedule),cucumbers,maize,cassava,andpeanutshavebeenintroducedandsuccessfullyculti-vated.Thefewdomesticatedpigsdonotcontributemuchtothediet,onlyaboutonegramperdayperson;theyarecare-fullyraisedandusuallyusedonlyinceremonialcontexts.Smallmarsupialsaresnaredorhunted,oftenwiththehelp of dogs,buthuntingisdonemoretosatisfyemotionalneedsthantoprovidemeat.Womenandgirlsobtainvaluableani-malproteinintheform of frogs,tadpoles,lizards,snakes,spi-ders,andotherinsectsaswellastheeggsandlarvae of theseanimals.Traditionandreligioustaboosreservethesefoodsaswellasmost of thebirdspeciesforinfants,girls,andwomen.Inthepastdecade,theEipohavebecomedependentonmis-sionstationsassources of modemtools,clothing,tinnedfood,andothergoods,whicharepurchasedwithmoneyre-ceivedfromsellingservicesorproductstothemission.IndustrialArts.Thematerialcultureispoor,evencom-paredtootherhighlandsgroups,andwhenresearchwasbegunin1974,theEipoandmany of theirneighborswerestillusingstone,bone,andwoodentools.Theirworldlybe-longingsincludestringbags,bows,arrows,stoneadzes,stoneknivesandscrapers,woodendiggingsticks,boars'tusksandmarsupialteethusedascarvingtools,bonedaggersandawls,lianasforstartingfiresbyfriction,bambooorcalabashcon-tainersforwater,penisgourdsforthemen,andgrassskirtsforgirlsandwomen.TheMekcookinhotashes,bamboocon-tainersovertheopenfire,orinearthovensforlargergroups of people,especiallyguests.Trade.TheEipoandotherMekgroupsmayseemself-sufficientnow,buttraditionallytheyreliedonvariousgoodsfromtheoutside.Unpolishedstoneadzebladeswerepro-ducedbyspecialistsintheHeimeValleyandexchangedmainlyforstringbagsandgardenproducts.Otheritemsthat58Eipovillagecommunitiesaspersonswhotakeinitiative,pursueplans,andrespectrulesandtraditions,thoughtheyalsousethemtotheiradvantage.Inthisprotomeritocracy,leadershipisdependentontheactualpower of theleader.Personswhoshowsigns of losingtheircapacitieslosetheirpositions,too.Inheritance of big-manstatusfromfathertosonisnotinsti-tutionalized,butitsometimesoccursdefacto.SocialControl.Big-menexerciseacertainamount of so-cialcontrol,butmoreimportantistheprocess of enforcingsocialnormsthroughpublicopinion.Thisprocess,intum,iseffectedthroughgossip,discussion of disputedissues,andtheuse of extrahumanpowersinblackmagicallegedlyper-formedbyfemaleormalewitches.Theinfliction of illnessthusfunctionsaspunishmentforsocialwrongdoing.Conflict.DespitethefactthattheEipoareusuallyfriendlyandcontrolled,thepotentialforaggressiveactsisquitehighanddoesnotneedmuchtriggering.Untilrecently,inbothin-traalliancefightsandinteralliancewarfare,approximately 3-4 personsper1,000inhabitantsdied of violenceperyear.Verbalquarrelsandphysicalattackswithsticks,stoneadzes,andarrowswastheusualsequence of escalationleadingtofightsinthevillage.Neighborsinadjacentvalleyssometimeswerehereditaryenemieswhofoughtwarsthatwerelessritua-lized(andthereforelesscontrolled)thantheintraalliancefights;inthepasttheseconflictsoccasionallyledtocannibal-ism.Formalpeaceceremoniesendedthesewarsforperiods of monthsoryears.Warfareagainstideologicallydefinedanddehumanized"others"increasedone'sownsense of identityandstrengthenedbondswithinthegroup.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelief.Thevisible world isconsideredtobein-habitedbynumerous,usuallymonstrous,beings:souls of thedeceased,zoomorphicspirits of theforestsandrivers,andpowerfulshapers of natureandbringers of culturewho,sincemythicaltimes,haveinfluencedthelife of people.Yaleenye(anamethatmeans'theonecomingfromtheeast")isthemostprominentsuchculturehero.Mythicalpowers,symbolizedbyholyrelics,weretraditionallyhousedandhonoredinsacredmen'shouses.Variousceremoniesthatpervadedeverydaylifewereperformedtoensurethewell-being of humans,domesticanimals,andfoodplants.FundamentalistChristianityhasreplaced-sometimesradically-traditionalpracticesand,toalesserextent,beliefs.Syncreticideasandceremoniesarequitecommonandcargo-cultconceptsexist.ReligiousPractitioners.Seersaretheonlyoneswhocancommunicatedirectlywiththeextrahumansphereanditsagents.Theymayalsoactassorcerers,inflictingharm,dis-ease,anddeathonothers.Malecultleaders,whoweresome-timesalsobig-men,wereresponsibleinthepastforreligiousceremonies.Thesmallgroup of specialistsinreligiousmattersincludedhealers.Ceremonies.Untilrecently,thefirstandmostimportantinitiation of boysbetweenabout4and15years of agewasamajoreventthatinvolvedparticipantsfromothervalleys.Itwasheldatintervals of about10years,dependingonhowmanyboyswereavailableforthiscostlyceremony.Coiniti-ateskeptalifelongbond.Secondandthirdstagesinvolved,respectively,thebestowal of thecanewaistbandandpenisgourd,andthepresentation of themum,abackdecorationthathungdownfromthehead.Largeandcostlyceremonialdancefeastsforvisitorsstrengthenedtieswithtradeandmarriagepartnersfromothervalleys.Warfareandallianceformationinvolvedceremonies,andthekilling of anyenemywascelebratedtriumphantly.Morerarely,greatceremonies,bringingtogetherinhabitantsfromdistant,sometimesinim-icalvalleys,wereheldtoensurethefertility of thesoil.Arts.TheEipomakeveryfewcarvedorpaintedobjects.SomeMekgroupshavesacredboardsandlargesacredshieldsthatwerenotusedinwar.Drumsareknownonlyinsomear-eas,buttheJew'sharpisfoundeverywhere.Thetexts of pro-fanesongsandsacredchantsconvincinglyusepowerfulmet-aphorsandarehighlysophisticatedexamples of artisticexpression.Medicine.Comparedtootherareas of NewGuinea,sur-prisinglyfewplantmedicinesareused.Leaves of thestingingnettleareappliedascounterirritants.Othertraditional(psy-chosomatic)treatments,carriedoutbyhealerswhowereusu-allymales,involvedsacredpig'sfatandchantstoinvokethehelp of extrahumanpowers.Healersusuallywerenotpaidfortheirservices.Inrecentyearsmodemmedicineshavebeenadministeredatsomemissionstations.DeathandAfterlife.Thedeathof...

... wouldbeginwithabrief,secularoutburstthathadnoconnectionwithunplacatedghosts.Somecon-federationsinanalliancewouldturnagainsttheirsupposedalliesandmakeasurpriseattackonvillages,killingmen,women,andchildrenindiscriminately.Thealliancewouldbebrokenapart,andbothsideswouldwithdrawfromakilo-meter-widearea,whichwouldbecomeafallowno-man's-landonwhichtheperiodicbattles of theritualphase of warwouldbefought.Bythemid-1960s,theDutchandthentheIndo-nesianswereabletoabolishformalbattles of theritualphase of war,butsporadicraidsandskirmishescontinueinisolatedparts of theGrandValley.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGrandValleyDaniexplainmost of theirritualasplacatingtherestlessghosts of theirownrecentdead.Theseghostsarepotentiallydangerousandcausemis-fortune,illness,anddeath.Thus,attemptsaremadetokeepthemfaroffintheforest.Danialsobelieveinlocallandandwaterspirits.Inthe1950s,theWesternDaniregionexperi-encednativisticcargocult-likemovementsthatsweptahead of theChristianmissionaryadvance.ButthesemovementshadnoeffectonthemoreconservativeGrandValleyDani.Now,inthe1990s,manyDani-GrandValleyaswellasothers-arepracticingChristians.Islam,themajorityreli-gion of thelargernation,wasnotabletocopewithDanipigsandhashadlittlesuccessthere.ReligiousPractitioners.Variouspeople,mainlymen,areknownfortheirmagicalcuringpowers.Ritualaswellassecu-larpoweriscombinedintheleadersatvariouslevels.Leaders of alliancesseemoftentohaveexceptionallystrongandevenuniquepowers.Ceremonies.Duringthetime of war,ceremonieswerefre-quent.Battlesthemselvescouldbeseenasceremoniesdi-rectedatplacatingtheghosts.Therewerealsoceremoniescelebratingthedeath of anenemyorfuneralsforpeoplekilledbytheenemy.Atthecremationceremonyforsomeonekilledinbattle,oneortwofingers of severalgirlswouldbechoppedoffassacrificestotheghost of thedeadperson.Menmightoccasionallychopofftheirownfingersorcutoffthetips of theirears,buttheseactionsweresigns of personalsacrificeandmourning.Funeralceremoniesaswellasweddingcere-moniescontinuedatintervalsafterthemainevent.Bothwereconcludedinthegreatpigfeastheldeveryfourtosixyears,inwhichthe ... wouldbeginwithabrief,secularoutburstthathadnoconnectionwithunplacatedghosts.Somecon-federationsinanalliancewouldturnagainsttheirsupposedalliesandmakeasurpriseattackonvillages,killingmen,women,andchildrenindiscriminately.Thealliancewouldbebrokenapart,andbothsideswouldwithdrawfromakilo-meter-widearea,whichwouldbecomeafallowno-man's-landonwhichtheperiodicbattles of theritualphase of warwouldbefought.Bythemid-1960s,theDutchandthentheIndo-nesianswereabletoabolishformalbattles of theritualphase of war,butsporadicraidsandskirmishescontinueinisolatedparts of theGrandValley.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGrandValleyDaniexplainmost of theirritualasplacatingtherestlessghosts of theirownrecentdead.Theseghostsarepotentiallydangerousandcausemis-fortune,illness,anddeath.Thus,attemptsaremadetokeepthemfaroffintheforest.Danialsobelieveinlocallandandwaterspirits.Inthe1950s,theWesternDaniregionexperi-encednativisticcargocult-likemovementsthatsweptahead of theChristianmissionaryadvance.ButthesemovementshadnoeffectonthemoreconservativeGrandValleyDani.Now,inthe1990s,manyDani-GrandValleyaswellasothers-arepracticingChristians.Islam,themajorityreli-gion of thelargernation,wasnotabletocopewithDanipigsandhashadlittlesuccessthere.ReligiousPractitioners.Variouspeople,mainlymen,areknownfortheirmagicalcuringpowers.Ritualaswellassecu-larpoweriscombinedintheleadersatvariouslevels.Leaders of alliancesseemoftentohaveexceptionallystrongandevenuniquepowers.Ceremonies.Duringthetime of war,ceremonieswerefre-quent.Battlesthemselvescouldbeseenasceremoniesdi-rectedatplacatingtheghosts.Therewerealsoceremoniescelebratingthedeath of anenemyorfuneralsforpeoplekilledbytheenemy.Atthecremationceremonyforsomeonekilledinbattle,oneortwofingers of severalgirlswouldbechoppedoffassacrificestotheghost of thedeadperson.Menmightoccasionallychopofftheirownfingersorcutoffthetips of theirears,buttheseactionsweresigns of personalsacrificeandmourning.Funeralceremoniesaswellasweddingcere-moniescontinuedatintervalsafterthemainevent.Bothwereconcludedinthegreatpigfeastheldeveryfourtosixyears,inwhichthe ... hasbeencontinuedandintensifiedbytheIndonesiangovern-mentsince19 62. ETHNONYMS:Akhuni,Konda,Ndani,PesegemOrientationIdentification.DaniisageneraltermusedbyoutsidersforpeoplesspeakingdoselyrelatedPapuan(Non-Austronesian)languagesinthecentralhighlands of IrianJaya,Indonesia(formerlyNetherlandsNewGuinea,WestNewGuinea,IrianBarat).Location.ThevariousDanigroupsliveinandaroundtheBalimRiver,approximately4°S,138°to1390 E. Thegreatestconcentration of DaniisintheGrandValley of theBalim.Tothenorthandwest of theGrandValley,intheupperBalimandadjacentdrainageareas,livetheWesternDani.Thisisgenerallyarugged,mountainouscountry,withatemperateclimate.Because of thehighaltitudeandtheshelteringranges,theDaniareaistemperateandunaffectedbymon-sooncycles.IntheGrandValley,themeanrange of tempera-tureisfrom 26 °Cto15°C.RainfallintheGrandVaileyisabout 20 8centimetersperyear,butwetanddryperiodsoccurirregularly.Forallpracticalpurposes,theGrandValleyDanidonotrecognizeanyyearlyseasonalcycles,nordotheyshapetheirbehavioraroundthem.Demograhy.Thebroadfloor of theGrandValley,at1,500meters,hasabout50,000people,orabouthalf of theentireestimatedDanipopulation.Itisdenselypopulated,one of severalsuchbroadvalleysfoundacrossthecentralranges of theisland.TheotherDaniarescatteredacrosstheroughmountainterrainfromabout900meterstoabout1,800metersabovesealevel.Themajorconcentration of non-DaniintheareaisinWamena,theIndonesianadminis-trativecenter,atown of some5,000peopleatthesouthernend of theGrandValley.linguisticAffliation.Thehalf-dozenlanguagesanddia-lects of theGreatDaniFamilyarerelatedtootherNon-Austronesianlanguagefamilies of theIrianJayaHighlandsStock,whichbelongstotheTrans-NewGuineaPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThewesternhalf of theisland of NewGuinea,wheretheDanilive,waspart of theNetherlandsEastIndiesuntil1949.Withtheindependence of therest of Indonesia,theDutchheldontoNetherlandsNewGuineauntilitwastransferredtoIndonesiain1963viaaUnitedNationsTemporaryExecu-tiveAuthority.ItisnowtheIndonesianprovince of IrianJaya.EvenastheJavanesecomponent of thepopulationisbeingincreasedthroughtheresettlementprogram(Transmi-grasi),asmallFreePapuamovementcontinuestodemandin-dependencefromIndonesia.ButneitherthenewsettlementsnortheinsurgentshavehadanydirecteffectontheDani.NoarchaeologyhasbeendoneintheDaniarea.SomeDanigroupswerecontactedbrieflybyexpeditionspriorto World WarII,butthefirstpermanentoutsidesettlementswerees-tablishedbyWesternChristianmissionariesinthe1950s.By1960,theDutchgovernmentwascarryingoutitsprogram of SettlementsDanicompoundsarescatteredacrossthefloor of theGrandValley.Thebasiccompoundisoneroundmen'shouse,asmallerroundwomen'shouse,arectangularcommoncookhouse,andarectangularpigsty.Thelargestcompoundsmayhaveuptohalfadozenmorewomen'shouses.Thestructuresarelinkedtogetherbyfencesandopenontoacommoncourt-yard.Behindthehouses,andenclosedbyanouterfence,arecasualhouseholdgardens.Thehousesarebuilt of woodandthatchedwithgrass.Compoundsvarygreatlyinsize.Theymaycontainjustasinglenuclearfamilyormanyfamiliesandassortedothers.Acompoundmaystandbyitselforitmaybephysicallyattachedtoseveralothercompounds.Thecom-pounditselfisasocialunit,atleastinterms of intensity of so-cialinteraction.Theselargestcompounddustersmayhousewellover100people,buttheydonotformsocialunits.Thepopulation of thecompoundisfairlyunstable,aspeopleoftenmoveaboutfromoneplacetoanother,usuallyinthesamegeneralarea,foravariety of reasons.AlthoughafewDaninowliveatthegovernmentcentersinhouseswithsawn-lumberwallsandcorrugated-zincroofs,mostsettlementsintheGrandValleyhavechangedlittleinfortyyears.EconomySubsistenceandCoamercialActivities.About90per-cent of theDanidietissweetpotatoes.Theyaregrowninthecomplex,ditchedfieldsystemssurroundingthecompounds.Themenpreparethefieldswithfire-hardeneddiggingsticks,andwomendomost of theplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Theditchsystemscapturestreamsandrunthewaterthroughthegardenbeds.Inwetperiods,theditchesdrainoffexcesswater.Thesegardensusuallygothroughafallowcycle,andwhentheyareagaincleared,therichditchmudisplasteredonthegardenbeds.Danilivingneartheedges of theGrandValleymayalsopracticeslashandburnhorticultureontheflankingslopes.Because of theabsence of markedgrowingseasons,thesweetpotatoesareharvesteddailythroughouttheyear.Inadditiontosweetpotatoes,GrandValleyDanigrowsmallamounts of taro,yams,sugarcane,bananas,cu-cumbers,athicksucculentgrass,ginger,andtobacco.Pan-danus,boththekindwithbrownnutsandthekindwithredfruit,isharvestedinthehighforests,andnowthetreesarein-creasinglyplantedaroundthevalleyfloorcompounds.Al-thoughtheWesternDanihadadoptedmanyWesternfruitsandvegetables,especiallymaize,beforeactualcontact,theGrandValleyDaniaremoreconservativeandevenbythe1980sonlyminoramounts of afewWesternfoodsweregrownthere.Domesticpigsareanimportantpart of theDanidiet,aswellasbeingmajoritemsintheexchangesateveryceremony.Thepigsliveonhouseholdgarbage,andforageinforestsandfallowgardens.Pigsaretemptingtargetsfortheftandsoareamajorcause of serioussocialconflict.TheGrandValleyitselfissodenselypopulatedthatlittlesignificantwild-lifeisavailableforhunting.Afewmenwholiveontheedge of theValleykeepdogsandhuntfortreekangaroosandthelikeintheflankinghighforests.IntheGrandValley,therewerenofishuntiltheDutchbegantointroducetheminthe1960s.DaiDaribi47fordefensiveadvantageandthewomen'squartersbelow.Sinceadministrativecontrolwasestablished,residenceinnu-cleatedvillagesorhamletshasbeenthenorm.Smallex-tendedornuclearfamiliesoccupysingle-storylonghousesfacingtheroadinparallelrows,usuallywithasmallyardorgardenareasurroundingeachone.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Intraditionalasinpresenttimes,mostsignificantproductionandconsump-tioniscenteredonthefamily,withitssexualdivision of labor.Subsistenceisbasedonbushfallowing,orswiddenhorticul-ture,withsweetpotatoesasthestaplecrop.Sagoisgrowntosupplementthisinlow-lyingregions,andotherimportantcropsincludebananas,pandanus,maize,yams,drytaro,pit-pit,sugarcane,andsweetmanioc.Tobaccoisgrownforhomeconsumptionaswellastrade,butitsearlierimportanceasacashcrophasbeensupplantedbycardamoms,grownexten-sivelyforcommercialexport.Pigsareraisedforpurposes of exchange,nurturedbywomenwhensmallandthenpermit-tedtoforageforthemselvesinthebush.Somechickensarealsokept,aswellascattletoalimitedextent.Huntingandforagingremainsubstantialcontributorstogeneralsubsis-tence;thefavoredquarryiswildpigsandmarsupials,andbush-fowleggs,sagogrubs,andawidevariety of mushroomsaremajorforageitems.Limitedamounts of fishandcrayfishareobtainedbydammingstreams.IndustrialArts.Dugoutcanoes,woodenbowls,bodyshields,andbowswereproducedfromhewnwood,whereasfences,rafts,houses,canebridges,andarrowswerecon-structedfromrawforestmaterials.Traditionalindustryalsoincludedthecrafting of bamboopipesandmusicalinstru-mentsfrombambooandtheproduction of barkcloth.Trade.Tobaccoisgrown,curedoverthedomesticfires of thelonghouse,andtwistedintolarge,spindle-shapedpacketstobeusedastheprincipaltradeitem.Itistradedfordecora-tivebirdplumagewithpeopleslivinginmoreheavilyforestedareas.Beforecontacttobaccoandplumageweretraded,to-getherwithextractedpandanusoil,forsalt,axblades,and,later,pearlshellswithSouthChimbupeoples.Presentlythefeathersareexchangedforcash.PriortoextensivecontactwithHighlandpeoples,DaribitradedwiththePolopa of theEraveRiverandtheWiru of Pangia.Division of Labor.Thebasicdivision of laborissexualandorientational:menworkwithvegetationabovegroundlevel,includingthefellingandcutting of trees,plantingandtendingtreecrops,andconstruction of houses,fences,otherexternalstructures,andtools.Menalsohunt,superviseani-malhusbandry,slaughter,butcher,andpreparemeats.Womenworkwithvegetationatorbelowgroundlevel,clearbrushwood,plant,weed,andharvestgroundcrops.LandTenure.Namedtracts of land,boundedinmostcasesbywatercoursesorothernaturalfeatures,aretradition-allyheldincommonbymembers of aclanorexogamousline-agegroup.Malemembersandtheirwivesarepermittedtousewhateverlandtheywishwithinatractforgardening,dwell-ing,orotherproductivepurposes,providedonlythatitisnotbeingusedbysomeoneelse.Plantsortreecrops,however,re-gardless of wheretheymaybelocated,belongexclusivelytothepersonwhohasplantedthem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ADaribichildshould,asamatter of moralprinciple,berecruitedtoitsfather'sclanthroughpayments(pagehaie,or,colloquially,'head"pay-ments)madetoarepresentative of itsmother'sline,usuallythematernaluncle(pagebidi).Shouldthepaymentsnotbegiven,thematernallinehastheright(notnecessarilyexer-cised) of claimingthechild.Theclan,whichholdsincom-monthewealththroughwhichthesepaymentsaremade,isthusideallypatrilineal.Clansarecomposed of zibi,minimallythesiblingsetthat'becomesagroup of brothersafterthesis-tersmarryout."Clansaregroupedintophratries,tracingde-scentfromanamedmaleancestor.KinshipTerminology.Aterminology of theIroquoistypeisusedwithrespecttoconsanguinealsinone'sownandas-cendinggenerations,whereasaHawaiian-typeterminologyisusedwithrespecttothoseindescendinggenerations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Daribitraditionallybetrothedgirlsfromanearlyage,ofteninfancy,andtriedtobetroththemtowealthyorprestigiousmenifpossible.Thepeopleweretraditionallyhighlypolygynous;womenweremarriedatpuberty,whereasmen,whohadtoassembleabride-price,normallymarriedabouttenyearsafterward.Thisimbalanceinagepermittedmostmentobepolygynousatmiddleage,andmarriagetosis-tersorothercloserelatives of anearlierwifewasencouraged.Daribistatesummarilythattheymarryamongthosewithwhomtheydonot'eatmeat"orsharewealth.Thismakestheclan,whichlikewisesharesincontributingmeatandwealthtorecruitment of itsmembers,something of a'holdingcom-pany"forwives.Awoman'scloserelativesinhernatalclanarecalledherpagebidi,and,as...

... theearly1950s,aLutheranmissionwasfoundedatTarabo,thecolonialgovernmentopenedapatrolpostatOkapa,andvariousnewgardencrops,domesticatedanimals,items of clothing,andothermanufacturedgoodswereintro-duced.Also,subsistenceactivitiesbegantobeaugmentedbyanascentcommercialeconomy.Thefirstcoffeeseedlingswereplantedin1955,andForemenbegantoventureout of theregionasmigrantwagelaborers.In1957,theKuruRe-searchCenterwasopenedatAwandetobeginintensivestudy of thisdisease.Cannibalisticpracticesceasedabout1960,andsincethentheannualnumber of kurudeathshasfallenfromabout 20 0peryeartolessthan10peryearatpresent.Bythemid-1960s,Okapahadbecometheregionaladministra-tivecenterandboastedahospital,school,andseveralsmallstores.Electionsalsohadbeenheldforthelocalgovernmentcouncil.Today,mostpeoplehaveaccesstosomeformaledu-cation,medicalcare,andothergovernmentservices,andmanyhaveconvertedtoChristianity.TheForehavecometoacceptacommongroupidentity,andthedegree of socialiso-lationandenmityhasdeclineddramatically.Theynowliveasactivecitizens of theNation-state of PapuaNewGuinea.SettlementsForesettlementsarerelativelydispersedoverthelandscapewithsmallgroups of peoplelivingtogetherattheedge of theforestincloseproximitytotheirfoodgardens.Themainresi-dentialunitisthehamletwhich,inearliertimes,typicallyconsisted of oneortwocommunalmen'shousesandarow of severalsmallerhousesoccupiedbywomenandchildren.Anopenspacewithcookingpitsseparatedthetwotypes of dwell-60FoicontactwasestablishedbetweentheFoiandEuropeansintheform of thepatrolpostatLakeKutubu.TheUnevangel-izedFieldsMissionbeganactivitiesatbothLakeKutubuandthemiddleMubiValleyin1951,andbythelate1960sthetraditionalreligiouslife of theFoihadbeenlargelysuper-sededbyChristianity.From1950theFoiwereadministeredfromvarioushighlandspatrolpostsuntiltheearly1970s,whenanewadministrativecenterwasbuiltandgovernmenthealthstationswerereestablishedintheMubiValley.Austra-lianadministratorsintroducedvariousEuropeanandotherforeignvegetablestothearea,includingSingaporetaro,pumpkins,chokos,Cavendishbananas,andpineapples.In1988,largeoilreserveswerediscoveredwest of LakeKutubuinFasuterritory.TheFoi of theupperMubiValleytradition-allytradedandoccasionallyfoughtwiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportedthereddishoil of thekara'otree(Campnospermabrevipetiolata)andinreturnre-ceivedpearlshells,pigs,andaxblades.TheFoi of LakeKu-tubuwererathermoreundertheinfluence,because of theirclosetieswiththeinterveningFasupeople,withtheBosavicomplextothewest,anditappearsasiftheboys'homosexualinitiationcult,thegisaro-kosaceremonialcomplex,andotherBosaviculturaltraitshadmovedeastwardintoFoiterritoryshortlybeforeChampion'scontact.Inthelasttwentyyears,themorepopulousandpoliticallyascendantpeoples of thehighlandshaveexertedsomeamount of culturalhegemonyovertheFoi.TheFoihavethereforeexperimentedwiththesouthernhighlandspork-and-pearl-shellexchangeinrecentyears.Relationswitheasternandsouthernneighborsappeartohavebeenmoretenuous.SettlementsFoicommunallifecentersaroundamen'slonghouse,whereinresidetherepresentatives of anywherebetweenthreeandthirteenpatrilineallycomposedexogamousdispersedclans.Villagesrangeinsizefromabout 20 peopletoalmost300.Inthevillage,womenresideinsmallerhousesflankingthelonghouse;thelonghousecanreachlengths of 55meters.Theseparatedomiciles of menandwomenstemfromFoimen'sbeliefthatcontactwithwomen'smenstrualsecretionsisdeleterioustotheirhealth.TheFoisubsistenceeconomy,however,revolvesaroundnuclearfamilybushhouses,scat-teredintheterritorysurroundingthelonghousevillage,whereaman,hiswives,andchildrenresideontheman'sproperty.MostFoimovebackandforthbetweenbushandlonghouseregularly,butthelonghouseistechnicallyonlyapublic,ceremonialvenue.MubiRivervillagesareclosetotheriveritselfandmuchtrafficisbydugoutcanoe.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialAczivities.TheFoidependuponthefollowingsubsistencemethodsroughlyinthisorder of importance:sagoprocessing,gardening,treecropcultiva-tion(includingmantapandanusandbreadfruit),foraging,fishing,andhunting.Inaddition,pigsaresemidomesticatedandareslaughteredbothcasuallyand,onceremonialocca-sions,inlargenumbers.Traditionally,theFoitendedtodi-videtheiryearintoseasons,dominatedbytheonset of therainyseasoninearlymid-year,atwhichtimetheyleftthevil-lageandmovedtothehuntingpreserveswheretheywouldtrap,fish,andforageuntilthedrierweatherreturnedaroundOctober.Theythenreturnedtothevillagetocutnewgardens(accordingtostandardswiddenmethods),makesago,andcareforpigs.Trade.Foimentraditionallycarriedonandstillmaintainavigoroustradewiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportkara'ooil,black-palmbows,andcassowariesandinreturnreceivepearlshellsandshoats.Inpremissiontimes,theyalsoreceivedcultobjectsandproceduresintrade.Division of Labor.Foisubsistencetasksaresexuallydi-morphic:womenprocesssago,tendgardens,forage,checktrapsandweirs,careforpigsandchildren,andweavebasketsandstringbags.Menbuildhousesandcanoes,fashionweap-ons,dotheinitialtasks of gardenlandpreparationandsagogrovemanagement,buildtrapsandweirs,huntwithaxanddog,andengageintradeandceremonialexchange.Inpre-missiontimes,themenalsoperformedfertilityandhealingceremonies.LandTenure.Landisownedbylocalclansegmentsascorporateunits,thoughitsindividualmembersassertmoreorlesspermanentusufructuaryrightsincertaintracts.Theserightsareusuallypassedonfromfathertoson.Womenmain-taintheirhusbands'productiveresourcesbutmaintainrightsintheirnatalclans'lands,shouldtheoccasionarise.Landcanbesold,andinprecontacttimesitwasoftengrantedtoimmigrantsasameans of extendingpatronagetorefugeesfromotherareas.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ThelocaltotemicallynamedpatrilinealclanistheexogamousunitamongtheFoiandvar-iesconsiderablyinsize.Smallerunnamed'lineages"consist-ing of amanandhisadultsonsaretheunits of marriagene-gotiation,thoughthelocalclanistheunit of exogamyandbride-wealthdistribution.Descentispatrilineal.Orphanedchildrenaresometimesclaimedbytheirmother'sbrother,theclan of 'trueorigin'intheFoiview.KinshipTerminology.Totheextentthatthisisausefulcharacterization,theFoihaveanIroquois-typeterminology.Adultsoftenaddresseachotherbytheirteknonymsifnototherwiserelated.Inthepast,reciprocalfood-sharingnames(specialpersonalnamesusedbythosewhosharedfoodwith-outobligationtodoso)werecommonasmodes of address,andchildren of peoplewhosharedsuchanameoftencalledeachotherbytheirparents'food-sharingname.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Betrothalisarrangedbythefathers of boysandgirlsatanearlyage.Uponthepresentation of bride-wealth(consisting of pearlshells,cowrieshells,meat,andcurrency)bythegroom'sfatherandmother'sbrothertothesamerela-tives of thebride,agirltakesupresidenceinherhusband'shouse.Bride-wealthpaymentsareoftenmadeininstallmentsthatstretchoutforyearsaftermarriage.Whenapersondies,thespouse'sclanmakesfuneralpaymentstothefather's,mother's,andmother'smother'sclans of thedeceased.Thesepaymentseffectivelycancelanyresidualclaims of outstand-ingbride-wealth.Divorceisinfrequent.Polygynyispracticedbyasmallnumber of men.Foi59Schiefenhovel,W.(1988).GeburtswerhaltenundreprodukriveFoiStrategienderEipo:ErgebnissehumanethologischerundethnFmedizinischerUntersuchungenimzentralenBerglandwonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.16.ETHNONYMS:Fiwaga,Foe,Foi'i,Kutubuans,Mobi,MubiBerlin:D.Reimer.WULFSCHIEFENHOVELOrientationIdentification.TheFoiinhabittheMubiRiverValleyandtheshores of LakeKutubuonthefringe of thesouthernhigh-landsinPapuaNewGuinea.Theydividethemselvesintothreesubgroups:thegurubumena,or'Kutubupeople";theawamena,themiddle-MubiValleydwellers;andthefoimenaproper,theso-calledLowerFoiwhoresidenearthejunction of theMubiandKikoririvers.Theterm'Foi"formerlyap-pliedtothecommonlanguage of allthreesubgroups.Itwassubsequentlyemployedasanethnonymbythefirstmissionaries.Location.Mostmembers of theFoipopulationinhabitthebanks of themiddlereaches of theMubiRiver,betweenap-proximately143 025 'and143035' E andbetween6 027 'and6°30'S.ThealluvialMubiRiverValleyisapproximately670metersinaltitudeandabutsthehigherranges of thecentralhighlandsintheSouthernHighlandsProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.Theregionisineverysenseintermediatebetweenthehighlandsvalleystothenorthandthecoastalregions of theGulfProvincetothesouth.Thesoutheasterlymonsoonbringsconsiderablerainfallduringthemiddlemonths of theyear,whilethemonthsbetweenOctoberandMarcharerela-tivelydrier.Demography.The1979PapuaNewGuineaNationalCensuscountedsome4,000Foiandaccountedforanother400Foilivingelsewhereinthecountry.Foiterritorycom-prises1,689squarekilometers,andthepopulationdensityis 2. 4personspersquarekilometer.However,theFoisettle-mentareaisrestrictedtothebanks of theMubiRiverandtheshores of LakeKutubu;over60percent of theirlandisre-servedforhuntingandisnotpermanentlyinhabited.TheFoiareconsequentlyseparatedfromtheirneighborsbybufferzones of uninhabitedbush.TothenortharetheAngal-speakinggroups of theNembiPlateau;tothesouthwestaretheFasuorNamuPopeople;totheeastareKewaspeakers of theEraveRiverValley.Directlysouth of theFoiaresmallgroups of Kasere,Ikobi,andNamumispeakers of theinteriorGulfProvince.linguisicAffiliation.FoiandFiwagaaretheonlylan-guageswithintheEastKutubuanFamily of theKutubuanLanguageStock.Itiscloselyrelatedonlytothelanguages of theWestKutubuanFamily,whichincludestheFasu,Kasere,andNamumilanguages,butitalsoexhibitssomesmallamount of cognationwithotherinteriorPapuanlanguagessuchasMikaruan(Daribi)andKaluli.HistoryandCulturalRelationsItislikelythattheFoifirstenteredtheMubiValleyfromthesouthwest,bringingdomesticatedsagowiththem.AlthoughtheFoiwerebrieflycontactedalongthesouthernreaches of theirterritoryatdifferenttimesbyexplorersmovinginlandfromthePapuanGulfcoast,itwasnotuntilIvanChampionfirstsightedLakeKutubuin1935andconsequentlyvisitedthelakeonfootduringhisBamu-PuraripatrolthatregularFore63ings.Behindthewomen'shousesattheedge of theclearingwouldbeoneortwosmallstructureswherewomenstayedduringmenstruationandchildbirth.Theentiresettlementwassurroundedbyadefensivestockade.Today,themen'shousesandstockadesaregoneandmostfamilieslivetogetherinonehouse,ofteninlargeraggregatedvillages.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Foresubsist-enceisbasedonasystem of swiddenhorticultureandpighus-bandrythatisaugmentedtoasmalldegreebyhuntingandforagingactivities.Newgardensareclearedinforestedareasusingslash-and-burmtechniques.Afterfencing,theplotsareplantedusingadigging-sticktechnology.Themostimportantcropisthesweetpotato,whichisthestaplefoodforbothpeopleandpigs.Pigsareamajorform of wealthamongtheForeandsuccessfulpigraisersaremuchadmired.Treatedlikevaluedpets,pigsliveinclosephysicalproximitytotheirkeep-ersandarefedgardenproducedaily.Gardensalsocontainsmalleramounts of othertubers(taro,yams,manioc),pitpit(SaccharumeduleandSetariapalmifolia),maize,wingedbeans,bananas,sugarcane,andavariety of leafyvegetablesandherbs.Inrecentdecades,manynewcropshavebeenin-corporatedintoForegardens,includinglimabeans,peanuts,cabbages,pumpkins,onions,andpapayas.CoffeegrowingisamajorcommercialventureinwhichnearlyallForeparticipate.IndustrialArts.Aswithmany of theirneighbors,theForehavelargelyabandonedlocalmanufacture of clothing,tools,andutensils,relyingonarticles of Westernmanufacturethatarepurchasedwiththeproceedsfromcashcrops.Housebuildingandfencing of gardensandinterhamletpathwaysaretheprincipalmaleindustrialarts;utilitariannetbags,made of hand-spunbarkstring,arestillmanufacturedbywomen.Priortothe1950s,Forealsoextractedsaltforlocaluseandfortradefromtheash of Coirgigantea,anindigenoustallgrass.Thislastindustryhasbeensupersededbytheintroduc-tion of commercialsalt.Trade.RegionaltradewasalwaysanimportantmeansbywhichForeacquiredgoodsnotavailablelocally.Tradeitemspassedthroughcomplexnetworks of hand-to-handtransac-tionsbetweenestablishedtradingpartnerswhorarelylivedmorethanoneday'swalkapart.Ingeneral,stoneaxbladescamefromneighborstothenorthandwestinexchangeforlocallymanufacturedsalt,furpelts,birdplumes,andbetelnuts;black-palmbowsandarrowheadsweretradedfromthesoutheastforsaltandpiglets;occasionally,afewshellswereobtainedfromPapuanpeoplestwodaystothesouthforto-baccoandnetbags.However,nowadaysmostForerelyonsmallstoresandtheperiodicmarketinOkapatoobtainnon-localgoods.Division of Labor.TheForedefineonlyafewtasksastheexclusiveresponsibility of menorwomen.Ingardening,menfellthetreeswhilewomencleartheunderbrushandpilethedebrisforburning.Womenthendomost of thesoilprepar-tionandplantingwhilemenbuildtheenclosingfences.Thecultivation,tending,harvesting,andtransporting of mostcropsfallstowomen,butmenarefreetoassistwiththesetasksiftheysochoose.Pandanusandtobaccoarecultivatedonlybymenasareafewrituallyimportant,redvarieties of su-garcane,bananas,yams,andtaro.Womenundertakethepri-maryburdens of pigtendingunderthedosesupervision of men.Childcareagainultimatelyfallstowomenalthoughmenandoldersiblingsregularlyassist.Mostfoodispreparedandcookedbywomenwithmentakingmajorresponsibilityforobtainingfirewoodandpreparingtheearth-ovenfires.Womentraditionallymadeallitems of clothingandnetbags,andmenfashionedweapons,stoneaxes,andsomeitems of personaladornment.LandTenure.Landrightsareheldcommunallybythemaleandfemalemembers of localclangroupswhocurrentlyoccupythelandandcontrolaccesstoit.Gardenplotsareal.locatedforthe ... theearly1950s,aLutheranmissionwasfoundedatTarabo,thecolonialgovernmentopenedapatrolpostatOkapa,andvariousnewgardencrops,domesticatedanimals,items of clothing,andothermanufacturedgoodswereintro-duced.Also,subsistenceactivitiesbegantobeaugmentedbyanascentcommercialeconomy.Thefirstcoffeeseedlingswereplantedin1955,andForemenbegantoventureout of theregionasmigrantwagelaborers.In1957,theKuruRe-searchCenterwasopenedatAwandetobeginintensivestudy of thisdisease.Cannibalisticpracticesceasedabout1960,andsincethentheannualnumber of kurudeathshasfallenfromabout 20 0peryeartolessthan10peryearatpresent.Bythemid-1960s,Okapahadbecometheregionaladministra-tivecenterandboastedahospital,school,andseveralsmallstores.Electionsalsohadbeenheldforthelocalgovernmentcouncil.Today,mostpeoplehaveaccesstosomeformaledu-cation,medicalcare,andothergovernmentservices,andmanyhaveconvertedtoChristianity.TheForehavecometoacceptacommongroupidentity,andthedegree of socialiso-lationandenmityhasdeclineddramatically.Theynowliveasactivecitizens of theNation-state of PapuaNewGuinea.SettlementsForesettlementsarerelativelydispersedoverthelandscapewithsmallgroups of peoplelivingtogetherattheedge of theforestincloseproximitytotheirfoodgardens.Themainresi-dentialunitisthehamletwhich,inearliertimes,typicallyconsisted of oneortwocommunalmen'shousesandarow of severalsmallerhousesoccupiedbywomenandchildren.Anopenspacewithcookingpitsseparatedthetwotypes of dwell-60FoicontactwasestablishedbetweentheFoiandEuropeansintheform of thepatrolpostatLakeKutubu.TheUnevangel-izedFieldsMissionbeganactivitiesatbothLakeKutubuandthemiddleMubiValleyin1951,andbythelate1960sthetraditionalreligiouslife of theFoihadbeenlargelysuper-sededbyChristianity.From1950theFoiwereadministeredfromvarioushighlandspatrolpostsuntiltheearly1970s,whenanewadministrativecenterwasbuiltandgovernmenthealthstationswerereestablishedintheMubiValley.Austra-lianadministratorsintroducedvariousEuropeanandotherforeignvegetablestothearea,includingSingaporetaro,pumpkins,chokos,Cavendishbananas,andpineapples.In1988,largeoilreserveswerediscoveredwest of LakeKutubuinFasuterritory.TheFoi of theupperMubiValleytradition-allytradedandoccasionallyfoughtwiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportedthereddishoil of thekara'otree(Campnospermabrevipetiolata)andinreturnre-ceivedpearlshells,pigs,andaxblades.TheFoi of LakeKu-tubuwererathermoreundertheinfluence,because of theirclosetieswiththeinterveningFasupeople,withtheBosavicomplextothewest,anditappearsasiftheboys'homosexualinitiationcult,thegisaro-kosaceremonialcomplex,andotherBosaviculturaltraitshadmovedeastwardintoFoiterritoryshortlybeforeChampion'scontact.Inthelasttwentyyears,themorepopulousandpoliticallyascendantpeoples of thehighlandshaveexertedsomeamount of culturalhegemonyovertheFoi.TheFoihavethereforeexperimentedwiththesouthernhighlandspork-and-pearl-shellexchangeinrecentyears.Relationswitheasternandsouthernneighborsappeartohavebeenmoretenuous.SettlementsFoicommunallifecentersaroundamen'slonghouse,whereinresidetherepresentatives of anywherebetweenthreeandthirteenpatrilineallycomposedexogamousdispersedclans.Villagesrangeinsizefromabout 20 peopletoalmost300.Inthevillage,womenresideinsmallerhousesflankingthelonghouse;thelonghousecanreachlengths of 55meters.Theseparatedomiciles of menandwomenstemfromFoimen'sbeliefthatcontactwithwomen'smenstrualsecretionsisdeleterioustotheirhealth.TheFoisubsistenceeconomy,however,revolvesaroundnuclearfamilybushhouses,scat-teredintheterritorysurroundingthelonghousevillage,whereaman,hiswives,andchildrenresideontheman'sproperty.MostFoimovebackandforthbetweenbushandlonghouseregularly,butthelonghouseistechnicallyonlyapublic,ceremonialvenue.MubiRivervillagesareclosetotheriveritselfandmuchtrafficisbydugoutcanoe.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialAczivities.TheFoidependuponthefollowingsubsistencemethodsroughlyinthisorder of importance:sagoprocessing,gardening,treecropcultiva-tion(includingmantapandanusandbreadfruit),foraging,fishing,andhunting.Inaddition,pigsaresemidomesticatedandareslaughteredbothcasuallyand,onceremonialocca-sions,inlargenumbers.Traditionally,theFoitendedtodi-videtheiryearintoseasons,dominatedbytheonset of therainyseasoninearlymid-year,atwhichtimetheyleftthevil-lageandmovedtothehuntingpreserveswheretheywouldtrap,fish,andforageuntilthedrierweatherreturnedaroundOctober.Theythenreturnedtothevillagetocutnewgardens(accordingtostandardswiddenmethods),makesago,andcareforpigs.Trade.Foimentraditionallycarriedonandstillmaintainavigoroustradewiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportkara'ooil,black-palmbows,andcassowariesandinreturnreceivepearlshellsandshoats.Inpremissiontimes,theyalsoreceivedcultobjectsandproceduresintrade.Division of Labor.Foisubsistencetasksaresexuallydi-morphic:womenprocesssago,tendgardens,forage,checktrapsandweirs,careforpigsandchildren,andweavebasketsandstringbags.Menbuildhousesandcanoes,fashionweap-ons,dotheinitialtasks of gardenlandpreparationandsagogrovemanagement,buildtrapsandweirs,huntwithaxanddog,andengageintradeandceremonialexchange.Inpre-missiontimes,themenalsoperformedfertilityandhealingceremonies.LandTenure.Landisownedbylocalclansegmentsascorporateunits,thoughitsindividualmembersassertmoreorlesspermanentusufructuaryrightsincertaintracts.Theserightsareusuallypassedonfromfathertoson.Womenmain-taintheirhusbands'productiveresourcesbutmaintainrightsintheirnatalclans'lands,shouldtheoccasionarise.Landcanbesold,andinprecontacttimesitwasoftengrantedtoimmigrantsasameans of extendingpatronagetorefugeesfromotherareas.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ThelocaltotemicallynamedpatrilinealclanistheexogamousunitamongtheFoiandvar-iesconsiderablyinsize.Smallerunnamed'lineages"consist-ing of amanandhisadultsonsaretheunits of marriagene-gotiation,thoughthelocalclanistheunit of exogamyandbride-wealthdistribution.Descentispatrilineal.Orphanedchildrenaresometimesclaimedbytheirmother'sbrother,theclan of 'trueorigin'intheFoiview.KinshipTerminology.Totheextentthatthisisausefulcharacterization,theFoihaveanIroquois-typeterminology.Adultsoftenaddresseachotherbytheirteknonymsifnototherwiserelated.Inthepast,reciprocalfood-sharingnames(specialpersonalnamesusedbythosewhosharedfoodwith-outobligationtodoso)werecommonasmodes of address,andchildren of peoplewhosharedsuchanameoftencalledeachotherbytheirparents'food-sharingname.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Betrothalisarrangedbythefathers of boysandgirlsatanearlyage.Uponthepresentation of bride-wealth(consisting of pearlshells,cowrieshells,meat,andcurrency)bythegroom'sfatherandmother'sbrothertothesamerela-tives of thebride,agirltakesupresidenceinherhusband'shouse.Bride-wealthpaymentsareoftenmadeininstallmentsthatstretchoutforyearsaftermarriage.Whenapersondies,thespouse'sclanmakesfuneralpaymentstothefather's,mother's,andmother'smother'sclans of thedeceased.Thesepaymentseffectivelycancelanyresidualclaims of outstand-ingbride-wealth.Divorceisinfrequent.Polygynyispracticedbyasmallnumber of men.Foi59Schiefenhovel,W.(1988).GeburtswerhaltenundreprodukriveFoiStrategienderEipo:ErgebnissehumanethologischerundethnFmedizinischerUntersuchungenimzentralenBerglandwonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.16.ETHNONYMS:Fiwaga,Foe,Foi'i,Kutubuans,Mobi,MubiBerlin:D.Reimer.WULFSCHIEFENHOVELOrientationIdentification.TheFoiinhabittheMubiRiverValleyandtheshores of LakeKutubuonthefringe of thesouthernhigh-landsinPapuaNewGuinea.Theydividethemselvesintothreesubgroups:thegurubumena,or'Kutubupeople";theawamena,themiddle-MubiValleydwellers;andthefoimenaproper,theso-calledLowerFoiwhoresidenearthejunction of theMubiandKikoririvers.Theterm'Foi"formerlyap-pliedtothecommonlanguage of allthreesubgroups.Itwassubsequentlyemployedasanethnonymbythefirstmissionaries.Location.Mostmembers of theFoipopulationinhabitthebanks of themiddlereaches of theMubiRiver,betweenap-proximately143 025 'and143035' E andbetween6 027 'and6°30'S.ThealluvialMubiRiverValleyisapproximately670metersinaltitudeandabutsthehigherranges of thecentralhighlandsintheSouthernHighlandsProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.Theregionisineverysenseintermediatebetweenthehighlandsvalleystothenorthandthecoastalregions of theGulfProvincetothesouth.Thesoutheasterlymonsoonbringsconsiderablerainfallduringthemiddlemonths of theyear,whilethemonthsbetweenOctoberandMarcharerela-tivelydrier.Demography.The1979PapuaNewGuineaNationalCensuscountedsome4,000Foiandaccountedforanother400Foilivingelsewhereinthecountry.Foiterritorycom-prises1,689squarekilometers,andthepopulationdensityis 2. 4personspersquarekilometer.However,theFoisettle-mentareaisrestrictedtothebanks of theMubiRiverandtheshores of LakeKutubu;over60percent of theirlandisre-servedforhuntingandisnotpermanentlyinhabited.TheFoiareconsequentlyseparatedfromtheirneighborsbybufferzones of uninhabitedbush.TothenortharetheAngal-speakinggroups of theNembiPlateau;tothesouthwestaretheFasuorNamuPopeople;totheeastareKewaspeakers of theEraveRiverValley.Directlysouth of theFoiaresmallgroups of Kasere,Ikobi,andNamumispeakers of theinteriorGulfProvince.linguisicAffiliation.FoiandFiwagaaretheonlylan-guageswithintheEastKutubuanFamily of theKutubuanLanguageStock.Itiscloselyrelatedonlytothelanguages of theWestKutubuanFamily,whichincludestheFasu,Kasere,andNamumilanguages,butitalsoexhibitssomesmallamount of cognationwithotherinteriorPapuanlanguagessuchasMikaruan(Daribi)andKaluli.HistoryandCulturalRelationsItislikelythattheFoifirstenteredtheMubiValleyfromthesouthwest,bringingdomesticatedsagowiththem.AlthoughtheFoiwerebrieflycontactedalongthesouthernreaches of theirterritoryatdifferenttimesbyexplorersmovinginlandfromthePapuanGulfcoast,itwasnotuntilIvanChampionfirstsightedLakeKutubuin1935andconsequentlyvisitedthelakeonfootduringhisBamu-PuraripatrolthatregularFore63ings.Behindthewomen'shousesattheedge of theclearingwouldbeoneortwosmallstructureswherewomenstayedduringmenstruationandchildbirth.Theentiresettlementwassurroundedbyadefensivestockade.Today,themen'shousesandstockadesaregoneandmostfamilieslivetogetherinonehouse,ofteninlargeraggregatedvillages.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Foresubsist-enceisbasedonasystem of swiddenhorticultureandpighus-bandrythatisaugmentedtoasmalldegreebyhuntingandforagingactivities.Newgardensareclearedinforestedareasusingslash-and-burmtechniques.Afterfencing,theplotsareplantedusingadigging-sticktechnology.Themostimportantcropisthesweetpotato,whichisthestaplefoodforbothpeopleandpigs.Pigsareamajorform of wealthamongtheForeandsuccessfulpigraisersaremuchadmired.Treatedlikevaluedpets,pigsliveinclosephysicalproximitytotheirkeep-ersandarefedgardenproducedaily.Gardensalsocontainsmalleramounts of othertubers(taro,yams,manioc),pitpit(SaccharumeduleandSetariapalmifolia),maize,wingedbeans,bananas,sugarcane,andavariety of leafyvegetablesandherbs.Inrecentdecades,manynewcropshavebeenin-corporatedintoForegardens,includinglimabeans,peanuts,cabbages,pumpkins,onions,andpapayas.CoffeegrowingisamajorcommercialventureinwhichnearlyallForeparticipate.IndustrialArts.Aswithmany of theirneighbors,theForehavelargelyabandonedlocalmanufacture of clothing,tools,andutensils,relyingonarticles of Westernmanufacturethatarepurchasedwiththeproceedsfromcashcrops.Housebuildingandfencing of gardensandinterhamletpathwaysaretheprincipalmaleindustrialarts;utilitariannetbags,made of hand-spunbarkstring,arestillmanufacturedbywomen.Priortothe1950s,Forealsoextractedsaltforlocaluseandfortradefromtheash of Coirgigantea,anindigenoustallgrass.Thislastindustryhasbeensupersededbytheintroduc-tion of commercialsalt.Trade.RegionaltradewasalwaysanimportantmeansbywhichForeacquiredgoodsnotavailablelocally.Tradeitemspassedthroughcomplexnetworks of hand-to-handtransac-tionsbetweenestablishedtradingpartnerswhorarelylivedmorethanoneday'swalkapart.Ingeneral,stoneaxbladescamefromneighborstothenorthandwestinexchangeforlocallymanufacturedsalt,furpelts,birdplumes,andbetelnuts;black-palmbowsandarrowheadsweretradedfromthesoutheastforsaltandpiglets;occasionally,afewshellswereobtainedfromPapuanpeoplestwodaystothesouthforto-baccoandnetbags.However,nowadaysmostForerelyonsmallstoresandtheperiodicmarketinOkapatoobtainnon-localgoods.Division of Labor.TheForedefineonlyafewtasksastheexclusiveresponsibility of menorwomen.Ingardening,menfellthetreeswhilewomencleartheunderbrushandpilethedebrisforburning.Womenthendomost of thesoilprepar-tionandplantingwhilemenbuildtheenclosingfences.Thecultivation,tending,harvesting,andtransporting of mostcropsfallstowomen,butmenarefreetoassistwiththesetasksiftheysochoose.Pandanusandtobaccoarecultivatedonlybymenasareafewrituallyimportant,redvarieties of su-garcane,bananas,yams,andtaro.Womenundertakethepri-maryburdens of pigtendingunderthedosesupervision of men.Childcareagainultimatelyfallstowomenalthoughmenandoldersiblingsregularlyassist.Mostfoodispreparedandcookedbywomenwithmentakingmajorresponsibilityforobtainingfirewoodandpreparingtheearth-ovenfires.Womentraditionallymadeallitems of clothingandnetbags,andmenfashionedweapons,stoneaxes,andsomeitems of personaladornment.LandTenure.Landrightsareheldcommunallybythemaleandfemalemembers of localclangroupswhocurrentlyoccupythelandandcontrolaccesstoit.Gardenplotsareal.locatedforthe ... theearly1950s,aLutheranmissionwasfoundedatTarabo,thecolonialgovernmentopenedapatrolpostatOkapa,andvariousnewgardencrops,domesticatedanimals,items of clothing,andothermanufacturedgoodswereintro-duced.Also,subsistenceactivitiesbegantobeaugmentedbyanascentcommercialeconomy.Thefirstcoffeeseedlingswereplantedin1955,andForemenbegantoventureout of theregionasmigrantwagelaborers.In1957,theKuruRe-searchCenterwasopenedatAwandetobeginintensivestudy of thisdisease.Cannibalisticpracticesceasedabout1960,andsincethentheannualnumber of kurudeathshasfallenfromabout 20 0peryeartolessthan10peryearatpresent.Bythemid-1960s,Okapahadbecometheregionaladministra-tivecenterandboastedahospital,school,andseveralsmallstores.Electionsalsohadbeenheldforthelocalgovernmentcouncil.Today,mostpeoplehaveaccesstosomeformaledu-cation,medicalcare,andothergovernmentservices,andmanyhaveconvertedtoChristianity.TheForehavecometoacceptacommongroupidentity,andthedegree of socialiso-lationandenmityhasdeclineddramatically.Theynowliveasactivecitizens of theNation-state of PapuaNewGuinea.SettlementsForesettlementsarerelativelydispersedoverthelandscapewithsmallgroups of peoplelivingtogetherattheedge of theforestincloseproximitytotheirfoodgardens.Themainresi-dentialunitisthehamletwhich,inearliertimes,typicallyconsisted of oneortwocommunalmen'shousesandarow of severalsmallerhousesoccupiedbywomenandchildren.Anopenspacewithcookingpitsseparatedthetwotypes of dwell-60FoicontactwasestablishedbetweentheFoiandEuropeansintheform of thepatrolpostatLakeKutubu.TheUnevangel-izedFieldsMissionbeganactivitiesatbothLakeKutubuandthemiddleMubiValleyin1951,andbythelate1960sthetraditionalreligiouslife of theFoihadbeenlargelysuper-sededbyChristianity.From1950theFoiwereadministeredfromvarioushighlandspatrolpostsuntiltheearly1970s,whenanewadministrativecenterwasbuiltandgovernmenthealthstationswerereestablishedintheMubiValley.Austra-lianadministratorsintroducedvariousEuropeanandotherforeignvegetablestothearea,includingSingaporetaro,pumpkins,chokos,Cavendishbananas,andpineapples.In1988,largeoilreserveswerediscoveredwest of LakeKutubuinFasuterritory.TheFoi of theupperMubiValleytradition-allytradedandoccasionallyfoughtwiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportedthereddishoil of thekara'otree(Campnospermabrevipetiolata)andinreturnre-ceivedpearlshells,pigs,andaxblades.TheFoi of LakeKu-tubuwererathermoreundertheinfluence,because of theirclosetieswiththeinterveningFasupeople,withtheBosavicomplextothewest,anditappearsasiftheboys'homosexualinitiationcult,thegisaro-kosaceremonialcomplex,andotherBosaviculturaltraitshadmovedeastwardintoFoiterritoryshortlybeforeChampion'scontact.Inthelasttwentyyears,themorepopulousandpoliticallyascendantpeoples of thehighlandshaveexertedsomeamount of culturalhegemonyovertheFoi.TheFoihavethereforeexperimentedwiththesouthernhighlandspork-and-pearl-shellexchangeinrecentyears.Relationswitheasternandsouthernneighborsappeartohavebeenmoretenuous.SettlementsFoicommunallifecentersaroundamen'slonghouse,whereinresidetherepresentatives of anywherebetweenthreeandthirteenpatrilineallycomposedexogamousdispersedclans.Villagesrangeinsizefromabout 20 peopletoalmost300.Inthevillage,womenresideinsmallerhousesflankingthelonghouse;thelonghousecanreachlengths of 55meters.Theseparatedomiciles of menandwomenstemfromFoimen'sbeliefthatcontactwithwomen'smenstrualsecretionsisdeleterioustotheirhealth.TheFoisubsistenceeconomy,however,revolvesaroundnuclearfamilybushhouses,scat-teredintheterritorysurroundingthelonghousevillage,whereaman,hiswives,andchildrenresideontheman'sproperty.MostFoimovebackandforthbetweenbushandlonghouseregularly,butthelonghouseistechnicallyonlyapublic,ceremonialvenue.MubiRivervillagesareclosetotheriveritselfandmuchtrafficisbydugoutcanoe.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialAczivities.TheFoidependuponthefollowingsubsistencemethodsroughlyinthisorder of importance:sagoprocessing,gardening,treecropcultiva-tion(includingmantapandanusandbreadfruit),foraging,fishing,andhunting.Inaddition,pigsaresemidomesticatedandareslaughteredbothcasuallyand,onceremonialocca-sions,inlargenumbers.Traditionally,theFoitendedtodi-videtheiryearintoseasons,dominatedbytheonset of therainyseasoninearlymid-year,atwhichtimetheyleftthevil-lageandmovedtothehuntingpreserveswheretheywouldtrap,fish,andforageuntilthedrierweatherreturnedaroundOctober.Theythenreturnedtothevillagetocutnewgardens(accordingtostandardswiddenmethods),makesago,andcareforpigs.Trade.Foimentraditionallycarriedonandstillmaintainavigoroustradewiththeirhighlandsneighborstothenorth.Theyexportkara'ooil,black-palmbows,andcassowariesandinreturnreceivepearlshellsandshoats.Inpremissiontimes,theyalsoreceivedcultobjectsandproceduresintrade.Division of Labor.Foisubsistencetasksaresexuallydi-morphic:womenprocesssago,tendgardens,forage,checktrapsandweirs,careforpigsandchildren,andweavebasketsandstringbags.Menbuildhousesandcanoes,fashionweap-ons,dotheinitialtasks of gardenlandpreparationandsagogrovemanagement,buildtrapsandweirs,huntwithaxanddog,andengageintradeandceremonialexchange.Inpre-missiontimes,themenalsoperformedfertilityandhealingceremonies.LandTenure.Landisownedbylocalclansegmentsascorporateunits,thoughitsindividualmembersassertmoreorlesspermanentusufructuaryrightsincertaintracts.Theserightsareusuallypassedonfromfathertoson.Womenmain-taintheirhusbands'productiveresourcesbutmaintainrightsintheirnatalclans'lands,shouldtheoccasionarise.Landcanbesold,andinprecontacttimesitwasoftengrantedtoimmigrantsasameans of extendingpatronagetorefugeesfromotherareas.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.ThelocaltotemicallynamedpatrilinealclanistheexogamousunitamongtheFoiandvar-iesconsiderablyinsize.Smallerunnamed'lineages"consist-ing of amanandhisadultsonsaretheunits of marriagene-gotiation,thoughthelocalclanistheunit of exogamyandbride-wealthdistribution.Descentispatrilineal.Orphanedchildrenaresometimesclaimedbytheirmother'sbrother,theclan of 'trueorigin'intheFoiview.KinshipTerminology.Totheextentthatthisisausefulcharacterization,theFoihaveanIroquois-typeterminology.Adultsoftenaddresseachotherbytheirteknonymsifnototherwiserelated.Inthepast,reciprocalfood-sharingnames(specialpersonalnamesusedbythosewhosharedfoodwith-outobligationtodoso)werecommonasmodes of address,andchildren of peoplewhosharedsuchanameoftencalledeachotherbytheirparents'food-sharingname.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Betrothalisarrangedbythefathers of boysandgirlsatanearlyage.Uponthepresentation of bride-wealth(consisting of pearlshells,cowrieshells,meat,andcurrency)bythegroom'sfatherandmother'sbrothertothesamerela-tives of thebride,agirltakesupresidenceinherhusband'shouse.Bride-wealthpaymentsareoftenmadeininstallmentsthatstretchoutforyearsaftermarriage.Whenapersondies,thespouse'sclanmakesfuneralpaymentstothefather's,mother's,andmother'smother'sclans of thedeceased.Thesepaymentseffectivelycancelanyresidualclaims of outstand-ingbride-wealth.Divorceisinfrequent.Polygynyispracticedbyasmallnumber of men.Foi59Schiefenhovel,W.(1988).GeburtswerhaltenundreprodukriveFoiStrategienderEipo:ErgebnissehumanethologischerundethnFmedizinischerUntersuchungenimzentralenBerglandwonIrianJaya(West-Neuguinea),Indonesien.Mensch,Kultur,undUmweltimzentralenBerglandvonWest-Neuguinea,no.16.ETHNONYMS:Fiwaga,Foe,Foi'i,Kutubuans,Mobi,MubiBerlin:D.Reimer.WULFSCHIEFENHOVELOrientationIdentification.TheFoiinhabittheMubiRiverValleyandtheshores of LakeKutubuonthefringe of thesouthernhigh-landsinPapuaNewGuinea.Theydividethemselvesintothreesubgroups:thegurubumena,or'Kutubupeople";theawamena,themiddle-MubiValleydwellers;andthefoimenaproper,theso-calledLowerFoiwhoresidenearthejunction of theMubiandKikoririvers.Theterm'Foi"formerlyap-pliedtothecommonlanguage of allthreesubgroups.Itwassubsequentlyemployedasanethnonymbythefirstmissionaries.Location.Mostmembers of theFoipopulationinhabitthebanks of themiddlereaches of theMubiRiver,betweenap-proximately143 025 'and143035' E andbetween6 027 'and6°30'S.ThealluvialMubiRiverValleyisapproximately670metersinaltitudeandabutsthehigherranges of thecentralhighlandsintheSouthernHighlandsProvince of PapuaNewGuinea.Theregionisineverysenseintermediatebetweenthehighlandsvalleystothenorthandthecoastalregions of theGulfProvincetothesouth.Thesoutheasterlymonsoonbringsconsiderablerainfallduringthemiddlemonths of theyear,whilethemonthsbetweenOctoberandMarcharerela-tivelydrier.Demography.The1979PapuaNewGuineaNationalCensuscountedsome4,000Foiandaccountedforanother400Foilivingelsewhereinthecountry.Foiterritorycom-prises1,689squarekilometers,andthepopulationdensityis 2. 4personspersquarekilometer.However,theFoisettle-mentareaisrestrictedtothebanks of theMubiRiverandtheshores of LakeKutubu;over60percent of theirlandisre-servedforhuntingandisnotpermanentlyinhabited.TheFoiareconsequentlyseparatedfromtheirneighborsbybufferzones of uninhabitedbush.TothenortharetheAngal-speakinggroups of theNembiPlateau;tothesouthwestaretheFasuorNamuPopeople;totheeastareKewaspeakers of theEraveRiverValley.Directlysouth of theFoiaresmallgroups of Kasere,Ikobi,andNamumispeakers of theinteriorGulfProvince.linguisicAffiliation.FoiandFiwagaaretheonlylan-guageswithintheEastKutubuanFamily of theKutubuanLanguageStock.Itiscloselyrelatedonlytothelanguages of theWestKutubuanFamily,whichincludestheFasu,Kasere,andNamumilanguages,butitalsoexhibitssomesmallamount of cognationwithotherinteriorPapuanlanguagessuchasMikaruan(Daribi)andKaluli.HistoryandCulturalRelationsItislikelythattheFoifirstenteredtheMubiValleyfromthesouthwest,bringingdomesticatedsagowiththem.AlthoughtheFoiwerebrieflycontactedalongthesouthernreaches of theirterritoryatdifferenttimesbyexplorersmovinginlandfromthePapuanGulfcoast,itwasnotuntilIvanChampionfirstsightedLakeKutubuin1935andconsequentlyvisitedthelakeonfootduringhisBamu-PuraripatrolthatregularFore63ings.Behindthewomen'shousesattheedge of theclearingwouldbeoneortwosmallstructureswherewomenstayedduringmenstruationandchildbirth.Theentiresettlementwassurroundedbyadefensivestockade.Today,themen'shousesandstockadesaregoneandmostfamilieslivetogetherinonehouse,ofteninlargeraggregatedvillages.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Foresubsist-enceisbasedonasystem of swiddenhorticultureandpighus-bandrythatisaugmentedtoasmalldegreebyhuntingandforagingactivities.Newgardensareclearedinforestedareasusingslash-and-burmtechniques.Afterfencing,theplotsareplantedusingadigging-sticktechnology.Themostimportantcropisthesweetpotato,whichisthestaplefoodforbothpeopleandpigs.Pigsareamajorform of wealthamongtheForeandsuccessfulpigraisersaremuchadmired.Treatedlikevaluedpets,pigsliveinclosephysicalproximitytotheirkeep-ersandarefedgardenproducedaily.Gardensalsocontainsmalleramounts of othertubers(taro,yams,manioc),pitpit(SaccharumeduleandSetariapalmifolia),maize,wingedbeans,bananas,sugarcane,andavariety of leafyvegetablesandherbs.Inrecentdecades,manynewcropshavebeenin-corporatedintoForegardens,includinglimabeans,peanuts,cabbages,pumpkins,onions,andpapayas.CoffeegrowingisamajorcommercialventureinwhichnearlyallForeparticipate.IndustrialArts.Aswithmany of theirneighbors,theForehavelargelyabandonedlocalmanufacture of clothing,tools,andutensils,relyingonarticles of Westernmanufacturethatarepurchasedwiththeproceedsfromcashcrops.Housebuildingandfencing of gardensandinterhamletpathwaysaretheprincipalmaleindustrialarts;utilitariannetbags,made of hand-spunbarkstring,arestillmanufacturedbywomen.Priortothe1950s,Forealsoextractedsaltforlocaluseandfortradefromtheash of Coirgigantea,anindigenoustallgrass.Thislastindustryhasbeensupersededbytheintroduc-tion of commercialsalt.Trade.RegionaltradewasalwaysanimportantmeansbywhichForeacquiredgoodsnotavailablelocally.Tradeitemspassedthroughcomplexnetworks of hand-to-handtransac-tionsbetweenestablishedtradingpartnerswhorarelylivedmorethanoneday'swalkapart.Ingeneral,stoneaxbladescamefromneighborstothenorthandwestinexchangeforlocallymanufacturedsalt,furpelts,birdplumes,andbetelnuts;black-palmbowsandarrowheadsweretradedfromthesoutheastforsaltandpiglets;occasionally,afewshellswereobtainedfromPapuanpeoplestwodaystothesouthforto-baccoandnetbags.However,nowadaysmostForerelyonsmallstoresandtheperiodicmarketinOkapatoobtainnon-localgoods.Division of Labor.TheForedefineonlyafewtasksastheexclusiveresponsibility of menorwomen.Ingardening,menfellthetreeswhilewomencleartheunderbrushandpilethedebrisforburning.Womenthendomost of thesoilprepar-tionandplantingwhilemenbuildtheenclosingfences.Thecultivation,tending,harvesting,andtransporting of mostcropsfallstowomen,butmenarefreetoassistwiththesetasksiftheysochoose.Pandanusandtobaccoarecultivatedonlybymenasareafewrituallyimportant,redvarieties of su-garcane,bananas,yams,andtaro.Womenundertakethepri-maryburdens of pigtendingunderthedosesupervision of men.Childcareagainultimatelyfallstowomenalthoughmenandoldersiblingsregularlyassist.Mostfoodispreparedandcookedbywomenwithmentakingmajorresponsibilityforobtainingfirewoodandpreparingtheearth-ovenfires.Womentraditionallymadeallitems of clothingandnetbags,andmenfashionedweapons,stoneaxes,andsomeitems of personaladornment.LandTenure.Landrightsareheldcommunallybythemaleandfemalemembers of localclangroupswhocurrentlyoccupythelandandcontrolaccesstoit.Gardenplotsareal.locatedforthe...

... createfoursubmoietiesorde-scentgroups.Out of theselineagestwenty-fivehouseholdshavebeenestablished.Theentirepopulationisevidentlyde-scendedfromasinglefamily,andsoitconstitutesonegreatbilateralkingroup.Beforethemoietieswereestablishedthepeoplewereledbyonechieforariki.Whenthecommunitysplitsodidtheoffice of ariki,withhisritualpowersandre-150MaeEngatantarethatamanshouldnotwedwithinhisownpatricianorwithinthesubclans of hismotherorhiscurrentwives.Par-ents,especiallyfathers,generallychoosethespouseswhentheirchildrenfirstmarry.Postmaritalresidenceideallyispa-trivirilocal.Becausemarriageunitestheclans of bothbrideandgroominvaluedlong-termexchangerelations,divorceisdifficulttoachieve,evenbyhusbands.Adulteryisdeplored,andthefewerringwivesarebrutallypunished.AU of thesenormsandconstraintshaveerodednoticeably of lateduetotheinfluence of seculareducationandChristianmissions,wageearningandmobility of youngadults,andthegrowingconsumption of alcohol.DomesticUnit.Becausemenregardfemalesexualcharac-teristics,especiallymenstruation,aspotentiallydangerous,womenmayneverentermen'shousesandmen,althoughtheyvisittheirwives'housestodiscussfamilymatters,donotsleepthere.Nevertheless,theelementaryfamily of husband,wife,andunwedchildrenconstitutesthebasicunit of domes-ticproductionandreproduction.Apolygynousmandirectsthepigtendingandcultivationdoneseparatelybyhiswivesintheirindividualhouseholds,andhecoordinatestheiractivi-tiestomeetthepublicdemands of hisclanoritscomponentsegments.inheritance.Menbequeathrightstosociallysignificantpropertysuchasland,trees,crops,houses,pigs,andcasso-wariesmoreorlessequallytotheirsonsasthesesonsmarry.Daughtersatmarriagereceivedomesticequipmentfromtheirmothers.Socialization.Womentraintheirdaughtersindomesticandgardeningskillsfrominfancyuntiladolescence,whentheymarryandjointheirhusbands'clanparishes.Ataboutage6or7,boysenterthemen'shouse of theirfatherandhiscloseagnates,all of whomshareintheboys'economic,politi-cal,andritualeducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSince1975,Maehavebeencitizens of theNation-state of PapuaNewGuinea,amember of theBritishCommonwealth of NationswithaWestminstersystem of government.SocialOrgpnization.TraditionalMaesocietywasrela-tivelyegalitarianandeconomicallyhomogeneousandre-mainslargelysointhe1980sdespitetheeffects of interna-tionalcommerce.The 120 orsopatriciansarestillsignificantlandholdingunits,andtheyandtheircomponentsegmentsarecorporatelyinvolvedinawidevariety of events.Aclanen-gagesinwarfareandpeacemaking;initiatespayments of pigsand,today,moneyashomicidecompensationforslainene-miesandallies;organizeslarge-scaledistributions of pigsandvaluablesintheelaborateinterclanceremonialexchangecycle;andparticipatesinirregularlyheldritualstopropitiateclanancestors.Nohereditaryorformallyelectedclanchiefsdirecttheseactivities;theyarecoordinatedbyableandinflu-entialmenwho,throughtheirpastmanagerialsuccesses,haveacquired"bignames."Thearableland of aclanisdi-videdamongitssubclans,whichholdfuneralfeastsfortheirdead,exchangeporkandothervaluableswithmatrilateralkin of thedeceased,andalsocompensatethematrikin of mem-berswhohavebeeninsulted,injured,orill.Bachelorsusuallyorganizetheirpurificatoryritualsonasubclanbasis.Subclanlandisinturndividedamongcomponentpatrilineages,whosememberscontributevaluablestobride-priceortore-turngiftsastheirjuniorswedthose of lineagesinotherclans.Lineagemembersalsohelpeachotherinhousebuildingandinclearinggardenland.Todayclansolidarity,aswellasinter-clanhostility,importantlydetermineswhoindividualvoterssupportinnational,provincial,andlocalcouncilelections.All of theseAustralian-inspiredgovernmentalentitiespro-videtheextraclanpublicservices,suchasschools,clinics,courts,constabulary,postoffices,androads,onwhichMaenowdependheavily.SocialControlandConflict.Withintheclansocialcon-trolisstilllargelyexercisedthroughpublicopinion,includingridicule,implicitthreatsbyagnatestowithdrawtheeconomicsupportandlaboronwhichallfamiliesrely,andthepervasiveinfluence of prominentbig-menininformalmoots.Theulti-matesanction,evenwithinthehousehold,isphysicalvio-lence.Formerlyclanswithinaphratryorneighborhoodcouldresorttosimilarcourtsjointlysteeredbytheirbig-mentoreachreluctantcompromises;butsuchnegotiations,espe-ciallyoverlandorpigs,frequentlyeruptedinbloodshed.TheAustraliancolonialadministrationsupplementedcourtswithmoreformalandfairlyeffectiveCourtsforNativeAffairs,whichafterindependencewerereplacedbyVillageCourtswithelectedlocalmagistrates.Nevertheless,clansinconflict,whetheroverlandencroachmentorhomicides,stillturnquicklytowarfaretosettlemattersdespiteattemptsbyarmedmobilesquads of nationalpolicetodeterthem.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligionBeliefs.Thetraditionalsystem of Maemagical-religiousbeliefsandpractices,hlethose of otherCentralEnga,arestronglyclan-based,andmanyanimistassumptionsstillorientpopularideologyandsocialbehavior,despitetheapparentimpact of Christianmissionproselytizingsince1948.Maebelievethesunandthemoon,'thefatherandmother of usall,"haveprocreatedmanygenerations of im-mortalskypeoplewhoresembleEngainbeingorganizedinanagnaticsegmentarysociety of warlikecultivators.Eachce-lestialphratrysentarepresentativetoearthtocolonizethehithertoemptyland.Thenowmortalfounder of eachterres-trialphratrymarried,hadchildren,andallocatedlandsandpropertytohissonsastheyweddaughters of otherphratryfounders.Thuswereoriginatedthenamedfraternalclans,each of whichtodayrightfullyoccupiesthedefinedterritoryinheritedpatrilineallyfromthefounder.Eachclanstillpos-sessessome of thefertilitystonescarriedtoearthbythephratryfounder.Buriedintheclan'ssacredgrove,theyarethelocus of thespirits of alltheclanancestors,includingghosts of deceasedgrandfathers.Amanthereforehastherighttoexploitatract of landbecause,throughhisfather,heisalegitimatemember of thatclan,sharesinthetotality of clanpatrilinealspirit,andisintimatelylinkedwiththeloca-lizedclanancestors.Inadditiontothecontinuing,ofteninju-riousinterventionsintohumanaffairs of recentghostsand of ancestralspirits,Maealsoasserttheexistence of aggressiveanthropophagousdemonsand of hugepythons,both of whichdefendtheirmountainandforestdomainsfromhumanintrusions.Ceremonies.Althoughlethalsorceryisuncommon,manymenprivatelyusemagictoenhancetheirpersonal178Maoridren,andtheirmarriedsons,alongwiththelatter'sspousesandchildren.Manyhouseholdsalsohadresidentslaves.Inheritance.Adyingpersonwouldmakeafinaltestamentdisposing of hisorherproperty.Most of theestatewasdividedfairlyequallyamongthesurvivingchildren,exceptthatcertaintypes of hunting,fishing,andcraftequipmentwentonlytotheoffspring of thesamesex.Socialization.Childrenweregenerallyeducatedbytheirrelatives,especiallygrandparents,throughsongsandstories.Gamesoftenimitatedadultactivitiesandwerecompetitive.Aggressivenessandcompetitivenesswereencouraged.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theinterrelationshipsamonghouseholds,hapu,andiwihasbeendescribedabove.Whileiwiwerefixedincompositionandnumber,newhapuwerecreatedthroughfission.Whenahapugrewtoolargetofunc-tioneffectivelysome of itsmemberswouldbreakoffandes-tablishanewhapuundertheleadership of one of thechief'ssonsoryoungerbrothers.ThetribeswhoseancestorsarrivedinNewZealandinthesamecanoewereconsideredtoconsti-tuteawaka,literally'canoe."Awakewaseffectivelyacon-federationwhosemembersfeltsomeobligationtohelponeanother.Thisspecialrelationshipdidnot,however,ruleoutwarfarebetweentwotribes of thesamewaka.TheMaoriwererankedintothreesocialclasses,determinedbythesource of one'sline.Members of thetwohighestclasseswerebothfreepeople,whilethosedescendedfromtheoldestmales of eachgenerationformedthearistocracy(rangatira).Thosefrommorejuniorlines,orwhoseancestorshadloststatus,wereconsideredcommoners(tutuaorware).Thequestion of pre-ciselywhereaparticularlinestoodinthesetwoclasseswasoftenasource of controversy.Differenceinrankwasdirectlycorrelatedwithdegree of sacredness(tapu)andmana of eachindividualandgroup.Finally,thereweretheslaves(taure-kareka),mainlywarcaptives,whostoodoutsidethedescentsystem.PoliticalOrganization.Eachhapuhadachief(fromtherangatira).Therangatira of themostseniorhapuwasthepar-amountchief(ariki) of thattribe.ThetribewasthereforethehighestpoliticallyintegratedunitinMaorisociety.Bothchieftainshipswerepassedonpatrilineallytothefirstsonineachgeneration.Insometribesaseniordaughterwasalsogivenspecialrecognition.Chiefswere of highrankandgener-allyquitewealthy.Theyexercisedgreatinfluencebutlackedcoercivepower.Thechiefsorganizedanddirectedeconomicprojects,ledmaraeceremonials,administeredtheirgroup'sproperty,andconductedrelationswithothergroups.Thechiefswereoftenfullytrainedpriestswithritualresponsibili-tiesandpowers,mostimportantlytherighttoimposetapu.Therangatiraandarildwere,intheirpersons,verytapuandhadmuchmana.Thehouseholdheadsorkaumatuaasagroupconstitutedthecommunitycouncil(runanga)whichadvisedandcouldinfluencethechief.SocialControLPenaltiesforcrimesranfromgossip,repri-mand,andsorcerytoseizure of property,beating,andexecution.Conflict.Conflictbetweendifferenthapuanddifferenttribeswascommonandoftenledtowarfare.Thedefeatedweremostoftenenslaved,killed,oreaten.Womenandchil-drenwerethemostlikelypersonstobespared.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligoBelief.TheMaoriheldanessentiallyspiritualview of theuniverse.Anythingassociatedwiththesupernat-uralwasinvestedwithtapu,amysteriousqualitywhichmadethosethingsorpersonsimbuedwithiteithersacredorun-cleanaccordingtocontext.Objectsandpersonscouldalsopossessmana,psychicpower.Bothqualities,whichwerein-heritedoracquiredthroughcontact,couldbeaugmentedordiminishedduringone'slifetime.Allfreemenweretaputoadegreedirectlyproportionaltotheirrank.Furthermore,anobjectorresourcecouldbemadetapuandthereforeoff-limits.Thepunishmentforviolatingatapurestrictionwasautomatic,usuallycomingassicknessordeath.TheMaorihadapantheon of supernaturalbeings(atua).ThesupremegodwasknownasTo.Thetwoprimevalparents,PapaandRangi,hadeightdivineoffspring:Haumia,thegod of unculti-vatedfood;Rongo,thegod of peaceandagriculture;Ruau-moko,thegod of earthquakes;Tawhirimatea,thegod of weather,Tane,thefather of humansandgod of forests;Tan-garoa,thegod of thesea;Tu-matauenga,thewargod;andWhiro,thegod of darknessandevil.Therewerealsoexclusivetribalgods,mainlyassociatedwithwar.Inaddition,therewerevariousfamilygodsandfamiliarspirits.ReligiousPrctitioners.Theseniordeitieshadapriest-hood(tohungaahurewa),members of whichreceivedspecialprofessionaltraining.Theywereresponsibleforallesotericritual,wereknowledgeableaboutgenealogiesandtribalhis-tory,andwerebelievedtobeabletocontroltheweather.Sha-mansratherthanpriestsservedthefamilygodswhomtheycommunicatedwiththroughspiritpossessionandsorcery.Ceremonies.Mostpublicriteswereperformedintheopen,atthemarae.Thegodswereofferedthefirstfruits of allundertakings,andslaveswereoccasionallysacrificedtopro-pitiatethem.Incantations(karacia)werechantedinflawlessrepetitiontoinfluencethegods.Arts.Most of thematerialobjects of theMaoriwerehighlydecorated.Theirstatuesandcarvings,especiallywithfiligreemotifs,areadmiredworldwideandarethefrequentsubject of artmuseumexhibitions.Medicine.Sicknesswasbelievedtobecausedbysorceryortheviolation of atapu.Theproximatecause of illnesswasthepresence of foreignspiritsinthesickbody.Themedicalto-hungaaccordinglyexorcisedthespiritsandpurifiedthepa,tient.Thetherapeuticvalue of someplantswasalsorecognized.DeathandAfterlife.Thedyinganddeadweretakentoashelteronthemarae.Thebodywaslaidoutonmatstore-ceivemourners,whocameinhapuortribalgroups.Afteraweekortwo of mourningthebodywaswrappedinmatsandburiedinacave,inatree,orintheground.Oftenafterayearortwotheaikiwouldhavethebodyexhumed,andthebonesscrapedcleanandpaintedwithredochre,tobetakenfromsettlementtosettlementforasecondmourning.Afterward,thebonesweregivenasecondburialinasacredplace.Thespirits of thedeadwerebelievedtomakeavoyagetotheirfinalabode,avagueandmysteriousunderworld.Malekula165Division of Labor.Traditionally-andstillamongtheLaus-housebuildingwasamaletask,however,inmissionvillagesitisacooperativetaskinvolvingbothsexes.So,too,yamgardensarenowtheexclusiveprovince of menonlyinLaus;inMewunandSeniangtoday,womenworkinyamgar-densunlesstheyaremenstruating.Menandwomenshareotheragriculturaltasks,and,whileonlymenhunt,bothmenandwomenfishandgathershellfish.Althoughbothsexescanbeinvolvedincooking,ceremonialcookingforfeasts,fu-nerals,etc.,isusuallysupervisedbymen.LandTenure.Landisinheritedpatrilineally.Marriedwomenretainusufructrightstotheirbrothers'coconutlandandmaygatherthenutswithoutaskingpermission.Inthepastfewdecades,somemenhavefoundthemselveswithfewheirsbutmuchland.TopreventencroachmentbyEurope-ans,somemeninthissituationhavegivenparcels of landtotheirsisters'sons.However,thisnewpracticehasledtoaplethora of courtcases,somenreportedlyaremovingawayfromthisinnovationinlandinheritance.Althoughwomendonotusuallyholdorinheritland,thereareinstanceswherewomenarethesoleheirs of apatrimony,andthesewomensometimesholdandcontrolfamilylanduntiltheirsonsmature.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Inallthreegroupsthecommu-nityisdividedintoanumber of localized,patrilineal,exoga-mousdescentgroupscalled'clans"bytheirfirstethnog-rapher,A.B.Deacon.Eachclanmembercantracedescentfromavillageorlocality.Placemembershipappearstobeastrongerfactorinunitythanclanmembershipperse.Chil-drenbelongtotheplace of theirfather,buttheycanbeadoptedintootherplacesonoccasion.Members of aclanorplaceshareaspecifictotemandasacredplacewheregroupritualswereperformedinprecontacttimes.Thedescentgroupisthelandholdingunit,andfoodandothervalueditemsarefrequentlysharedbymembers.KinshipTerminology.AllthreeethnicgroupsuseCrow-typekinshiptermsinapatrilinealdescentsystem.Thiscom-binationisunusual,foundinonlytwootherOceanicethnicgroups.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.PolygynyisstillfoundinLausandwascommoninMewunandSeniangbeforetheywerecompletelymission-ized.PolyandryalsooccurredintraditionaltimesamongtheMewun.Members of thethreegroupsoccasionallyinter-marry.Substantialbride-wealthisrequired;inallthreegroupsthiscanconsist of acombination of pigsandcash,thoughaLausbride-priceislikelytoincludemorepigsthanbride-pricesinMewunandSeniang.Withthecurrentsurplus of bachelors,oldermarriedmenseektocontrolyoungerbache-lorsthroughtheircontrol of marriagechoicesforyoungwomen.Inordertomarry,mostyoungmenmustobtaintheapproval of oldermenanduseeitherbride-wealthorsisterex-changetocontractengagements.Postmaritalresidenceispa-trilocal.Althoughwomenmovetotheirhusbands'landwhentheymarry,awidowedwomanisalmostalwaysrequiredtore-turntoherpatrilocality,leavingherchildrenbehindwithherdeceasedspouse'srelatives.Thismove,however,maynotal-waysinvolveachangeinvillagesforher.Sincemissionvil-lagesinMewunandSeniangarecomposed of severaldiffer-entpatrilines,shemaysimplyrelocatetoadifferentquadrant of thevillageandbegintofarmtheland of herpatrilinealrel-atives.DivorceisillegalandalmostabsentinSouthWestBay.ThefewpeoplewhohaveseparatedfromtheirspouseshaveleftthebayforeitherPortVilaorLuganville(Vanuatu'sonlytwocities)wheretheycanformliaisonswithnewspouses.DomesticUnit.Thebasicdomesticunitiscomposed of relativeswhosharefoodandeatfromacommonfire.Thismayormaynotcoincidewithadwellingunitorhousehold.Inheritance.Inheritanceispatrilineal.Daughtersaregivenpieces of theirfathers'territorytousebeforemarriageandaftertheybecomewidows.However,thisisusuallynotinheritedbytheirsons.Socialization.Childrenareraisedtointeractwithonean-otherpeaceably,soitisextremelyraretoseechildrenfightingoraparentstrikingachild.Thethreat of shameisoftenem-ployedtoensurecorrectbehavior.MostMewunandSeniangchildrengotoschooluntilthethirdgrade.Whilealargeper-centagefinishprimaryschool,onlyafewprogresstosecon-daryschool.Thedistrictschoolswereestablishedintheearly1900sbytheresidentPresbyterianmissionary.Beforeinde-pendence,afewchildrenfromMewunandalargergroupfromSeniangwenttoaFrenchboardingschoolinsoutheast-ernMalekula.Lauschildren,forthemostpart,arenotfor-mallyeducated,althoughafewattendthemissionschoolsinMewun.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Thebasicorganizingprincipleisthat of acommon"place."Ancestral"place"commonlycoincideswithpatrilineality,butthereisplenty of roomforascriptionwhensuitable.Rightsto'place"canbegainedbyadoptionandlong-termcontiguityandcommensaliy.MissionvillagesinMewunandSeniangusuallyincluderesidentsfromseveral"places."Members of a'place"areexogamousandcooperateonworkteams;theyalsopooltheirresourcesforbride-wealthandfunerarycontributions.Members of a"place"willalsosharerightstouniqueartisticcreations(dances,artifacts,songs,etc.),saidtobegiventomembersasgiftsfromthespirit world. Theseculturalartifactscanbeboughtandsoldbetween"places."Theemphasison"place"seeninSouthWestBayapparentlyissignificantthroughoutVanuatu;notonlyisitnotedbyanthropologistsinotherparts of thearchi-pelago,butthenewlyinvented(postindependence)pidginwordfor'citizen"ismanpies(orwomanples)."PoliticalOrganization.Thetraditionalpoliticalsystemoperatedthroughacombination of personalandpositionalpower.Amen'sgradedsocietydevelopedinallthreeSouthWestBayethnicgroups.Byearninghiswayuptheladder of ritualposition(eachpositioninvolvingpaymentsandbe-stowingritualprivilegesontheaspirant),amancouldreachthetopgrade,atwhichpointhebecameaspirituallypowerfulandfearedperson.High-rankingmenwerelikelytohavesev-eralwives,oftenobtainedfromdifferentethnicgroups,andgreatwealthinpigs.Lausmenstillhaveagradedsociety,ornimangi.AshadowgradedsocietyalsoexistsforLauswomenandwasdescribedforMewunandSeniangintraditional1 62 Malaitapropitiated.Lifecircumstances-uxorilocalresidence,paren-taldivorce,orwidowhood-canleadchildrentogrowupwithmaternalkin.Whentheydo,theyareaccordeddefactorights of residenceandlandrightsasthoughtheywereagnates:whatmattersiscommitmenttolands,ancestors,andIdnandintimateknowledge of aplaceanditsritualsandtaboos.Giventheideologicalemphasisonagnation(atleastinsomecontexts)andcountervailingideologies of symmetricbilater-ality,andgiventhevaryingstatisticalcomposition of groups,itisnowonderthatethnographershavedifferedincharacter-izingMalaitasocialstructure.AmongtheLauspeakers of thelagoons,denselyconcentratedinlargevillages,descentgroupsarequitesquarelyagnatic.Insomeparts of Malaita,segmentaryritualandpoliticalrelationshipsabovethelevel of localdescent-basedgroupswereaccordedimportance.Inthenorth,eightclusters of descentgroupswererecognized,withthepoliticallydominantandrituallysenior'stem"groups of eachclusterconnectedtooneanotherbyputativeagnaticlinks(butwithsomeothergroupswithineachclusterconnectedtothe'stem"groupbynonagnaticlinks).InKwaio,suchhigher-levellinkagesoperateonlythroughrituallinksbetweenshrinesandtheirpriests.KinshipTerminology.KinshipterminologyrangesfromasymmetricIroquois-typepatterninKwara'ae(systematicallydistinguishingcrossfromparallelkininthemiddlethreegen-erationsaccordingtorelativesex of thelastconnectinglinks)toabasicallyHawaiian-typepatterninKwaio(brokenonlybyaself-reciprocalmother'sbrother/sister'schildcategory).In-termediatearesystems(suchasTo'aba'ita)withapartialOmaha-likeskewinginwhichthemother'sbrother/sister'schildcategoryisincorporatedintothegrandparent/grandchildcategory(whichoccursinalltheMalaitaterminologies).MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageisgenerallyseriallymonogamous,al-thoughpolygynyispossibleinsomeplaces.Bride-wealthisuniversal.Prohibitionsonmarriagegenerallyarebilaterallybased,withmarriagebetweenclosecousinsnormativelypro-hibited.Asnotedpreviously,postmaritalresidencewasini-tiallyvirilocal,althoughinsomeareaslaterflexibilityinresi-dentialattachmentwaspossible.Divorcewaspossiblebutdifficultbecause of bride-wealth.DomesticUnit.Domesticfamilygroups(prototypicallynuclearfamiliesbutoftenaugmentedbywidows,bachelors,spinsters,andfosterchildren)aretheprimaryunits of pro-ductionandconsumption.Inheritance.Inheritanceassignsrightstothosewhocre-atepropertyandtransmitstheserightstoandthroughchil-dren.Normatively,althoughsonsanddaughtersinheritrights,sonstransmitprimaryrightstotheirchildrenanddaughterstransmitsecondaryrights.Asteward,ideallyasen-ioragnate,actsasaspokespersonforcollectivelyheldlandandotherproperty.Socialization.Childrenarehighlyvaluedandcaringlynur-tured,withwomenhavingtheprimaryresponsibilitiesforearlychildcareandtraining.Sexualpolarizationearlysepa-ratesboys'andgirls'lifeexperiences(thoughtherearenofor-malinitiations),withboysbeingmuchmorefreetohuntandplayandgirlsbeginningearlyaregimen of hardlaborandchildcare.Boysspendprogressivelymoretimewithmen,stayinmen'shouses,andparticipateinritual.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inbushareas,afierceegalitarianismbasedonachievementratherthanranktraditionallypre-vailed.However,insomecoastalareas (e. g.,LauandMara-masike)ideas of hereditaryrankhadsomecurrency.PoliticalOrgnization.ApervasiveideologyonMalaitadistinguishesthreeleadershiproles:that of 'priest,"whoactsasthereligiousofficiant of thedescentgroup(seebelow);that of 'warrior-leader'(ngwaneramo),abountyhunterandfightingleader,andthat of asecularleader(intheNorthernMalaitadialect,ngwaneinoto/inito'o).Char-acterizations of thelatterrangefromahereditarychief(arahainMaramasike)toasmallishbig-maninthemostpoliticallyfragmentedbushareas,suchasKwaioandnorth-western'Are'are.Otherareascombinedanideologythatthesenioragnate of adescentgroupactedasitssecularleaderwitharecognition of defactoleadershipachievedthroughentrepreneurialsuccess.InLauandsoutheastern'Are'are,hereditaryleaderscommandedprestigeand ... createfoursubmoietiesorde-scentgroups.Out of theselineagestwenty-fivehouseholdshavebeenestablished.Theentirepopulationisevidentlyde-scendedfromasinglefamily,andsoitconstitutesonegreatbilateralkingroup.Beforethemoietieswereestablishedthepeoplewereledbyonechieforariki.Whenthecommunitysplitsodidtheoffice of ariki,withhisritualpowersandre-150MaeEngatantarethatamanshouldnotwedwithinhisownpatricianorwithinthesubclans of hismotherorhiscurrentwives.Par-ents,especiallyfathers,generallychoosethespouseswhentheirchildrenfirstmarry.Postmaritalresidenceideallyispa-trivirilocal.Becausemarriageunitestheclans of bothbrideandgroominvaluedlong-termexchangerelations,divorceisdifficulttoachieve,evenbyhusbands.Adulteryisdeplored,andthefewerringwivesarebrutallypunished.AU of thesenormsandconstraintshaveerodednoticeably of lateduetotheinfluence of seculareducationandChristianmissions,wageearningandmobility of youngadults,andthegrowingconsumption of alcohol.DomesticUnit.Becausemenregardfemalesexualcharac-teristics,especiallymenstruation,aspotentiallydangerous,womenmayneverentermen'shousesandmen,althoughtheyvisittheirwives'housestodiscussfamilymatters,donotsleepthere.Nevertheless,theelementaryfamily of husband,wife,andunwedchildrenconstitutesthebasicunit of domes-ticproductionandreproduction.Apolygynousmandirectsthepigtendingandcultivationdoneseparatelybyhiswivesintheirindividualhouseholds,andhecoordinatestheiractivi-tiestomeetthepublicdemands of hisclanoritscomponentsegments.inheritance.Menbequeathrightstosociallysignificantpropertysuchasland,trees,crops,houses,pigs,andcasso-wariesmoreorlessequallytotheirsonsasthesesonsmarry.Daughtersatmarriagereceivedomesticequipmentfromtheirmothers.Socialization.Womentraintheirdaughtersindomesticandgardeningskillsfrominfancyuntiladolescence,whentheymarryandjointheirhusbands'clanparishes.Ataboutage6or7,boysenterthemen'shouse of theirfatherandhiscloseagnates,all of whomshareintheboys'economic,politi-cal,andritualeducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSince1975,Maehavebeencitizens of theNation-state of PapuaNewGuinea,amember of theBritishCommonwealth of NationswithaWestminstersystem of government.SocialOrgpnization.TraditionalMaesocietywasrela-tivelyegalitarianandeconomicallyhomogeneousandre-mainslargelysointhe1980sdespitetheeffects of interna-tionalcommerce.The 120 orsopatriciansarestillsignificantlandholdingunits,andtheyandtheircomponentsegmentsarecorporatelyinvolvedinawidevariety of events.Aclanen-gagesinwarfareandpeacemaking;initiatespayments of pigsand,today,moneyashomicidecompensationforslainene-miesandallies;organizeslarge-scaledistributions of pigsandvaluablesintheelaborateinterclanceremonialexchangecycle;andparticipatesinirregularlyheldritualstopropitiateclanancestors.Nohereditaryorformallyelectedclanchiefsdirecttheseactivities;theyarecoordinatedbyableandinflu-entialmenwho,throughtheirpastmanagerialsuccesses,haveacquired"bignames."Thearableland of aclanisdi-videdamongitssubclans,whichholdfuneralfeastsfortheirdead,exchangeporkandothervaluableswithmatrilateralkin of thedeceased,andalsocompensatethematrikin of mem-berswhohavebeeninsulted,injured,orill.Bachelorsusuallyorganizetheirpurificatoryritualsonasubclanbasis.Subclanlandisinturndividedamongcomponentpatrilineages,whosememberscontributevaluablestobride-priceortore-turngiftsastheirjuniorswedthose of lineagesinotherclans.Lineagemembersalsohelpeachotherinhousebuildingandinclearinggardenland.Todayclansolidarity,aswellasinter-clanhostility,importantlydetermineswhoindividualvoterssupportinnational,provincial,andlocalcouncilelections.All of theseAustralian-inspiredgovernmentalentitiespro-videtheextraclanpublicservices,suchasschools,clinics,courts,constabulary,postoffices,androads,onwhichMaenowdependheavily.SocialControlandConflict.Withintheclansocialcon-trolisstilllargelyexercisedthroughpublicopinion,includingridicule,implicitthreatsbyagnatestowithdrawtheeconomicsupportandlaboronwhichallfamiliesrely,andthepervasiveinfluence of prominentbig-menininformalmoots.Theulti-matesanction,evenwithinthehousehold,isphysicalvio-lence.Formerlyclanswithinaphratryorneighborhoodcouldresorttosimilarcourtsjointlysteeredbytheirbig-mentoreachreluctantcompromises;butsuchnegotiations,espe-ciallyoverlandorpigs,frequentlyeruptedinbloodshed.TheAustraliancolonialadministrationsupplementedcourtswithmoreformalandfairlyeffectiveCourtsforNativeAffairs,whichafterindependencewerereplacedbyVillageCourtswithelectedlocalmagistrates.Nevertheless,clansinconflict,whetheroverlandencroachmentorhomicides,stillturnquicklytowarfaretosettlemattersdespiteattemptsbyarmedmobilesquads of nationalpolicetodeterthem.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligionBeliefs.Thetraditionalsystem of Maemagical-religiousbeliefsandpractices,hlethose of otherCentralEnga,arestronglyclan-based,andmanyanimistassumptionsstillorientpopularideologyandsocialbehavior,despitetheapparentimpact of Christianmissionproselytizingsince1948.Maebelievethesunandthemoon,'thefatherandmother of usall,"haveprocreatedmanygenerations of im-mortalskypeoplewhoresembleEngainbeingorganizedinanagnaticsegmentarysociety of warlikecultivators.Eachce-lestialphratrysentarepresentativetoearthtocolonizethehithertoemptyland.Thenowmortalfounder of eachterres-trialphratrymarried,hadchildren,andallocatedlandsandpropertytohissonsastheyweddaughters of otherphratryfounders.Thuswereoriginatedthenamedfraternalclans,each of whichtodayrightfullyoccupiesthedefinedterritoryinheritedpatrilineallyfromthefounder.Eachclanstillpos-sessessome of thefertilitystonescarriedtoearthbythephratryfounder.Buriedintheclan'ssacredgrove,theyarethelocus of thespirits of alltheclanancestors,includingghosts of deceasedgrandfathers.Amanthereforehastherighttoexploitatract of landbecause,throughhisfather,heisalegitimatemember of thatclan,sharesinthetotality of clanpatrilinealspirit,andisintimatelylinkedwiththeloca-lizedclanancestors.Inadditiontothecontinuing,ofteninju-riousinterventionsintohumanaffairs of recentghostsand of ancestralspirits,Maealsoasserttheexistence of aggressiveanthropophagousdemonsand of hugepythons,both of whichdefendtheirmountainandforestdomainsfromhumanintrusions.Ceremonies.Althoughlethalsorceryisuncommon,manymenprivatelyusemagictoenhancetheirpersonal178Maoridren,andtheirmarriedsons,alongwiththelatter'sspousesandchildren.Manyhouseholdsalsohadresidentslaves.Inheritance.Adyingpersonwouldmakeafinaltestamentdisposing of hisorherproperty.Most of theestatewasdividedfairlyequallyamongthesurvivingchildren,exceptthatcertaintypes of hunting,fishing,andcraftequipmentwentonlytotheoffspring of thesamesex.Socialization.Childrenweregenerallyeducatedbytheirrelatives,especiallygrandparents,throughsongsandstories.Gamesoftenimitatedadultactivitiesandwerecompetitive.Aggressivenessandcompetitivenesswereencouraged.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Theinterrelationshipsamonghouseholds,hapu,andiwihasbeendescribedabove.Whileiwiwerefixedincompositionandnumber,newhapuwerecreatedthroughfission.Whenahapugrewtoolargetofunc-tioneffectivelysome of itsmemberswouldbreakoffandes-tablishanewhapuundertheleadership of one of thechief'ssonsoryoungerbrothers.ThetribeswhoseancestorsarrivedinNewZealandinthesamecanoewereconsideredtoconsti-tuteawaka,literally'canoe."Awakewaseffectivelyacon-federationwhosemembersfeltsomeobligationtohelponeanother.Thisspecialrelationshipdidnot,however,ruleoutwarfarebetweentwotribes of thesamewaka.TheMaoriwererankedintothreesocialclasses,determinedbythesource of one'sline.Members of thetwohighestclasseswerebothfreepeople,whilethosedescendedfromtheoldestmales of eachgenerationformedthearistocracy(rangatira).Thosefrommorejuniorlines,orwhoseancestorshadloststatus,wereconsideredcommoners(tutuaorware).Thequestion of pre-ciselywhereaparticularlinestoodinthesetwoclasseswasoftenasource of controversy.Differenceinrankwasdirectlycorrelatedwithdegree of sacredness(tapu)andmana of eachindividualandgroup.Finally,thereweretheslaves(taure-kareka),mainlywarcaptives,whostoodoutsidethedescentsystem.PoliticalOrganization.Eachhapuhadachief(fromtherangatira).Therangatira of themostseniorhapuwasthepar-amountchief(ariki) of thattribe.ThetribewasthereforethehighestpoliticallyintegratedunitinMaorisociety.Bothchieftainshipswerepassedonpatrilineallytothefirstsonineachgeneration.Insometribesaseniordaughterwasalsogivenspecialrecognition.Chiefswere of highrankandgener-allyquitewealthy.Theyexercisedgreatinfluencebutlackedcoercivepower.Thechiefsorganizedanddirectedeconomicprojects,ledmaraeceremonials,administeredtheirgroup'sproperty,andconductedrelationswithothergroups.Thechiefswereoftenfullytrainedpriestswithritualresponsibili-tiesandpowers,mostimportantlytherighttoimposetapu.Therangatiraandarildwere,intheirpersons,verytapuandhadmuchmana.Thehouseholdheadsorkaumatuaasagroupconstitutedthecommunitycouncil(runanga)whichadvisedandcouldinfluencethechief.SocialControLPenaltiesforcrimesranfromgossip,repri-mand,andsorcerytoseizure of property,beating,andexecution.Conflict.Conflictbetweendifferenthapuanddifferenttribeswascommonandoftenledtowarfare.Thedefeatedweremostoftenenslaved,killed,oreaten.Womenandchil-drenwerethemostlikelypersonstobespared.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligoBelief.TheMaoriheldanessentiallyspiritualview of theuniverse.Anythingassociatedwiththesupernat-uralwasinvestedwithtapu,amysteriousqualitywhichmadethosethingsorpersonsimbuedwithiteithersacredorun-cleanaccordingtocontext.Objectsandpersonscouldalsopossessmana,psychicpower.Bothqualities,whichwerein-heritedoracquiredthroughcontact,couldbeaugmentedordiminishedduringone'slifetime.Allfreemenweretaputoadegreedirectlyproportionaltotheirrank.Furthermore,anobjectorresourcecouldbemadetapuandthereforeoff-limits.Thepunishmentforviolatingatapurestrictionwasautomatic,usuallycomingassicknessordeath.TheMaorihadapantheon of supernaturalbeings(atua).ThesupremegodwasknownasTo.Thetwoprimevalparents,PapaandRangi,hadeightdivineoffspring:Haumia,thegod of unculti-vatedfood;Rongo,thegod of peaceandagriculture;Ruau-moko,thegod of earthquakes;Tawhirimatea,thegod of weather,Tane,thefather of humansandgod of forests;Tan-garoa,thegod of thesea;Tu-matauenga,thewargod;andWhiro,thegod of darknessandevil.Therewerealsoexclusivetribalgods,mainlyassociatedwithwar.Inaddition,therewerevariousfamilygodsandfamiliarspirits.ReligiousPrctitioners.Theseniordeitieshadapriest-hood(tohungaahurewa),members of whichreceivedspecialprofessionaltraining.Theywereresponsibleforallesotericritual,wereknowledgeableaboutgenealogiesandtribalhis-tory,andwerebelievedtobeabletocontroltheweather.Sha-mansratherthanpriestsservedthefamilygodswhomtheycommunicatedwiththroughspiritpossessionandsorcery.Ceremonies.Mostpublicriteswereperformedintheopen,atthemarae.Thegodswereofferedthefirstfruits of allundertakings,andslaveswereoccasionallysacrificedtopro-pitiatethem.Incantations(karacia)werechantedinflawlessrepetitiontoinfluencethegods.Arts.Most of thematerialobjects of theMaoriwerehighlydecorated.Theirstatuesandcarvings,especiallywithfiligreemotifs,areadmiredworldwideandarethefrequentsubject of artmuseumexhibitions.Medicine.Sicknesswasbelievedtobecausedbysorceryortheviolation of atapu.Theproximatecause of illnesswasthepresence of foreignspiritsinthesickbody.Themedicalto-hungaaccordinglyexorcisedthespiritsandpurifiedthepa,tient.Thetherapeuticvalue of someplantswasalsorecognized.DeathandAfterlife.Thedyinganddeadweretakentoashelteronthemarae.Thebodywaslaidoutonmatstore-ceivemourners,whocameinhapuortribalgroups.Afteraweekortwo of mourningthebodywaswrappedinmatsandburiedinacave,inatree,orintheground.Oftenafterayearortwotheaikiwouldhavethebodyexhumed,andthebonesscrapedcleanandpaintedwithredochre,tobetakenfromsettlementtosettlementforasecondmourning.Afterward,thebonesweregivenasecondburialinasacredplace.Thespirits of thedeadwerebelievedtomakeavoyagetotheirfinalabode,avagueandmysteriousunderworld.Malekula165Division of Labor.Traditionally-andstillamongtheLaus-housebuildingwasamaletask,however,inmissionvillagesitisacooperativetaskinvolvingbothsexes.So,too,yamgardensarenowtheexclusiveprovince of menonlyinLaus;inMewunandSeniangtoday,womenworkinyamgar-densunlesstheyaremenstruating.Menandwomenshareotheragriculturaltasks,and,whileonlymenhunt,bothmenandwomenfishandgathershellfish.Althoughbothsexescanbeinvolvedincooking,ceremonialcookingforfeasts,fu-nerals,etc.,isusuallysupervisedbymen.LandTenure.Landisinheritedpatrilineally.Marriedwomenretainusufructrightstotheirbrothers'coconutlandandmaygatherthenutswithoutaskingpermission.Inthepastfewdecades,somemenhavefoundthemselveswithfewheirsbutmuchland.TopreventencroachmentbyEurope-ans,somemeninthissituationhavegivenparcels of landtotheirsisters'sons.However,thisnewpracticehasledtoaplethora of courtcases,somenreportedlyaremovingawayfromthisinnovationinlandinheritance.Althoughwomendonotusuallyholdorinheritland,thereareinstanceswherewomenarethesoleheirs of apatrimony,andthesewomensometimesholdandcontrolfamilylanduntiltheirsonsmature.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Inallthreegroupsthecommu-nityisdividedintoanumber of localized,patrilineal,exoga-mousdescentgroupscalled'clans"bytheirfirstethnog-rapher,A.B.Deacon.Eachclanmembercantracedescentfromavillageorlocality.Placemembershipappearstobeastrongerfactorinunitythanclanmembershipperse.Chil-drenbelongtotheplace of theirfather,buttheycanbeadoptedintootherplacesonoccasion.Members of aclanorplaceshareaspecifictotemandasacredplacewheregroupritualswereperformedinprecontacttimes.Thedescentgroupisthelandholdingunit,andfoodandothervalueditemsarefrequentlysharedbymembers.KinshipTerminology.AllthreeethnicgroupsuseCrow-typekinshiptermsinapatrilinealdescentsystem.Thiscom-binationisunusual,foundinonlytwootherOceanicethnicgroups.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.PolygynyisstillfoundinLausandwascommoninMewunandSeniangbeforetheywerecompletelymission-ized.PolyandryalsooccurredintraditionaltimesamongtheMewun.Members of thethreegroupsoccasionallyinter-marry.Substantialbride-wealthisrequired;inallthreegroupsthiscanconsist of acombination of pigsandcash,thoughaLausbride-priceislikelytoincludemorepigsthanbride-pricesinMewunandSeniang.Withthecurrentsurplus of bachelors,oldermarriedmenseektocontrolyoungerbache-lorsthroughtheircontrol of marriagechoicesforyoungwomen.Inordertomarry,mostyoungmenmustobtaintheapproval of oldermenanduseeitherbride-wealthorsisterex-changetocontractengagements.Postmaritalresidenceispa-trilocal.Althoughwomenmovetotheirhusbands'landwhentheymarry,awidowedwomanisalmostalwaysrequiredtore-turntoherpatrilocality,leavingherchildrenbehindwithherdeceasedspouse'srelatives.Thismove,however,maynotal-waysinvolveachangeinvillagesforher.Sincemissionvil-lagesinMewunandSeniangarecomposed of severaldiffer-entpatrilines,shemaysimplyrelocatetoadifferentquadrant of thevillageandbegintofarmtheland of herpatrilinealrel-atives.DivorceisillegalandalmostabsentinSouthWestBay.ThefewpeoplewhohaveseparatedfromtheirspouseshaveleftthebayforeitherPortVilaorLuganville(Vanuatu'sonlytwocities)wheretheycanformliaisonswithnewspouses.DomesticUnit.Thebasicdomesticunitiscomposed of relativeswhosharefoodandeatfromacommonfire.Thismayormaynotcoincidewithadwellingunitorhousehold.Inheritance.Inheritanceispatrilineal.Daughtersaregivenpieces of theirfathers'territorytousebeforemarriageandaftertheybecomewidows.However,thisisusuallynotinheritedbytheirsons.Socialization.Childrenareraisedtointeractwithonean-otherpeaceably,soitisextremelyraretoseechildrenfightingoraparentstrikingachild.Thethreat of shameisoftenem-ployedtoensurecorrectbehavior.MostMewunandSeniangchildrengotoschooluntilthethirdgrade.Whilealargeper-centagefinishprimaryschool,onlyafewprogresstosecon-daryschool.Thedistrictschoolswereestablishedintheearly1900sbytheresidentPresbyterianmissionary.Beforeinde-pendence,afewchildrenfromMewunandalargergroupfromSeniangwenttoaFrenchboardingschoolinsoutheast-ernMalekula.Lauschildren,forthemostpart,arenotfor-mallyeducated,althoughafewattendthemissionschoolsinMewun.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Thebasicorganizingprincipleisthat of acommon"place."Ancestral"place"commonlycoincideswithpatrilineality,butthereisplenty of roomforascriptionwhensuitable.Rightsto'place"canbegainedbyadoptionandlong-termcontiguityandcommensaliy.MissionvillagesinMewunandSeniangusuallyincluderesidentsfromseveral"places."Members of a'place"areexogamousandcooperateonworkteams;theyalsopooltheirresourcesforbride-wealthandfunerarycontributions.Members of a"place"willalsosharerightstouniqueartisticcreations(dances,artifacts,songs,etc.),saidtobegiventomembersasgiftsfromthespirit world. Theseculturalartifactscanbeboughtandsoldbetween"places."Theemphasison"place"seeninSouthWestBayapparentlyissignificantthroughoutVanuatu;notonlyisitnotedbyanthropologistsinotherparts of thearchi-pelago,butthenewlyinvented(postindependence)pidginwordfor'citizen"ismanpies(orwomanples)."PoliticalOrganization.Thetraditionalpoliticalsystemoperatedthroughacombination of personalandpositionalpower.Amen'sgradedsocietydevelopedinallthreeSouthWestBayethnicgroups.Byearninghiswayuptheladder of ritualposition(eachpositioninvolvingpaymentsandbe-stowingritualprivilegesontheaspirant),amancouldreachthetopgrade,atwhichpointhebecameaspirituallypowerfulandfearedperson.High-rankingmenwerelikelytohavesev-eralwives,oftenobtainedfromdifferentethnicgroups,andgreatwealthinpigs.Lausmenstillhaveagradedsociety,ornimangi.AshadowgradedsocietyalsoexistsforLauswomenandwasdescribedforMewunandSeniangintraditional1 62 Malaitapropitiated.Lifecircumstances-uxorilocalresidence,paren-taldivorce,orwidowhood-canleadchildrentogrowupwithmaternalkin.Whentheydo,theyareaccordeddefactorights of residenceandlandrightsasthoughtheywereagnates:whatmattersiscommitmenttolands,ancestors,andIdnandintimateknowledge of aplaceanditsritualsandtaboos.Giventheideologicalemphasisonagnation(atleastinsomecontexts)andcountervailingideologies of symmetricbilater-ality,andgiventhevaryingstatisticalcomposition of groups,itisnowonderthatethnographershavedifferedincharacter-izingMalaitasocialstructure.AmongtheLauspeakers of thelagoons,denselyconcentratedinlargevillages,descentgroupsarequitesquarelyagnatic.Insomeparts of Malaita,segmentaryritualandpoliticalrelationshipsabovethelevel of localdescent-basedgroupswereaccordedimportance.Inthenorth,eightclusters of descentgroupswererecognized,withthepoliticallydominantandrituallysenior'stem"groups of eachclusterconnectedtooneanotherbyputativeagnaticlinks(butwithsomeothergroupswithineachclusterconnectedtothe'stem"groupbynonagnaticlinks).InKwaio,suchhigher-levellinkagesoperateonlythroughrituallinksbetweenshrinesandtheirpriests.KinshipTerminology.KinshipterminologyrangesfromasymmetricIroquois-typepatterninKwara'ae(systematicallydistinguishingcrossfromparallelkininthemiddlethreegen-erationsaccordingtorelativesex of thelastconnectinglinks)toabasicallyHawaiian-typepatterninKwaio(brokenonlybyaself-reciprocalmother'sbrother/sister'schildcategory).In-termediatearesystems(suchasTo'aba'ita)withapartialOmaha-likeskewinginwhichthemother'sbrother/sister'schildcategoryisincorporatedintothegrandparent/grandchildcategory(whichoccursinalltheMalaitaterminologies).MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Marriageisgenerallyseriallymonogamous,al-thoughpolygynyispossibleinsomeplaces.Bride-wealthisuniversal.Prohibitionsonmarriagegenerallyarebilaterallybased,withmarriagebetweenclosecousinsnormativelypro-hibited.Asnotedpreviously,postmaritalresidencewasini-tiallyvirilocal,althoughinsomeareaslaterflexibilityinresi-dentialattachmentwaspossible.Divorcewaspossiblebutdifficultbecause of bride-wealth.DomesticUnit.Domesticfamilygroups(prototypicallynuclearfamiliesbutoftenaugmentedbywidows,bachelors,spinsters,andfosterchildren)aretheprimaryunits of pro-ductionandconsumption.Inheritance.Inheritanceassignsrightstothosewhocre-atepropertyandtransmitstheserightstoandthroughchil-dren.Normatively,althoughsonsanddaughtersinheritrights,sonstransmitprimaryrightstotheirchildrenanddaughterstransmitsecondaryrights.Asteward,ideallyasen-ioragnate,actsasaspokespersonforcollectivelyheldlandandotherproperty.Socialization.Childrenarehighlyvaluedandcaringlynur-tured,withwomenhavingtheprimaryresponsibilitiesforearlychildcareandtraining.Sexualpolarizationearlysepa-ratesboys'andgirls'lifeexperiences(thoughtherearenofor-malinitiations),withboysbeingmuchmorefreetohuntandplayandgirlsbeginningearlyaregimen of hardlaborandchildcare.Boysspendprogressivelymoretimewithmen,stayinmen'shouses,andparticipateinritual.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inbushareas,afierceegalitarianismbasedonachievementratherthanranktraditionallypre-vailed.However,insomecoastalareas (e. g.,LauandMara-masike)ideas of hereditaryrankhadsomecurrency.PoliticalOrgnization.ApervasiveideologyonMalaitadistinguishesthreeleadershiproles:that of 'priest,"whoactsasthereligiousofficiant of thedescentgroup(seebelow);that of 'warrior-leader'(ngwaneramo),abountyhunterandfightingleader,andthat of asecularleader(intheNorthernMalaitadialect,ngwaneinoto/inito'o).Char-acterizations of thelatterrangefromahereditarychief(arahainMaramasike)toasmallishbig-maninthemostpoliticallyfragmentedbushareas,suchasKwaioandnorth-western'Are'are.Otherareascombinedanideologythatthesenioragnate of adescentgroupactedasitssecularleaderwitharecognition of defactoleadershipachievedthroughentrepreneurialsuccess.InLauandsoutheastern'Are'are,hereditaryleaderscommandedprestigeand ... apig.Itisnotunusual,however,forachildlessmantoadoptone of hissister'ssons.KinshipTerminology.Mailuemployasystem of classifi-catorytermsforallrelatives of previousgenerations(i .e. ,grandparents,parents,uncles,andaunts)inordertogetaroundthetaboo of usingpersonalnameswhenspeaking of ordirectlyaddressingtheserelatives.Thesetermsmarknotonlyone'sgenealogicalpositionbutalsodifferentiatebe-tweenelderandyoungermembers of asinglegeneration.However,whileseveraldifferentrelationsmaybedesignatedbyasingleterm (e. g.,aman'selderbrother,hisfather'selderbrother'sson,andhismother'ssister'seldersonmayallbere.ferredtobythetermuiniegi),othertermsorqualifiersareusedtomarkmorespecificallytheactualrelationship of therelativewhennecessary.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Mailumarriagesarearrangedthroughbe-trothal,oftenwhenthegirlisstillquiteyoungbutusuallywhenshehasreachedhermid-teens.Theboy'sfamilypro-videsaseries of gifts of increasingvalueovertime,andbothfamiliesparticipateinroughlyequivalentfoodexchanges.Uponbetrothal,boththeboyandgirlareexpectedtoremaincelibate-anaffairbyeitheroneissufficienttonullifythebe-trothal.Bride-wealthispaidinpigs,tobacco,andotheritems of locallyrecognizedwealth.Sincepigscanonlybegivenawayatfeasts,atsomepointpriortotheactualmarriagethecontractingparents of thebetrothedpairwillusetheocca-sion of amadunatomakethisgift.Marriageitselfisnotmarkedbyelaborateceremony:thebridepreparesamealforherbetrothedinhisfather'shouse,thenreturnstoherownforaninterval of aboutaweek.Afterthattime,themarriagemaybeconsummated,andthebrideleavesherfamilyhometoliveinherfather-in-law'shouse,assumingmembershipinhisclan.Withmarriage,amanentersintoavoidancerela-tionswithcertain of hiswife'skin,mostparticularlywithheroldersister.Polygynyispermittedbutrarelypracticed,duetothegreatexpense of pig-basedbride-wealthentailedbymar-riage.Adulteryisconsideredagrievousoffenseforbothmenandwomen,butthepunishment of anadulterouswife-ase-verebeating,evendeath-isfarmoreonerousthanthepubliccensureandgossipthatservesaspunishmentforaman'sadultery.Divorceappearstobepossiblebutrare.Inheritance.Personalornamentsandwealthareinheritedbyaman's'real,"asopposedtohisclassificatory,brothers.Hiscoconutpalmsarepassedtohisbrothersandhissons.Theownership of ahousepassestotheeldestsurvivingson.Womendonotholdorinheritproperty,exceptincaseswhereawoman'sfatherdieswithoutsons.Socialization.Duringtheirearlyyears,Mailuchildrenarecaredforbytheirmothersandotherfemalemembers of thehousehold.Childrenenjoyagreatdegree of independence,rarelybeingcorrectedorchastisedandgenerallybeingleftfreetoindulgeingamesandsport.Boysaregivenminiatureboats,similarindesigntothoseusedbytheireldersontheseas,andtheyarealsoprovidedwithsmallversions of hunt-ingandfishingnetsandspears.Forbothboysandgirls,earlytrainingintheiradultrolesisacquiredbyobservingtheireld-ersattheirdailytasksandbyhelpingoutwhentheypossesssufficientskillandinterest,thisparticipationisallowedtode-velopatitsownpace.Bothboysandgirlshavetheirears(and,formerly,thenasalseptum)piercedshortlyafterbirth.Atabouttheage of 4,girlsbegintoundergothelongprocess of bodytattooing,whichculminateswhentheyhaveattainedmarriageableagewiththetattooing of theirfaces-doneinconjunctionwithwomen-onlyfeasts.Maleinitiation,whichoncewasanimportantritualeventandrequiredtheacquisi-tion of humanheadsduringaraid,isnolongerpracticed.In-fanticideispracticedwhentwinsareborn-theyoungertwinMejbrat195MejbratETHNONYMS:Brat,Mejprat,MeybratOrientationIdendfication.TheMejbratareswiddencultivators of theBird'sHeadPeninsula of IrianJaya.Locaion.Mejbratterritoryislocatedintheinland of theBird'sHeadPeninsula,inamixedriverineandlacustrinere-gionsomedistancefromthecoast.Therearefourminorlakesintheregion,eachsurroundedbyamarshygrasslandzonewhichisitselfencircledbyahilly,secondary-forestzone.Be-yondthisforestbeltthereismountainoushighcountry,denselycoveredwithprimary-growth,tropicalrainforestveg-etation.Theinhabitedportions of Mejbratterritoryarecriss-crossedwithpathsthatlinksettlementsanddottedwithswiddengardens.Demography.RecentpopulationfiguresfortheMejbrataredifficulttocomeby,buttherewere16,000Mejbratspeak-ersestimatedin1956.LinguisticAffiliation.Brat,withsevendialects,isamem-ber of theCentralBird'sHeadFamily of Non-Austronesianlanguages.Thelanguageappearstohavebeenmuchinflu-encedbyMalay,introducedthroughMoluccantradersintheregionasearlyasthe1600s.HistoryandCulturalRelationsIndirectcontactwithpeoplesnotindigenoustotheregionoccurredasearlyasthesixteenthcentury,whenthefirstMo-luccantradersarrivedtoseekslavesandlocallyavailablespices(principallynutmeg).TheDutcharrivedonthepenin-sulaatthestart of theseventeenthcentury.Itwasnotuntilthe1 920 s,however,thatanysort of governmentpresencewasdirectlyfeltintheMejbratterritory,andsustainedprograms of governmentintervention-organizingtheinhabitantsintoregisteredkampongsorvillages-didnotoccuruntil1934.Thisprocess of villageformationcontinueduntilwellintothe1950sbeforeitwascompleted.Thelargest of thesekampongshadaschoolthatdoubledasthelocalmissionchurch,andtheschoolteachers-IndonesianorPapuan-diddoubledutyasmissionaries.Most of Mejbratterritorywasmission-izedbytheProtestantchurch,buttheeasternportion of theareabecameCatholic.Thereislittleinformationavailablere-gardingthehistoryandculturalrelations of precontacttimes,butitseemssafetosaythattherewastradebothwithintheMejbratterritoryandbetweenMejbratandnon-Mejbrat.SettlementsKampongformationwasintendedtointroducenucleatedset-tlements of severalMeibrathouseholdseach,withdwellingsfacingoneanotheracrossacentralroadorpathand,insomecases,associatedwithalocalchurch-school,buttodaytheseartificialvillagesaregenerallyuninhabitedorsparselypopu-lated.Mejbrattraditionalsettlementsconsist of scatteredhomesteads,eachlocatedclosetoitsassociatedswiddengar-densandalllooselycenteredonaregional'spirithouse,"thelocationwherethefoundingspiritwasthoughttohaveemergedfrombeneaththeground.Mejbratdwellingsarewood-framed,pandanus-thatched,andbuiltonstilts.Mejbratdonotbuildseparatemen'shouses.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialAcDivities.Mejbratsubsist-encedependsheavilyuponthecultivation of taro,theprinci-palcrop,whichisgrownalongwithyamsandsweetpotatoesintheswiddengardens.Most of thepeople'sproteinneedsaremetbygatheringgrubsandlarvae,locusts,lizards,snails,frogs,eggs,birds,andmice.TheMejbrathuntwithblowgunsandspears,killingflyingfoxes,wildboars,opossums,andkangaroos,butthemeatgainedfromhuntingisusedprimar-ilyinceremonialexchange,ratherthanconstitutingamajorpart of theday-to-daydiet.Fishinginthelakesandriversismoreimportantinsomeregionsthaninothers,dependingupontheavailability of fish.Itismostimportantforthepeo-plelivingnearthethreecentrallakes of theterritory,fortheselakeshavebeenstockedbytheterritorialgovernment.Fish-ingisdonewithpoison,withtrapsindammedrivers,andwithbaitedlines,aswellaswithspears.Nonsubsistenceculti-vationfeaturestheintroducedcashcrops of groundnuts,greenpeas,andbeans.Maizehaslongbeengrownasatradecropinthenorthernparts of theregion.Trade.Throughouttheirknownhistory,Mejbratpeopleshaveparticipatedinextraregionaltrade.Moluccantradersbroughtbushknives,blacksugar,rice,and-mostimpor-tantly-dothtotheregionfromwhichtheysoughtlocalbark,nutmeg,andslaves.Thistradewasbymeans of 'ad-vancepayment"-thetradegoodswereleftforlocalconsider-ation,tobecompensatedforbylaterdelivery of thedesiredlocalgoods.BythetimethattheDutcharrivedintheseven-teenthcenturythistradingsystemwasalreadyinplace,andtheyintroducedfinercloth -of cotton-aswellaschinawareandirontotheinventory of itemsimportedintotheregion.Bythenineteenthcenturygongsandglassbeads,aswellasgunsandopium,hadalsobeenintroducedintothelocaltradesystem.Tradewithintheregioncenteredonceremonialexchange,conductedundertheauspices of feastcycles.Theprincipalform of wealthcirculatedinteriorlyiswoven,pat-ternedcloth.IndustrialArts.Items of localmanufactureincludebarkcloth,generallyembroideredaccordingtopatternsfoundonimportedcloth,stringbags,andthebasictoolsandutensilsusedingardening,hunting,andfishing:diggingsticks,blow-guns,fishtraps,fishinglines,andthelike.Menweavedecora-tivearmbands.Housesaremade of woodframeswithpan-danus-leafthatching.Damsarebuilt of brush.Division of Labor.Mendotheheaviertasksinhousebuilding:preparingthewoodframesandattachingthethatch.Women,however,preparethepandanus-leafbundlesusedinthatching.Whilebothmenandwomenworkatpre-paringgardenlandsbyburningoffthegroundcover,onlymenbuildtheswiddenfences,andthebulk of actualgarden-ingchoresfalltowomen.Mendamriversandpreparethepoisonusedinfishing,butasidefromspearfishing,whichisdonebybothmenandwomen,itisthewomenalonewhofishwithlines,spreadthefishpoison,collectthestunnedfish,andusethefishtraps.Hunting-withsnares,spears,orblow-guns-isdoneonlybymen.Gatheringactivitiesareconsid-Mardudiara181mosthouseholdsprovidefoodandshelterforashiftingnum-berandrange of relatives.Inheritance.Materialpossessionswereminimal,andweregenerallyburiedwithapersonupondeath;today,theyareburnedorgivenawaytodistantrelatives,andhouses,orareassurroundingthedeceased'scamp,arevacatedformonthsoryearsatatimefollowingadeath.Socialiation.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbyparents,siblingsandotherclosecoresidentrelatives;grandparentstypicallyplayanimportantroleassocializers.Childrentendtobegreatlyindulgedbyadultsandcanalwaysgetmoneyandfoodfromawiderange of relatives.Freedfromthenecessity of observingkinshiprules,theyspendmuchtimeatplayinlargegroups.Traditionally,theyspentmoretimewithwomen,whomtheyaccompaniedonfood-gatheringexpedi-tions.Today,mostattendschoolfromtheage of 5or6,butthisrequirementisfrequentlybreached.Attheonset of theteenageyears,thefortunes of boysandgirlsbegintodivergedramatically.Thetransition of girlsintowivesandmothersisunmarkedbyritual,whereasboysenteruponaprotractedandrituallyhighlyelaboratedprocessthattransformsthemintoadults.Thisculturallyveryimportanttransitiontakesabout15yearsfromthefirstphysicaloperations,suchasnosepierc-ing,tothefinalstagesprecedingfirstmarriage,whichoccursinthelatetwentiesandmarkstheyoungmanassociallyadult.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrpnizatio.Families,bands,estategroups,and'bigmeetings"(periodicaggregations of peoplefromanum-ber of neighboringdialect-namedterritories,whomettocon-ductritualandotherbusiness)werethemajorelements of so-cialorganizationtraditionally.Thesewerecrosscutbyamultiplicity of memberships(totemic,kin-based,ritual-grade,etc.),includingmoietiesandsections,whichweldeddesertsocietytogether.Today,thefamiliesandthe'bigmeet-ings"remainimportantinstitutions,buttheyexistparalleltointroducedformssuchascommitteesandcouncils.PoliticalOrganiztion.Informertimes,politicalactionwasthedomain of smallgroups,andsexandagewerethemaincriteriafordifferentiation.Althoughthestatus of womenwaslowerthanthat of men,anegalitarianethospre-vailed,andleadershipwasverymuchcontext-dependentandchangeable.Most of thetime,thenorms of kinshipprovidedanadequateframeworkforsocialactionandtheallocation of roles.Thesocialandpoliticalautonomy of thetraditionalbandandestategrouphasbeenreplacedbyencapsulationandminoritystatuswithinthenation-stateandtheintroduc-tion of Western-styleinstitutionssuchaselectionsandcoun-cils.HighmobilityandinvolvementinregionallandcouncilsreflectacontinuinginterestinthewiderWesternDesertsoci-etyas"allonepeople,"andtheMarduspendmuchtimeandeffortmaintainingthesecontacts.Politically,theyremainde-pendentongovernmentsforsurvivalandonWhiteadvisersforassistanceindealingwiththebureaucracies of Australiansociety.Inthepastfewyears,however,therehasbeenamarkedincreaseinMardupoliticalawarenessandconfidenceindealingwithoutsiders.SocialControl.Traditionalsocialcontrolsreliedheavilyonahighlevel of self-regulation,butphysicalsanctionswereinvokedonoccasion.Westerninfluenceshaveseriouslyun-derminedthesecontrolsinthecontactsituation.Forexam-ple,spearingandotherforms of physicalpunishmenthaveoccasionedpoliceinterventionsandarrests of "lawful"pun-ishers;unprecedentednumbers of childrenhaveledtoprob-lems of vandalism;thereisanincreasingincidence of mar-riagebetweenimproperlyrelatedpartners;andyoungwomenhavesuccessfullyresistedattemptstomarrythemofftotheirbetrothedpartners.Alcoholhascontributedgreatlytoaloos-ening of traditionalsocialcontrols,anduncontrolledvio-lence(aswellasdrunkendriving)hasledtomanydeaths.Conflict.Conflictwascloselycontrolledtraditionally,andtheritualizedsettlement of disputeswasavitalpreliminarytoevery"bigmeeting."Today,addingtolesseasilycontrolledintracommunityconflictsarepoliticalstruggles,mostlywithminingcompaniesbutalsowithaneighboringAboriginalgroupthathaslongsought,unsuccessfully,tobringtheMarduunderitscontrol.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Religion,likekinship,ispervasiveinAboriginalsociety.Foundedonthenotion of acreativeera,nowcommonlyknownas"theDreaming,"wheneverythingcameintobeingandtherulesforlifewereinstitutedbyances-tralbeings,religionisembodiedinthelandscape,myths,ritu-als,songlines,andsacredparaphernalia.Lifewasprofoundlyunderspiritualauthority,butprayersandworshiphadnoplace.Mencontrolledthemostpowerful,innersecrets,andritualperformancewasbelievedtoensurethecontinuance of society,underthewatchfuleyes of all-powerful,butwith-drawn,spiritualbeings.Theircontinuedrelease of lifeforceintothephysical world washeldtobedependentontheproperobservance of "theLaw"(theirlegacytotheliving,intheform of ablueprintfortheproperconduct of sociallife)andthecorrectperformance of ritual.Totemismprovidedeachindividualwithdirectanduniquelinksintotherealm of theDreamingandwereimportantintheformationandmain-tenance of identity.DespiteintensivecontactwithWhitesandadiminutioninthefrequency of ritualactivities,beliefsinthereality of thetraditionalreligionremainstrongamongMardu,andallyoungmencontinuetobeinitiatedintoitsse-crets.Beliefsinarange of benevolentandmalevolentspiritsremainstrong,andMarduretainstrongfears of traveltodis-tantareaswhosespiritsdonotknowthemandthereforearelikelytobedangerous.Asmallminority of MarduprofessChristianbeliefs,butnonetotheexclusion of thetraditionalreligion.ReligiousPractitioners.VirtuallyallMarduparticipateinaspects of thereligiouslife,andwhiledifferentritualcom-plexesinvolvedifferentrolesorgrades,therearenospecialistpractitioners.Ceremonies.Thetraditionallyrichceremoniallife,much of whichincludedallcommunitymembers,nowhastocom-petewithmanyotherdistractions.Itisnowmoreseasonal,andmost"bigmeetings"areheldintheveryhotsummerper-iod.Somekinds of ceremonyarenolongerperformed,butthosesurroundingmaleinitiationremainassignificantasever,andgenerallyinvolveseveralhundredAboriginesfromwidelyseparatedcommunities.Ceremonialactivitiesarestill1 72 MandakCeremonies.Ceremoniallifefocusesonmortuaryfeasts, of whichtherearevariousforms,including:theburial of ade-ceasedindividual;latermortuaryfeastsrelevanttoasingledeceasedindividual;andlarge-scaleclan-sponsoredmortuaryceremoniesinvolvingdancesanddistribution of pigs,taro,andsweetpotatoes.Malaganceremoniesoccurinthisarea,althoughunevenlysincethe1950s.Malaganreferstobothamaterialobject-carvedwoodorwoven;mask,figure,orfrieze-anditsattendantrituals,usuallyaspart of alarge-scalemortuaryceremony.Arts.Themajorartisticfocushereinvolvesmalaganpro-ductions.Men'sorwomen'ssongsandaccompanyingdancesareimportantfeatures of finalmortuaryceremonies.DeathandAfterlife.TheMandaksubscribetoavariety of beliefsconcerningdeathandafterlife,fromChristiandoc-tinestopre-Christianbeliefs.Inregardtothelatter,anindi-vidual'sspiritbecomeseitherarestless,roamingspiritiftheindividualdiedaviolentdeath(asfromsorcery,accident,murder)or...

... one'sclan,sothataboriginalSelepetsocietywashighlyfragmentedintowarringfactions.Withthearrival of Europeanscamepeace,agreaterfreedom of movement,andanincreasedawareness of otherpeoples,sothatloyaltyhasbeenextendedtoincreas-inglyinclusivesociopoliticalgroups.Todaythepeopleseektonegotiateratherthanresorttoviolence.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBelied.Thecentralconcepts of Selepetreligionwerepowerandcontrol,andtheseideasweretheexclusiveconcern of men.Powerexistedapartfrommen,sothattheycontinuallysoughttoincreasetheirpower,eithersupernatur-allyfromsnakesorbykeepingartifactsformerlybelongingtopowerfulancestors.Menmaintainedcontroloverpeoplethroughtheexchangesystem,sinceeverygiftputtherecipi-entunderanobligationtoreciprocatewhencalledupon.Thisobligationwastrue of thedeadaswellastheliving.Thebody of adeceasedmanwasburiedverticallyunderthemen'shousewiththetop of theheadexposed.Thisenabledpeopletorubhisskull,remindhim of hiskinshipobligations,andaskforprosperity.Eventuallytwoverypowerfulmendied,andtheirsurvivorscarvedwoodenstatuestorepresentthem.Foodwasplacedatthefeet of thestatuesandtheancestorswereimploredtoblessthelivingwithfertilityandprosperity.ThiscustombecameritualizedandspreadthroughouttheSamoa 28 7explorerJacobRoggeveen,thoughhedidnotlandthere.Inabout1800someisolatedEuropeansailorsandescapedcon-victssettledonSamoa,bringingwiththemthefirstnotion of Christianity.In1830,themissionaryJohnWilliams of theLondonMissionarySociety(LMS)landedinSavai'iduringapowerstruggleamongfactions,bringingwithhimnativePolynesianmissionariesfromTahitiandtheCookIslands.ThefirstpermanentEuropeanmissionariesarrivedin1835(LMSandMethodists),followedbyRomanCatholicpriestsin1845.Duringthenineteenthcentury,Germany,GreatBritain,andtheUnitedStatesstroveforinfluenceamongthediverseSamoanfactions.In1900,WesternSamoabecameaGermancolony(until1914)andEasternSamoawasclaimedbytheUnitedStates.From1914to19 62, NewZealandad-ministeredWesternSamoa,whichbecameanindependentstatein19 62, withkingsMalietoaTanumafili11andTupuaTamaseseMea'oleservingasjointheads of state.Before World WarII,administrativepoliciesbytheNewZealandad-ministrationledtothe'Mau,"aresistancemovement(1 926 - 1936)thatmusteredthesupport of about90percent of theSamoanpopulationatitsheight.AmericanSamoaremainsaUnitedStatesterritory.Afterconstitutionalchanges,PeterTabColemanbecamethefirstelectednativeSamoangover-norin1977.SettlementsTheSamoanshavebeenmainlyacoast-dwellingpeoplelivinginself-governing,autonomoustowns(nu'u)linkedbypoliti-calandceremonialalliances.Householdscenteronthesa-credcentralplacemalea) of eachnu'uwheretherankinghighchief'sassemblyhouseisalsosituated.Townpopula-tionsrangebetween300and1 ,20 0personsandaverage450to600persons.Inthemiddle of thelastcentury,townpopu-lationsaveraged 20 0to500persons.However,acensustaken of twenty-twotownsinthedistrict of Aana,WesternUpolu,Manono,andApolimain1867showsthattownpopulationsrangedbetween40and310personsonly,themeanbeing164persons.Inthenineteenthcentury,therewereafewinlandsettlements,too.Inrecentyears,therehasbeenatendencytogiveupsettlementsalongthecoastandtoshifttownstonewlybuiltroadsfartherinland.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheSamoansarehorticulturalists,raisingtubers(taroandyams)onaswiddenbasis.Theyalsogrowbananas,breadfruit,andcoco-nutsandsupplementtheirdietthroughfishing.Theyraisechickensandpigs,too,butporkisreservedasaspecialfoodforceremonialoccasions.Huntingforrunawaypigsisstillpracticedwiththehelp of dogs,butit'sprobablydonemoreforsportthanforfood.Pigeonsnaringalsoformerlyservedasanentertainmentandasasportingevent.Terracingandirri-gationarenotpracticed.Therearesmallhousegardensforraisingstaplefoodsintheback of thehouseholds,butthemaintarogardensoftenlie 3-4 kilometersfartherinland.Theprimarycultigensaretaroandbreadfruit.ContactwithEuropeansresultedintheaddition of newsorts of bananasandvegetables,whicharegrowntodaymainlybythesmallChinesepopulationforconsumptionandsale.ManySamoanfamiliesearnasmallincomebysellingcoconutstotheWest.ernSamoanTrustEstateCorporation,whichdoesthepro-cessing.Therearemanysmallfamilybusinesses,shops,andguesthouses,themajority of theminApia,thecapital of WesternSamoa.Inmanylocalcommunitiesthereisasmallshopwherelocalscanbuyalimitedrange of products,many of themimported.IndustrialArts.Aboriginalcraftsincludedthemaking of barkcloth,housebuilding,boatbuilding,andtattooing.Housebuilders,boatbuilders,andtattooerswereorganizedinguilds.Theymetthedemands of prestigeconsumption,sincesmallboatsandhouseswereandarebuiltbythemalemembers of eachhousehold.Matweavingispracticedbywomen.Trade.Therewasonlyalimitedamount of interregionaltradeinprecontacttimes.Samoanfinemats('ietoga)wereexchangedforparrotsandredparrotfeathersfromTongaandsometimesfromFiji.Intraregionaltrade,too,waslim-ited.Someregionsandplaceswerenotedfortheirproducts,suchasnets,whicharesaidtohavebeenmademostlybytownsintheinterior.Someplaceswerenotedfortheirboats,adzes,andkavabowls.AftercontactwiththeEuropeans,trade of coconutproducts(oilandcopra)wasencouragedbythemissionaries,butitbecamearegularandimportantactiv-ityonlyaftertheGermanfirm of GodeffroyandSonfromHamburgfoundedabranchinApia,WesternSamoa,in1857.TraderswerestationedinSamoaandonotherPacificislands,buttherewasalsodirecttradingwiththeSamoans.In1865,thefirmestablisheditsfirstcoconutplantations.Today,WesternSamoaisdependentonthe world market,itsthreemostimportantexportitemsbeingcopra,cocoa,andbananas.WesternSamoangovernmentsseektopromotetourism,andbeerbrewingmaydevelopintoaprofitableen-terprise,atleastfortheregionalmarket.Division of Labor.Mendothemorestrenuousagricul-turalwork,suchasclearingandplantingwithapointedhard-wooddiggingstick,whilewomenmayweedandhelpinhar-vestactivities.Menareresponsibleforfishingbeyondthereefandforcooking;theyengageintoolmaking,houseandboatbuilding,andornamentmaking.Womenlookafterthehousehold,raisethechildren,andplaitmatsandfans;for-merlytheyalsomadebarkcloth.Theycollectediblewildplantstosupplementthedietandtheyforageinthelagoonandreefforsmallseaanimals.LandTenure.Aboriginally,thewidestsocialunitforlandownershipwasthecommunity(nu'u).Itsdomainin-cludedalltheterritoryfromthecentralmountainridgetothereef.Theheads(matai) of thedifferentdescentgroups('aiga) of thecommunitywereentitledtoclaimblocks of landforthemselvesandtheirdependents.Overallauthorityoverlands,however,wasvestedinthecouncil of matai(fono),whosememberscouldrevokeownership of therespective'aiga.Individualshadtherighttooccupyandcultivatetheland of thedescentgrouptowhichtheybelonged.WhenWesternSamoabecameindependent,80.5percent of itster-ritorywasstillconsideredcustomaryland,administeredout-sidethestatutelawinaccordancewithtraditionalprinciples of tenure;3.7percent of thelandwasfreehold;11.3percentwasgovernmentland;andtheWesternSamoanTrustEstateCorporationowned4.5percent.AmericanSamoa,too,hasprovisionsthatrestrictownership of landtoSamoans. 29 8Sengsengtomatically.Muchapparentlyreligiousbehavior,suchasthetreatment of bones of thedead,isonlyvaguelyandinconsis-tentlyexplainedinterms of spiritualbeings.Characteristic of allsouthwestNewBritainisthesacralization of fire,which,becauseitenablespeopletocookfood,isconsideredtobethebasis of humansurvival.Oathsareswornonit,itisusedtobreakupfightsandtomakesitestaboo,anditmustbetreatedwithrespect;seriousburnsfollowbreaches of taboo.ReligiousPractitioners.Specialistspracticegardenmagic,magictocontroltheweather,andmanytypes of cur-ing,forwhichtheyarepaidiftheyarenotworkingfordosekin.Afewmenclaimtobeabletoinjureandkillthroughsor-cery,butmostsorcerersarethoughttobeanonymousfor-eigners,especiallyKaulongspeakers.Mostmenknowsomelovemagic,minorgardenspells,andmagictoinducedebtorstopayup.Ceremonies.Themostimportantcenteronblackeningtheteeth of adolescentboys(tomakethemlookattractive),thekilling of pigswithcirculartusks,funerals,andthedeco-rationandhonoring of theskulls of deadmen.Insomevil-lages,maskedfiguresappearperiodically:formerly,theychasedandbeatwomenandchildren,buttoday,nowthatvi-olencehasbeenforbiddenbythegovernment,theysimplycollectfinesforoffenses.Art.Music,especiallysong,isthemajorartform,lovedandconstantlyindulgedinbyeveryone.Decorativeartsareminimal;onekind of designiscarvedonallshields,andan-otherispaintedonallbarkdoth.Atdances,mensimplysing,drum,andbeatspearsagainsttheirshields;onlywomenactu-allydance.Medicine.Allrespiratorydiseaseinmenisblamedonpol-lutionbyfemales:thepeoplebelievethatgirlsandwomenshouldneverbephysicallyhigherthanmen(i .e. ,theyshouldneverstandoverorsitabovemen).Specialcuresexistforres-piratoryconditionsandareusedbybothsexes.Otherail-mentsareblamedonsorcery,breach of ataboo,andsoulloss,thelastespeciallyifasleeperisstartledawake.Nonmagicalcuresareusedforminorailments.Westernmedicineismuchdesiredbutusuallyonlyavailableatadistantaidpoststaffedbyamedicalorderlypaidbythegovernment.DeathandAfterlife.Traditionally,awomanwasstran-gledandburiedwithherhusbandinordertoaccompanyhimtotheafterlife.Occasionally,awomanwaskilledtoaccom-panyadeadchild.Burialwasunderthefloor of themen'shouse,whichcontinuedtobeoccupied(stillthecaseininte-riorvillagesin1981).Nearthecoast,thedeadareburiedinseparatecemeteries,butpigsarestillkilled,growingtaroiscutup,andoneormorefruittreesarecutdown,alltosupplythedeadintheafterlife.Mostarguethataftertheghost,ac-companiedbyotherghosts,reachestheland of thedeadintheinterior,itshowsnofurtherinterestintheliving,thoughitmayattackandeatanyhumanbeingsmetontheway.Buttherearecontradictorybeliefsinghoststhatliveincertainplaces,especiallycaves,nearvillages,wheretheyduplicatetheactivities of theliving.Ghostsmayalsobesummonedbyrituals,especiallyonetype of gardenmagic.Sometimesanas-piringleaderexhumesaman'sskullandholdsceremoniesoverit.Theseritualsbringgoodlucktothepeople of theset-tlement,butSengsengdisagreeas ... Siwai303ressSocietywasestablishedtomarketcocoa,copra,andotherlocalcommodities;thesocietygrewrapidlyinthe1960sand1970sbutcollapsedasindividualproducerstradeddi-rectlywitheastcoastwholesalers.Mostvillageshaveatleastonetradestore.Division of labor.Horticulturewasandiswomen'swork,andwomenworkedinthegardensfourtimesasmuchasmenintheearlydecades of thiscentury.Menspentsometimeinthegardens,undertookarduousclearingactivities,hunted,wereresponsibleforgardenmagic,andorganizedceremonialactivities.Theintroduction of sweetpotatoesreducedthene-cessityforlonghours of horticulturalworkforthewomen.Cashcropsbecamemaleactivities,gardenmagicdisap-peared,andtimespentonceremonialactivitiesdeclined.ManymenandsomewomenarenowemployedinsideSiwai,butevenmore of thepeopleworkoutsideSiwaiatthemineandinthetowns.landTenure.ThroughoutSiwai,landisownedbymatri-lineages.Everymatrilineageownsfullorresidualrightstotracts of gardenlandorpotentialgardenlandandmostmatri-lineagesclaimownership of moredistanthuntingareasorfishingstreams.Landwassoldincertainexceptionalcircum-stances,andsomeraretracts of landarenowindividuallyowned.Menconductedagriculturalactivitiesontheirwives'land,andhighlevels of cross-cousinmarriagepreviouslyen-suredtheintegrity of tracts of matrilineageland.Highpopu-lationdensities,nontraditionalmarriage,andcocoacultiva-tionhaveincreasedthecomplexity of landtenureandinheritance.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Siwaisocietyisdividedintomanymatrilineages,butmostvillagesareprimarilycomposed of twomatrilineageswhosemembershavebeenmarryingeachotherforgenerations.Suchintermarryingmatrilineagesbecomelocaldescentgroups.Mostmatrilineagesproducetheirownstores of wealthandtheirownparticulartracts of land.Thereisregularinteractionbetweenmatrilineagemembers.KinshipTerminology.Siwaikinshipterminologyissimi-lartootherterminologiesthathavebeenlabeledDravidian,characterizedastwo-sectionsystems,andassociatedwithbi-lateralcross-cousinmarriageandsisterexchange.Genealogi-calknowledgeisveryshallow.Therearefewstrictlyaffinalterms.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Inthetraditionalmarriagesystem,matriline-ageswereoftenpairedandbothmatrilateralandpatrilateralcross-cousinmarriagewerestronglyfavored.Marriagestomembers of thesamematrilineagewereforbiddenandhavenotoccurred.Inthepast,polygynywasnotuncommonandleadersoccasionallyhadseveralwives.Itisrareincontempo-rarySiwai.Divorcewascommonandwidowsandwidowersnormallyremarried.Althoughcross-cousinmarriageswithinvillagesremaincommon,manymarriagesarenowcontractedbetweenSiwaisandmembers of otherlinguisticgroupsfromotherparts of thecountryorevenbeyond.Postmaritalresi-dencewasinitiallyvirilocal,butlateritoftenshiftedtoavun-culocaloruxorilocal.DomesticUnit.Mosthouseholdsarenuclearfamilies;ex-tendedhouseholdsareveryrare.Youthsoftensleepinsepa-ratehousesfromtheirparents.Inheritance.Personaleffectsareusuallyinheritedbytheoldestson.Untilveryrecentlysuchgoodshavebeenfewandinconsequential.Socialization.Childrenarenormallytreatedwithaffec-tionateindulgencebytheirparentsanddiscipliningisoftenineffective.Punishmentandrewardsarenormallyverbal.Conflictsbetweenchildren,especiallybrothers,aremorecommonthandisputesandconflictswithparents,whoareaccordedconsiderablerespect.Primaryschooleducationisnoweffectivelyuniversalandmanychildrengoontosec-ondaryandtertiaryeducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Inprecontacttimesagecarriedsomestatusbutthegreateststatuswasheldbytraditionalleadersorbig-men(mumi),thegreatest of whominthepresentcenturywasSoni of Tutuguanvillage.Leadershipwasachievedthroughacquiringwealthandrenown,whichresultedfromindustriousness,charisma,acumen,diplomacy,andkinshipsupport.Leadersnormallyacquiredwealthinpigs,land,andalsowives,throughvariousexchanges,andthroughforms of redistribution,usuallyinassociationwithfuneraryfeasts.Othermenhadvariousdegrees of renownandprestige,buttherewasnoformalrankingsystem.Womenhadsubstantialauthorityprincipallyintheirownproductiveandritualareas;womenwerenotrecognizedastraditionalleadersintheirownright.Inthepostwaryears,thoughsomemenarestillrecog-nizedastraditionalleaders,leadershipitselfhastakenonnewforms,asbusinessmenandpoliticianshaveacquireddifferentspheres of operationandfeastinghasbecomegenerallylesssubstantialandsignificantineverydaylife.Manymenareoftenabsentfromthevillagesforlongperiods of time.Theeconomicindependence of womenhaslessenedasthecasheconomyhasbecomemoreimportant.PolidialOrganiation.InprecontacttimeSiwaiwasnotatribalgroupinanysenseotherthanlinguistically.Inthepre-waryears,theadministrationappointedindividualsineachvillagetoliaisewithadministrationofficials,butSiwaionlybecameaneffectivepoliticalunitinthe1960swiththeestab-lishment of alocalgovernmentcouncil.Otherwise,Siwaiwasstilldividedintosevendistricts,anditeffectivelyrevertedtoitsformerdecentralizedpoliticalorganizationinthe1970swiththeestablishment of communitygovernmentstoreplacethelocalgovernmentcouncil.Mostvillagesnowhavetheirowncouncils.Siwaielectstwomembers of theNorthSolomonsProvincialGovernmentandispart of thenationalSouthBougainvilleconstituency.SocialControl.Inearliertimes,leadersweretheprincipalmeans of socialcontrolandacquiredrenownpartlythroughtheirabilitytoachievethis.Inthe1 920 s,theadministrationappointedvillageheadmentoassisttheadministrationinachievinglawandorder,however,exceptfornewoffenses,theirauthoritywaslessthanthat of traditionalleaders.Amoremodemcourtsystemevolvedalongsidethelocalgov-emmentcouncilbutwasreplacedbymoretraditionalvillagecourtsworkingwithcommunitygovernments.Serious of- fensesareconsideredattheprovinciallevel.Traditionallead-SantaCruz 29 1bers,barkcloth,acurrencymade of fibersandredfeathers,andpersonalornamentsmadefromavariety of materials.Since World WarIIthemanufacture of localproductshasrapidlydeclined,asgoodsimportedfromtheindustrial world, andcashtopurchasethem,havebecomeincreasinglyavailable.Trade.Asmentioned,themostconspicuousfeature of traditionalNend6economywasintra-andinterislandtrade,inwhichprofitandtheamassing of wealthwerethemainob,jectives.Sincethetradeconcernedthedistributon of locallyproducedcommodities,ithasallbutdisappearedasim-ported,industriallyproducedgoodshavedisplacedlocalproducts.Feathercurrency,theformermedium of exchangefortrade,hasalsonearlydisappeared.Division of Labor.Womendomost of thegardeningandcollecting of reefproducts;menlookafterorchards,fish,hunt,andcollectintheforests;bothsexestendpigs.Untilthe1930stherewasmuchspecialization of laborwithrespecttotheproduction of commoditiesandperformance of skilledservices.Everymaturemanwasexpectedtohaveaneco-nomicspecialty,bymeans of whichheearnedwealththatcouldbeaccumulatedandstoredinfeathercurrency.Womencouldalsohaveeconomicspecialties.Suchspecializationhasallbutdisappeared.Menleavetheislandtoworkforwagesandprocesscopraforcash.LandTenure.Landthathasbeenimprovedandused'be-longs"totheuser.Suchuserightscanbeloaned,rented,givenaway,andtransmittedbyinheritance,butonlyrecentlycouldtheybesoldformonetarygaintoanotherindividual.Landrightsthathavelapsedbyfailuretoexercisethemreverttocorporateownershipbyadistrict.Withdistrictconsent,anindividualmayconvertcorporateownership of designatedplotstoexclusivepersonaluserightsbyimprovingorusingtheland.Rightsoverreefsandlagoonsarecorporatelyheldbydistricts;men'sassociationscontrolthecanoepassagesthatservetheirclubhouses.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Therearethreekinds of kingroupsonNend6:domesticgroups;disperseddescentgroups(sibs);andmen'sassociations.Amen'sassociationcanbestartedbyanyadultmanwhowishestoformoneforhissonsand,often,hisbrothersandtheirsons.Someassociationsflourishandgrow;somedonot.Intime,thosethatflourishwillincludedistantagnates,affines,andevennonkin,buttheconsanguinealideologyremains.Overmost of Nend5,indi-vidualsareaffiliatedwithnonlocalized,exogamous,usuallytotemic,matrilinealdescentgroups(sibs).Insomeareassibsarearrangedintomatrimoieties.InseveraldistrictsaroundGraciosaBay,thedescentprincipleispatrilineal,butindivid-ualsareoftenunsure of theiraffiliations.Inonedistrictonthesouthcoastdescentisnotrecognized,althoughitisbe-lievedthatmatrilinywasformerlytherule.KinshipTerminology.Kintermsvarybetweenspecialversions of HawaiianandIroquoistypes.Allterminologiesdistinguishtherelation of mother'sbrothertosister'schildfromotheravuncularrelationships.Insomelocalitiesthetermfor'sister"(asusedbyamalespeaker)isappliedtofa-ther'ssisterandfather'sfather'ssisterwiththelogicalconsequences.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Traditionally,allfirstcousinsweremarragea-ble,marriageswereusuallymonogamous,andalargebride-pricewas,andstillis,required.NendamenoftenimportwivesfromtheReefIslands,especiallyfromthepoorerPoly-nesian-spealdngcommunitiesthere.Sororalandnonsororalpolygynywerepermitted;polygynousunionsrarelyinvolvedmorethantwowives.Polygynyisnotpracticednow.For-merly,too,therewasapattern of collectiveconcubinage,whichwasalsoaform of femaleslavery,inwhichagroup of menjointlypurchasedawomanasasexpartnerandprosti-tute.Theprotectorategovernmentbannedthisconcubinagepatterninthelate1 920 s.Initialpostmaritalresidenceisusu-allyviripatrilocal,onlyoccasionallyuxorimatrilocal,butafterchildrenarebornresidenceoftenbecomesneolocal.Maritalseparationsarefrequent;divorcehasalwaysbeendifficult,ex-ceptincases of severeabuseandcontinuedadultery.DomesticUnit.Themostcommondomesticgroupisanuclearfamily,oftenaugmentedbyelderdependentrelatives of eitherthehusbandorwife.Smallpatrilocalextendedfami-liesexistforashortperiodwhenasonmarries.jointfamilies,consisting of thedomesticunits of brothersand/orclosemaleagnates,arecommon.Women of thesejointfamiliesassisteachotherwiththeirdomesticresponsibilities.Inheritance.Gardenandorchardplotsareusuallynotpartible,andtheycanbepassedontoeithermaleorfemaleheirs,butmostrealpropertygoestomales.Personalproperty,especiallyheirloomsandvaluables,areinheritedalonggenderlines:motherstodaughters,fatherstosons.Socialization.Boysandgirlsaresocializedseparatelyandquitedifferently.Fromanearlyage,girlsarerigorouslytrainedattheirmother'ssidetomastergardeninganddomes-ticskillsassoonastheycan.Atayoungageboysmoveawayfromtheirdwellingsandintodormitoriesormen'sassocia-tionhouses,andanavoidance of theirsistersandotherfe-malesisinvoked.Therearenoinitiationritesforeithersex,butatmarriagewomenundergoaformaltransitionfromminortoadultsocialstatus.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialO0ganization.Formerly,therewasamarkedsocialdichotomyandseparationbetweenmen'sandwomen'sspheres of life.Womenwerefocusedontheirgardensandhouseholds,menontheirspecializedskillsandmen'sassocia-tions.Underattackfrommissionandgovernmentalike,thisdivisionbygender,whichamountedtoageneralizedavoid-ance,hasgreatlylessenedoverthepastfewdecades.PoliticalOrganizaton.Traditionally,thebasicpoliticalunitwastheset of households(onetotwentyormore)whosemaleheadsbelongedtothesamemen'sassociation.Oneormoremen'sassociations,inalooseconfederation,formedavillage,andmostvillages,overtime,becameincorporatedtotheextentthattheycontrolledanddefendedaboundedterrntory.Suchwasthecorporatedistrict.Mostdistrictswerehos-tiletoeachother,butalliancesbetweenmen'sassociations of differentdistrictsmadeitpossibleformentocrosstheboundaries.Trademovedalongtheselines of men'sassocia-tionalliances,eachassociationagreeingtopurchaseandre-distributelocallyallthegoodsofferedbyanalliedassocia- 29 6.JC#&aGzIgxcultterrainandsparsepopulationisolatedmanyinteriorSengsengfromdirectcontactwiththeAustraliangovern-mentuntilthemid-1950s,thoughvillagersnearerthecoastcameundergovernmentinfluenceearlier.Followers of acargocultcenteredoutsideSengsengterritorypersuadedanumber of interiorpeopletomovenearerthecoastinthelate1950s,andthesevillagerswereconvertedtoRomanCatholi-cism.Sincethattimetheyalsohavebelongedtothesystem of localgovernmentcouncils,whereasinteriorvillagesstillhadasystem of government-appointedheadmenin1981.Mission-ariesbegantoworkintheinteriorabout1984.SettlementsSettlementsaretiny,usuallycontainingnomorethanadozenpeopleandoftenfewer.TheAustraliangovernmentes-tablishedofficialconsolidatedvillagesforcensuspurposesbuttheseplacesarerarelyinhabited.Asettlementcontainsamen'shouse,oneormorefamilyhouses,andafewtreessuchascoconutandbetelpalms.Untilwarfarewasforbidden,eachsettlementwaslocatedonahilltop,whichideallyfea-turedalargestranglerfigthatcouldbeclimbedifenemiesat-tacked.Womenusesheltersbuiltinthebushoutsidetheset-tlementwhilemenstruatingandgivingbirth.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Thestarchsta-pleistaro,butbecauseithasbeenaffectedbyablightsinceabout1960,maniochasbecomeincreasinglyimportant.Othercultigensincludebananas,variousgreens(especiallyHibiscusmanihot),yams,sugarcane,and,nearthecoast,sweetpotatoes.Because of atraditionalpattern of plantingasinglelargegardeninoneday,oftennotaroisavailableforlongperiods.ThentheSengsengrelyonwildfoods,particu-larlywildyams(Dioscoreaspp.)and,inseason,breadfruit.Year-round,perhaps50percent of theircaloriescomefromwildfoods.Coconutsdonotgrowwellintheinteriorandarereservedforfeasts.Domesticanimalsarelimitedtopigsanddogs.Whenapig'suppercaninesareremoved,theloweroneseventuallygrowinacompletecircle,andthekilling of suchatuckerisamajorevent.Domesticporkiseatenonlyatfeasts;mostproteincomesfromwildsources.Birds,bats,andarbo-realmarsupialsarehuntedwithlongblowguns,andwildpigswithdogsandspears.Othercreaturesarecollectedwhenen-countered.Theyincludepythons,bandicoots,frogs,andin-sects,especiallythegrubs of longicornbeetlesandtentcater-pillars,supplementedbyanoccasionalwallabyorcassowary.Eelsarehighlyprized,andduringdryweatherstreamsaredammedandbaileddrysoastoobtainlargesupplies of shrimpandothercrustaceans.Manywildfruitsandnutssup-plementthediet.MengoawaytoworktoobtainmoneyandparticularlytobuycheaplyelsewhereinPapuaNewGuineaone of themainforms of wealthinSengseng,gold-lippearlshells.LocallytheSengsengearnmoneybysellingshellstoforeigners,whousethemtomanufacturetheirownmoney.IndustrialArts.Technologyincludeswoodenspears,shields,hourglassdrums,flutes,panpipes,barkcloth,andbagsmade of vine.Themostimportantwealthitems-pierced,polisheddisks of blackandwhitestone,calledniklak-are of unknownorigin.Ornamentsaremade of plaitedvines,dogs'teeth,shells,andcassowarypinions,aswellascircularpigs'tusks.Trade.Tobaccoandbetelnutsgrowparticularlywellintheinteriorandare ... anephew.Ingeneral,theoldestmaninasiblingsetholdsthevaluablesinheritedfromafather,whenhedies,thenextbrothertakesthemover.Thesameruleappliestosuchmalegoodsasspears,shields,andhourglassdrums.Girlsinheritanypersonalgoodsfromthemother,withtheeldestdaughterusuallytakingprecedence.Alldescendants of theplantercantakefruitfromhistrees.Socialization.Inlinewitheventualcourtshippatterns,babygirlsareencouragedtobephysicallyaggressiveassoonastheycantoddle.Boysmayfightwitheachotherbutshouldtolerateblowsfromgirls.Bothsexesarewarnedagainsten-gaginginanykind of premaritalsexualbehaviorandmustob-servetaboosonactsthatmightstunttheirgrowthor,inthecase of girls,affecteventualchildbearing.Childrenarenotheldresponsiblefortheiractionsuntiltheyareadolescent,andtheyenjoyconsiderablefreedom,thoughlittlegirlsareexpectedtobaby-sitandtohelpcareforpiglets.Almostfrombirth,babiesareconstantlysungtoandbouncedinrhythm,andmanylearntocarryatunebeforetheycantalk.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.TheSengsengbelievethatassocia-tionwithothersislikelytoleadtoquarrels,andquarrelingisinfactfrequentbetweencoresidents,thoughtheytrytoavoidkilling.Settlementsconstantlysplitup;itisalwayspossibletojoincognatickinelsewhere.Linksbetweensettlementsaremaintainedbymarriage,attendanceatdances,trade,andthepractice of givingavisitorapearlshellondeparture,leadingtoreturnvisitstosettlethedebtwithanidenticalshell.Withtheestablishment of officialvillages,however,coresidentsoftenactasaunitinconfrontingothervillages,butinternalharmonyremainsminimalexceptwhenaresidentisplanningaceremonyandmakesaspecialefforttogaincooperationfromothers.PoliticalOrganiztion.TheSengsengidentifythemselvesasspeakingacommonlanguage,buttheyhaveneverbeenunitedpolitically.Leadershipdependsonacombination of abilityasawarriorandasanorganizer of feastsinwhichdo-mesticpigsarekilled,andthepossession of wealthinniklakandpearlshells.Aleaderneednotbemarried,buthemustbewillingtotravelwidely,totradeandcollectdebts,andtoat-tendceremoniesatwhichporkisdistributedtogetherwithpearlshells.SocialControl.Theoldermen of asettlementpunishedcertainoffenses,suchaspublicuse of sexualterms,byspear-ingtheoffender.Mostquarrelsresultfromfailuretopaydebtsondemand.Endingaquarrelrequiresanexchange of matchedpearlshells,eveninvillagesnearthecoast,wherevillageofficialsandelders of bothsexestrytosettledisputes.Conflict.Inthepast,warfaremighteruptatanytime.Amanshamedinhisownvillage,asbyfallingdowninthepres-ence of women,wouldrelievehisfeelingsbyspearingthefirstoutsiderheencountered,andanyhaplesstravelermightbespearedbyamanwishingtoenhancehisownreputationasawarrior.Dancesstilloftenleadtobrawlsandoccasionallytokilling,ifanyoffensesuchasaninsultisremembered.AUkill-ingsdemandareturndeath,butthenpeaceislikelytobere-stored,withpaymentsexchanged.Victims of warfareshouldnotincludeachild,animportantman,ormorethanonevic-timatatime;breach of theseruleswouldprovokeuncon-trolledretaliation.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Apartfromtheperiodimmediatelyafteradeath,ghostshavelittletodowiththeliving,buttheland-scape,includingalldeeppools,isinhabitedbyavariety of spirits of othersorts(calledmasalaiinPidginEnglish)whothreatenbutoccasionallyhelppeople.Themostimportantareinvokedingardenmagictomakethecropsbear.Numer-oustaboossurroundeverydaylife.Thebreach of someispun-ishedbyspirits,butoftentheconsequencessimplyfollowau-SanCristobal 28 9whichledtotheevolution of naturalphenomenaand,ulti-mately,humans.Aituweretheactivenuminousbeingswhointerfereddirectlyineverydaylife.ReliioPractitiones.Inaboriginaltimes,eachmataiwasareligiouspractitionerresponsiblefortheworship of thefamilyaitu.Somemataiplayedparamountrolesasoracles of particularaitu of supralocalimportance.Today,mataicon-tinuetoleadfamilyprayers(totheChristianGod),buttherearealsonativepastors,trainedinlocaltheologicalseminaries,andpriestswhoconductformalchurchservices.Ceremonies.Manynativeceremoniesfocusonlife-cyclerites.Attendanceisanexpression of therank of thepersonsinvolved.Thekavaceremony,inwhichabeveragepreparedfromthe'avaroot(Pipermethysticum)wasconsumedincere-monialstyle,wasperformedtohonorimportantguestsandtomarkimportantsocialevents,suchasthedeliberations of thefono.Art.Oratory,dancing,singing,andtattooingcontinuetobemeans of aestheticexpression.Today,hymnsforchurchservicesareanimportantoutletforexpressiveneeds.Thetra-ditionalart of bark-cloth(siapo)makingandprintingisnotverywidespreadtoday.Medicne.Inaboriginaltimes,diseasewassupposedtobecausedbythewrath of someparticularaitu.Treatmentwassoughtwiththeaid of thespecialmatai,Tauliitu(whosenamemeans'anchor of theAitu").Theywereaskedtointer-cedewiththeaitutheyrepresented.Variousherbsandplantswereadministeredandmassagewasalsoapplied.DeathandAfterlife.Samoansbelieveinthedichotomouscharacter of humannature.Theseparation of the'soul"(agaga)andbody(tino)istantamounttodeath.Thattheagigacontinuedtoliveafterdeathasanaituwasthefocaltopic of thepreChristianreligion.Therearevariousac-counts of anafterworld,butnouniformpicture of itsnaturecanbegleanedfromthehistoricalandethnographicsources.SeealsoOntongJava,Rotuma,Tokelau,TongaBiblographyCain,Horst(1979).Aitu.EineUntersuchungzurAutoch-thonenReligionderSamoaner.Wiesbaden:FranzSteinerVerlag.Finney,JosephC.(1973)."TheMeaning of theNameSa-moa."Journal of thePolynesianSociety 82: 30 1-3 03.Gilson,RP.(1970).Samoa1830to1900.ThePolitics of aMulti-CulturalCommunity.Melbourne:OxfordUniversityPress.Holmes,LowellD.(1974).SamoanVillage.CaseStudiesinCulturalAnthropology.NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston.SanCristobalETHNONYM:MakiraFourgroupstotalingabout10,000individualsliveonthehighvolcanicisland of MakiraorSanCristobaLtheArosi,Bauro,Kahua,andTawarafa.SanCristobalislocatedinthesoutheasternSolomonIslandsatapproximately100Sand160° E. Thelanguages of theislandareclassifiedintheEast-ernOceanicGroup of theOceanicBranch of Austronesianlanguages.Mostsettlementsareonthecoast,thoughtheyex-tendinlandseveralthousandfeet.Thesettlementsareorgan-izedintohamletsconsisting of acluster of housesirregularlysituatedaroundacentralplace.Housesare of poleandthatch,andtheyareoftendecoratedwithpaintingsandstatues.Thedietisbasedoncoconuts,whicharethespecialty of thecoastalareas,androotcrops(mainlyyamsandtaro),whicharethespecialty of theinlandareas.Sagoisalsohatrvestedalongthecoastalmarshes.Othertrees of importancearebreadfruit,Canariumalmond,andvariousfruittrees.Do-mesticatedpigsandhuntingarecomplementedbyfishinginthedeepsea(forbonito)andalongtheshore.Theseasonalexploitation of theseawormisanimportantsource of protein.Landisownedbytheresidentextendedfamily.Canoebuildingwasformerlyahighlyspecializedandre-spectedcraft.Inthepast,shellmoney,consisting of shellringsandstrings of shell-diskbeads,wasusedininterislandtradingexpeditions.Themostimportantkingroupsarebilateralextendedfamilies.Bride-pricepaymentsarerequiredandaregenerallycollectedfromthemembers of aman'sentiredomesticgroup.Residenceispatrilocal,descentispatrilineal,andpolygynyiscommonamongthewealthiermen.Theprimarydomesticgroupisabilateralextendedfamily-thesefamiliesareorgan-izedintolargerpatrilinealdescentgroups,each of whichtra-ditionallyhadahereditaryline of chiefs.Big-menalsoexistonSanCristobal,andtheyaregenerallythewealthiestandmostinfluentialmeninthecommunity.Inthepast,humansacrificewaspracticedtopropitiatetheancestors.Mana,orsupernaturalpower,isgreatlyreveredandbelievedtobepossessedbycertainpersons,ghosts,andcertainobjects.Ancestorworshipisamajorpart of theindig-enousreligion,withghosts of ancestorsconsideredtobethemostimportantsupernaturals.SeealsoGuadalcanal,MalaitaBibliographyIvens,W.G.(1 927 ).Melanesians of theSouth-EastSolomonIslands.London:KeganPaul.Verguet,T.(1885)."ArossiouSanChristovalestseshabi-tants."Revued'Ethnographie4:193 -2 3 2.THOMASBARGATZKY 29 4Seleietsourcestobuildtradestoresandparticipateinotherjointventuressuchastaxitrucks.KinshipTerminology.Thesystemischaracterizedbybifurcate-collateraltermsforunclesandbifurcate-mergingtermsforaunts.Cousintermsare of theIroquoistype.Theavunculateisstronglydeveloped.Inaboriginaltimesaboy'smaternalunclewasresponsibleforinitiatinghimandteach-inghimthesecrets of theculticreligion.Allaffinalrelation.shipsarecharacterizedbysomemeasure of avoidance.MarriageandtheFamilyMarriage.Marriagesaregenerallyarrangedbetweenpatrilinealclanswithagoal of maintainingabalanceintheexchange of women.Formerlythepreferredexchangewasthat of menexchangingsisters.Marriagehasbeenconsideredfinalatpregnancy,andtodaymarriageceremoniesinthechurcharesometimescombinedwiththebaptism of thefirst-born.Withthecoming of peaceandgreatermobilityex.changesnowtakeplacewithoutrespectforphratrymember.ship,andinsomecasestheyoccurbetweenvillages,evenbetweenpeoplefromdifferentlinguisticgroups.Arrangedmarriagesarelessfrequenttoday,becausetheyoungmenmeetpotentialmatesatschoolorinthecities,andtheyareabletoearntheirownbride-paymentthroughoutsideem-ployment.Suchindependencehasledtoanincreaseindi-vorce.Polygamyusedtobecommon,andthenumber of aman'schildrenwereconsideredtobeadirectreflection of hisstrength.Onemanwiththreewivesproducedaprogeny of morethan 25 0great-grandchildren.Themissionariesprohib-itedpolygamy,butwiththearrival of nationhoodandthena-tionalization of ecclesiasticalauthority,somemenhaveig-noredtheban.DomesticUnit.Themenandtheinitiatedmaleyouthusedtolivetogetherinthemen'shouses,whilethemarriedwomenandchildrenlivedinseparateresidences.Menwhowerepolygamousmaintainedseparatehousesforeach of theirwiveswiththeirdaughtersanduninitiatedsons.Thetrendtomonogamyhasnotsignificantlyinfluencedthisresi-dentialpattern,althoughamarriedmandoessleepmorefre-quentlyinthehome of hiswife.Inheritance.Inaboriginaltimestherewaslittleforonetoinheritbecausethepeopledidnotproducedurablegoods,andthelandbelongedtothepatrilinealclans.Whatwasin-heritablewerepersonaladornmentssuchaspigs'tusks,dogs&apos ;- teethheadbands,andshellmoneythatfiguredinthetradesystem.Theseitemsalsohadthepotential of embodyingthepower of previousowners.Theintroduction of Europeancommoditieshasnotsignificantlyalteredthispattern,be-causeindividuallypurchaseditemssuchasradioshaveashortlifespan,andlargeritemssuchasmotorvehiclesbelongtolargesocialunits.Socialization.Responsibilityforraisingchildrenissharedbythechildren'sparents,aunts,anduncles.Generallygreaterpermissivenessiscommonintheraising of youngboys.Chil.drenlearntheirrolesbyworkingwiththeirparentsand,inthecase of initiatedmales,alsowiththeirpaternaluncles.Youngmenhelpinbuildinghomesandfences,andtheyparticipateinmarsupialhuntsduringtimes of fullmoon,whentheforestcanopyisilluminated.Girlshelptheirmotherwithgarden.ing,childcare,anddomesticchores.Maleinitiationwastra-ditionallythemostcomplexrite of passage;atthistimetheyoungmenwerecircumcised,hadtheirearlobespierced,en-duredvariousordealssuchasprolongedfasting,andwereshownthereligiousartifacts.Theirmaternalunclesalsoex-plainedthesecrets of themaleculticreligion.WhenChris-tianitywasintroduced,theinitiationceremonieswerere-placedwithconfirmationclassestaughtbypastorswhowerenotSelepet,therebyweakeningtherole of thematernaluncleaswellasthesocietalconstraints of religion.Todaymaternalunclesoftenprovidefortheeducationalexpenses of theirsororalnephewsandnieces.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Kinshipresponsibilitiesrequirethatmaterialgoodsbeshared,sothatSelepetsocietyhasneverhadclassdistinctions.PersonswholeavetheSelepetareaforemploymentanddonotsendfundsbacktotheirrelativesgenerallydonotreturn.PoliticalOrganization.Althoughvillagesoftenconsist of severalclans,theclanremainsthelargeststablepoliticalunit,sothatwithinavillagethereisnocertainty of interclancoop-eration.Aclanwasgenerallyledbythemanwhowasmostrecognizedasareligiouspractitioner.Whenthemissionariesappointednon-Selepetpastorstoexercisereligiousauthority,menwithotherqualities (e. g.,medicalknowledge)becameleaders.Politicalcontrolinvillagesisexercisedbycommitteescomposed of theclanleaders.Maritalconnectionsbetweenclans,however,entailmutualsupportintimes of conflict.SocialControl.Theresponsibilities of kinrelationshipsandthedependency of membersupontheirclanforsupportentailsanacceptance of theclan'svalues.Menhavetradi-tionallyregardedwomenasinferior,andinaboriginaltimestheymaintainedcontrolbykeepingtheirculticritualssecretandthreateningthewomenwithsupernaturalharm.Conflict.Traditionally,loyaltywasprimarilyto...

... province of theDutch.Theirprimarymotivationwasbusiness,particularlyinspices,andin16 02 theyestablishedtheDutchUnitedEastIndiaCompany.Fromtheirbasesinthe'DutchEastIndies"(Ma-laysiaandIndonesia),Dutchshipsprobedtotheeast,withWillemSchoutenandJacobleMairesailingalongthenorth-emcoast of NewGuineaandeastwardtoFutunaandTongain1616,andAbelTasmanexploringmuch of thesoutherncoast of AustraliaaswellasTasmania,whichnowbearshisname,andasfareastasFijiin1643.Little of whattheDutchfoundwasmadepublicduetotheirconcernwithsecrecyforpurposes of trademonopoly,butsketchyreportstrickledbacktoEuropeandinspiredsuchfancifulworks of literatureasGulliver'sTravels.FurtherpowerstrugglesinEuropeintheeighteenthcen-turyresultedinsignificantnewpresencesin Oceania. Occa-sionalDutchexplorersstillmadenew'discoveries,"suchasJacobRoggeveen,whosightedSamoaandEasterIslandin1 722 ,butitwastheFrenchandEnglishshipcaptainswhocametodominatethePacificinthe1700s.Somewerebucca-mXPrefacexitheproject,andnotjustfortheirownvolumesbutalsofortheprojectasawhole.TimothyO'Leary,TerenceHays,andPaulHockingsdeservespecialthanksfortheircommentsonthisprefaceandtheglossary,asdoesMelvinEmber,presi-dent of theHumanRelationsAreaFiles.Members of the of. ficeandtechnicalstaffalsomustbethankedforsoquicklyandcarefullyattendingtothemanytasksaproject of thissizeinevitablygenerates.TheyareErlindaMaramba,AbrahamMaramba,VictoriaCrocco,NancyGratton,andDouglasBlack.AtG.K.HaLl,the encyclopedia hasbenefitedfromthewiseandcarefuleditorialmanagement of ElizabethKubikandElizabethHolthaus,theeditorialandproductionman-agement of MichaelSimsandAraSalibian,andthemarket-ingskills of LindaMayandLisaPemstein.Finally,IwouldliketothankMelvinEmberandtheboard of directors of theHumanRelationsAreaFilesfortheiradministrativeandin-tellectualsupportforthisproject.DAVIDLEVINSONReferencesMurdock,GeorgePeter(1967).EthnographicAtlas.Pitts-burgh,Penn.,University of PittsburghPress.Murdock,GeorgePeter(1983).Outline of World Cultures. 6threv.ed.NewHaven,Conn.HumanRelationsAreaFiles.ProjectStaffEditorialBoardResearchChristopherLathamNancyGrattonLindaA.BennettMemphisStateUniversityEuropeFernandoCimaraBarbachanoInstitutoNacionaldeAntropologia e Historia,MexicoCityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanEditorialandProductionEvaKitsosAbrahamMarambaVictoriaCroccoElizabethHolthausAraSalibianJohnAmburgNancyPriestNormaJ.DiamondUniversity of MichiganChinaPaulFriedrichUniversity of ChicagoSovietUnionCartographyRobertSullivanRhodeIslandCollegeTerence E. HaysRhodeIslandCollege Oceania PaulHockingsUniversity of IllinoisatChicagoSouthandSoutheastAsiaRobertV.KemperSouthernMethodistUniversityMiddleAmericaandtheCaribbeanKazukoMatsuzawaNationalMuseum of Ethnology,OsakaEastAsiaJohnH.MiddletonYaleUniversityAfricaTimothyJ.O'LearyHumanRelationsAreaFilesNorthAmericaAmalRassamQueensCollegeandtheGraduateCenter of theCityUniversity of NewYorkMiddleEastJohannesWilbertUniversity of CaliforniaatLosAngelesSouthAmericavixviiiPrefaceTheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,aninternationaleduca-tionalandresearchinstitute,isrecognizedbyprofessionalsinthesocialandbehavioralsciences,humanities,andmedicalsciencesasamajorsource of informationonthe cultures of the world. Uses of the Encyclopedia This encyclopedia ismeanttobeusedbyavariety of peopleforavariety of purposes.Itcanbeusedbothtogainageneralunderstanding of acultureandtofindaspecificpiece of in-formationbylookingitupundertherelevantsubheadinginasummary.Itcanalsobeusedtolearnaboutaparticularre-gionorsubregion of the world andthesocial,economic,andpoliticalforcesthathaveshapedthe cultures inthatregion.The encyclopedia isalsoaresourceguidethatleadsreaderswhowantadeeperunderstanding of particular cultures toad-ditionalsources of information.Resourceguidesintheency-clopediaincludeethnonymslistedineachsummary,whichcanbeusedasentrypointsintothesocialscienceliteraturewheretheculturemaysometimesbeidentifiedbyadifferentname;abibliographyattheend of eachsummary,whichlistsbooksandarticlesabouttheculture;andafilmographyattheend of each volume, whichlistsfilmsandvideosonmany of the cultures. Beyondbeingabasicreferenceresource,theencyclope-diaalsoservesreaderswithmorefocusedneeds.Forresearch-ersinterestedincomparing cultures, the encyclopedia servesasthemostcompleteandup-to-datesamplingframefromwhichtoselect cultures for ... (1981)onAustronesianlan-guages;andKeesing(1988)andMihlhiusler(1986,1988)onpidginsandcreoles.Oliver's(1988)comprehensivesurvey of Oceaniccul-tureshasbeenissued(1989a)inanabridgedform.Generalcollections of articlesbyspecialistsonparticular cultures in-cludeHardingandWallace(1970)andVayda(1968).Thomas(1989)criticallyexaminesthenotion of "culturear-eas,"especiallyforMelanesiaandPolynesia.AustralianAbo-riginal cultures aresurveyedinBerndtandBerndt(1985)andTindale(1974);theTasmaniansarethesubject of abookforthegeneralaudiencebyDavies(1974).Nocompre-hensivesurvey of the cultures of NewGuineaisavailable,butacollectioneditedbyHastings(1971)isuseful,andSouter(1963)providesahighlyreadableoverview.Chowning(1977)usefullysurveysMelanesia,andcollections of articlesbyspecialistsincludeLangnessandWeschler(1971)andMayandNelson(19 82) .Allire'sbooks(19 72, 1978)onMi-cronesiaareexcellentgeneralworks,asarethosebyGoldman(1970),Howard(1971),HowardandBorofsky(1989),andKirch(1984)forPolynesia.Moresourcesonparticularcul-tureswillbefoundattheend of eachculturalsummary. Oceania intheModern World Thehistory of PacificexplorationandsettlementbyEurope-anshasbeenthesubject of countlessbooksforthegeneralreader.Amongthebest of theseareDaws(1980),Furnas(1946),MichenerandDay(1957),Moorehead(1966),andoawv.,1.Introductionxvviitoothlikee)patternsstampedintotheclayandsimplelinein-cisions,oftenincomplexgeometricdesigns.Thepeoplewhomadethispotteryappeartohavebeenvillage-dwellinghorti-culturalistswithatoolkitthat,liketheirornamentation,em-phasizedtheuse of shells.Theyclearlyhadimpressivenaviga-tionalandsailingskills,enablingthemtoengageinextensiveinterislandtradeandtospreadoutwellintothecentralPa-cific.Byabout500B.C.(or1,500B.P.)thedistinctiveLapitapotterylargelydisappearsfromarchaeologicalsitesinthewesternPacific.Ratherthanseeingthisdisappearanceastheresult of massiveextinctionsorsomeothercataclysm,mostscholarsinterpretitsimplyasareflection of localchange,co-incidingwiththedevelopment of whatwouldbecometheclassic"Polynesian"way of life(seebelow).BothduringandaftertheLapitaperiod,furtherexpan-sionintoRemote Oceania continuedwiththePacificservinglessasabarrierthanasahighway.TheCookIslands,theSo-cietyIslands,andtheTuamotuArchipelagoweresettledbyabout 2, 500B.P.;theMarquesasIslandsandremotevolcanicislandssuchasRapa,withinthenext500years;and,remotest of all,EasterIsland,by1,500B.P.Notallmovementswereinasimpleeasterlydirection,however.By1,500B.P.,people(probablyfromtheMarquesas)hadsettledintheHawaiianchainanditislikelythattheFiji-Samoa-Tonga*triangle"wasamajorstagingareaformovementstothesouthwest(reach-ingNewZealandbyabout1,000B.P.)andnorthwestwardintotheElliceIslands(Tuvalu),theGilbertIslands,theMar-shalls,andtheCarolinesduringtheperiodfrom 2, 000to1,500B.P.Newimmigrantsalsocontinuedtoenter Oceania, withgroupsoriginatinginIndonesiaandthePhilippinesfirstsettlingareassuchasBelauandYap.Many of thedetails of thesettlement of Oceania arenotyetknown,andmost of thosewedoknowcannotbincludedinabriefoutlinesuchasthatofferedhere.Moreover,thereismuchthatwewillneverbeabletoknowforsuresincetheoriginalinhabitants of thePacificislands-liketheirdescen-dantstoday-weretheagents of tremendouschangesintheislandsthemselves,therebycomplicatingthetasks of histori-calreconstruction.Theintroduction of newplantsandani-mals,deforestationthroughfireandland-clearingactivities,andthedepletionandextinction of manynaturalspeciesbegantoalterthePacificlandscapesfromthebeginning.WhatwecansaywithsomecertaintyisthatthePacificwascolonizedoveralongperiod of time,atmanydifferentperi-odsintime(withsomeplacessettledmuchmorerecentlydtanothers),probablyformanydifferentreasons(includingbothaccidentalandpurposefulventures),andbymanydif-ferentgroups of people,whovariedamongthemselvesinphysicaltypes,languages,and cultures. Much of dtisdiversityhasbeensubsequentlyenhancedandredirectedthroughbothmixingandisolating of populationsandasaresult of localadaptationstocircumstancesthatwerethemselveshighlydiverse.Languagesand Cultures of Oceania Toappreciatebetterthelinguisticandculturaldiversity of Oceania, bothinthepastandthepresent,itwillbeusefulonceagaintodividethisimmensefield of interestintomoremanageableregions.Sincetheearlynineteenthcentury,ge-ographers,anthropologists,andothershavedivided Oceania intomajor"ethnicregions"or'cultureareas"interms of per-ceivedphysicalandculturalsimilaritiesandcontrastsamongitspeoples.Themostcommonlyusedcategorizationisbasedononeproposedin1831bytheFrenchnavigatorJulesS-CDumontd'Urville,andisrepresentedingeneralonmap1andinmoredetailonmaps 2- 6.Australia(fromtheLatinaustralis,or"southern")issin-gularinbothitsvastsize(nearly7.7millionsquarekilome-ters)anditsAboriginalpopulation,whose cultures developedinwayslargelyisolatedfromtherest of Oceania. North of AustraliaisNewGuinea,which,withitslandarea of morethan800,000squarekilometers,isthesecond-largestislandinthe world (afterGreenland).NewGuineaisusuallycon-sideredapart of Melanesia(fromtheGreekmelas,or"black,"andnesos,"island"),butonthemapsinthis volume (seemaps3and4)whatmaybecalled"IslandMelanesia"ispre-sentedseparately,encompassingtheBismarckArchipelago,theSolomonIslands,Vanuatu(formerlytheNewHebrides),andNewCaledonia.The5millionsquarekilometers of oceaninthenorthernPacificdemarcatedasMicronesia(fromtheGreekmikros,meaning"small")includesonlyabout 2, 800squarekilometers of land,withapproximately 2, 000is-lands(many of whichareindeedtiny)infourmaingroups:theMariana,Caroline,Marshall,andGilbertislands(seemap5). ... offeredsomewhatricherandmorevariousfoodresourcesthandidthedeserts of theinterior,wildgameandplantfoodingeneralwereseasonalandscattered,requiringfrequenttraveLInthedesertareas,peopleengagedinwhathasbeencalled"restrictedwander-ing"withinaprescribed,thoughoftenhuge,area;somecoastalpeoplespracticed"centrallybasedwandering,"peri-odicallyfanningoutfromsemipermanenthomebases.Inthis volume, thediversity of Aboriginal cultures iswellrepre-sentedbyseventeensummaries(seemap 2) ,includingthemajordesertpeoples (e. g.,Aranda,Mardudjara,Ngatatjara,Pintupi,andWarlpiri),those of themorevariednorthernre-gions (e. g.,Murngin,Tiwi,andWikMungkan),andislanddwellersasdifferentfromeachotherastheTorresStraitIs-landersandtheTasmanians.Theisland of NewGuineaishometospeakers of morethan700languagesanditsenvironmentalandculturaldiver-sitydefyeasygeneralization.Perhaps 2 millionpeoplelivedthereatthetime of firstcontactwithEuropeans(whichforafewgroupsintheinterioroccurredasrecentlyasthe1960s),andthevariety of theirtraditionalways of lifeisconveyedbysixty-nineculturalsummariesinthis volume (seemap3).Oc-cupyingthehighvalleys of thecentralcordillera of mountainsrunninglikeaspinealmostthelength of NewGuineaarethehighlanderss,"representedherebynineteensummaries.Thesepeoplesstilltendtoliveineitherdenselysettledvil-lagesorscatteredhomesteadsorhamlets,mostlyorganizedinterms of patrilinealdescentwithclansandtribesasmajorpo-liticalunitsandthe'big-man"style of leadership(asisgener-allytrueforNewGuinea,withexceptionssuchasMekeo,theTrobriandIslands,andWogeo).Mosthighlanderscontinuetobesweet-potatocultivators,withdomesticpigsbeing of centralimportanceinceremonialexchangesystemsandotherintergrouptransactions.TheSepikRiverisanothermajorgeographicalfeature of theisland,andonitsbanksandtributariesarefoundnumerousgroupswhodependonriverineresources,sago,andyamsasprimaryfoodsources.Bothmatrilineallyandpatrilineallyorganizedsocietiesarefoundhereandacrossthenorthernpart of theisland,andtheregionisjustifiably world- famousforitsmassivetraditionalceremonialhousesandelaborateartstyles.Sepikandnorth-emlowlandpeoplesareextremelydiverse,however,ascanbeappreciatedthroughtheseventeenculturalsummariesfromthisregion.Thesouthernlowlandandcoastalareasarealsodiverse,withyams,taro,orsagousuallycomplementinghunt-ingandfishingasfoodsources.Patrilinealdescentisthemostcommonbasisforsocialorganization,andsettlementsrangedtraditionallyfromlargeriverineorcoastalvillagesinthesouthwestandsoutheasttoenormouscommunallonghousesinthePapuanGulfregionandtheinterior,withthecoastalgulfpeoplesrivalingthose of theSepikintheirstunningart-workandceremonialstructures.AnothermajorregionforartproductionistheMassim,consisting of anumber of islandsandislandgroupsoffthesoutheasterntip of NewGuinea.Thepeoples of theMassim,most of whomareorganizedinterms of matrilinealdescent,arealsowellknownfortheirpar-ticipationinthekulasystem,whichlinksnumerousislandsinacomplexnetwork of ceremonialexchange,trade,andpoliti-calalliance.ApartfromNewGuinea,Melanesia(seemap4)hadper-hapsone-halfmillioninhabitantswhenEuropeancontactbegan.Twenty-nineculturalsummariesinthis volume makeitclearthattherearenotraitsthatareuniversalintheregionorthatareuniquely"Melanesian."Indeed,intheSolomonIslandsareaarefoundseveral"Polynesianoutliers"(includ-ingAnuta,OntongJava,RennellIsland,andTikopia),wherePolynesianlanguagesarespokenandbasicallyPolynesian cultures (seebelow)arefoundinthemidst of quitedifferentpeoples.Asistrue of therest of Oceania, nowherewereMela-nesiansdependentoncerealcrops;rather,treeandrootcropswerethetraditionalstaples,withtaro(Colocasiaesculenta)beingthemostwidespread of these.Communities of varyingsizesarestillorganizedeithermatrilineallyorpatrilineally,and,exceptonthePolynesianoutliers,leadershipandstatusingeneralarelargelyacquiredratherthanhereditary.Cere-monialexchangeandprestigedisplays of gardenproducecontinuetobegenerallyimportantfacets of intercommunityrelations,andsecretsocietiesandcultsweretraditionallysomething of aMelanesianhallmark.Associatedwiththeselattergroupswerehighlydevelopedplasticandgraphicarts(nowlargelydevotedtothetouristtrade),especiallyinNewBritain,NewIreland,andtheNewHebrides(nowcalledVanuatu).Despitethesegeneralfeatures,therewasandstillisconsiderableculturaldiversityinMelanesia,asonecanreadilyseefromtheculturalsummariesforVanuatusocietiesalone(Ambae,Malekula,Nguna,Pentecost,andTanna).Therange of societiesfoundinMicronesiaiswellrepre-sentedbyfourteenculturalsummariesinthis volume (seemap5).Perhaps180,000peoplelivedonNauruandintheMariana,Caroline,Marshall,andGilbertislandswhenEuro-xContributorsJaneC.GoodaleTianDepartment of AnthropologyBrynMawrCollegeBrynMawr,PennsylvaniaUnitedStatesWardH.GoodenoughTnakDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of PennsylvaniaPhiladelphia,PennsylvaniaUnitedStatesRichardA.GouldNgatjaraDepartment of AnthropologyBrownUniversityProvidence,RhodeIslandUnitedStatesMurrayGrovesMotuDepartment of SociologyUniversity of HongKongHongKongC.R.HallpikeTauadcDepartment of AnthropologyMcMasterUniversityHamilton,OntarioCanadaDavidHanlonPohknpiDepartment of HistoryUniversity of HawaiiatManoaHonolulu,HawaiiUnitedStatesF.AllanHansonRapaDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of KansasLawrence,KansasUnitedStatesThomasG.HardingSioDepartment of AnthropologyUniversity of California,SantaBarbaraSantaBarbara,CaliforniaUnitedStatesBrigittaHauser-SchiublinAbelam;IatinulInstitute of EthnologyUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerlandTerence E. HaysGaiuku-Gama;Garia;Gogodala;Tairora;TorDepartment of AnthropologyRhodeIslandCollegeProvidence,RhodeIslandUnitedStatesxifTEXaUUWcLonBritishCommonwealth,consists of twomajorislands,withthecapitalcity of WellingtonlocatedontheNorthIsland.Thetotallandareaisalmost 27 0,000squarekilometers,andits1981population of alittlemorethan3millionwasesti-matedtobeabout9percentMaori, 2 percentotherPacificis.landers,andtherest of Europeandescent.Thesmallisland of Niue,havingonly 25 8squarekilometers of landbutclaiming390,000squarekilometers of sea,isaself-governingstateinaffiliationwithNewZealandsince1974,withfewerthan3,000inhabitants(mostlyinthecapitaltown of Alofi)in1984.Whilenotrepresentedbyaculturalsummaryinthis volume, PitcairnIslandiswellknowntothegeneralpublicastherefuge of themutineersfromCaptainWilliamBligh'sship,H.M.S.Bounty.ItisaBritishcolonywithonly45resi-dentsin1983,descendants of themutineersandTahitians;Adamstownisthecapital of thistiny(5squarekilometers),remoteisland.Tokelauisaterritory of NewZealand,adminis-teredfromApiainWesternSamoa.Its1981population of about1,500livedonthreeatollstotalingonly10squareId-lometers of land.Nuku'alofaisthecapital of theKingdom of Tonga,amember of theBritishCommonwealthsince1970.Tongaconsists of about170islands,withatotallandarea of 670squarekilometerswithin700,000squarekilometers of ocean,whichwerehometoabout104,000peoplein1984.Tuvalu(formerlytheElliceIslands),withitscapitalonthesmallatoll of Funafuti,becameanindependentstateandmember of theBritishCommonwealthin1978.Its1984pop-ulation of 8 ,20 0livedon 26 squarekilometers of landandclaimed900,000squarekilometers of sea.TheTerritory of theWallisandFutunaIslandshasbeenaFrenchoverseasterri-torysince1959,withMataUtaasitscapital(seeFutunacul-turalsummary).In1983,about11,800peoplelivedonitstwenty-fiveislandstotaling 25 5squarekilometers of land.LastistheIndependentState of WesternSamoa,anindepen-dentstateandmember of theBritishCommonwealthsince19 62. Itseightislands,withthecapital of Apiaontheisland of Upolu,comprisealmost3,000squarekilometers of land,andthe1983populationwasestimatedat159,000.ReferenceResourcesThevastness of theliteratureon Oceania isproportionaltothat of theoceanitself.Thefollowingsuggestionsandrefer-ences,includingthesourcesonwhichthisessayisbased,areintendedtodirectthereadertothemajorsources,whichwillleadinturntotherest.GeneralWorksThemostcomprehensivescholarlysurvey of Oceania forthegeneralreaderisOliver'sThePacificIslands(1989b).Agoodnonnarrativecollection of entriesbyspecialistscoveringthewhole of thePacificistheHistoricalDictionary of Oceania (CraigandKing1981).Good,up-to-dateatlases of Oceania donotexist,butahelpfulrecentguideisMotteler(1986).Theonlyattemptatacomprehensivebibliography of theolderscholarlyliteratureisTaylor'sAPacificBibliography(1965).Forausefullisting of morespecializedbibliographies,seeFryandMauricio(1987).ManyexcellentfilmsonthePa-cificarenowavailableforclassroomuse,apartiallisting of whichisfoundattheend of this volume. MoreextensivelistsandorderinginformationcanbefoundinHamnett(1986)andHeider(1983).ThePhysicalEnvironmentNogeneralworksonthePacificasawholeareavailable,butthefirstchapterinOliver(1988)isveryusefulasanoverview,andBarrau'smonographs(1958,1961)onsubsistenceagri-culturesurveytheeconomicallyimportantplants of Oceania. BrookfieldwithHart(1973)arethoroughwithrespecttoMelanesiaandNewGuinea,andBrookfield's(1973)andWard's(19 72) editedcollectionsincludegoodtreatments of specificcases of geographicchange.Foramodern,somewhatpessimistic,account of ecologicaldevastationinthecontem-poraryPacific,seeMitchell(1989).TheSettlement of Oceania Reconstructions of Pacificprehistoryarecontinuallychang-ingwithnewdataandnewperspectives.Goodgeneralover-viewscanbefoundinBellwood(1978),Irwin(1990),andTerrell(1986).Fascinatingstudies of thenavigationalskillsinvolvedinsettlement of thePacifichavebeenwrittenbyLewis(19 72, 1978).MoreregionallyfocusedrecentstudiesincludeJ.Allen(1989)andJones(1989)forAustralia;WhiteandO'Connell(19 82) forSahul;Jennings(1979)onPolynesiaandMelanesia;andAllenandWhite(1989)ontheLapitaCulture.Languagesand Cultures of Oceania Agoodoverview of Pacificislandersfromtheviewpoint of aphysicalanthropologististhebookbyHowells(1973);morerecentgeneticstudiesarecollectedinHillandSerjeantson(1989).TheLanguageAtlas of thePacificArea(WurmandHattori1981)hasbeenusedasacommonreferencefortheculturalsummariesinthis volume. MorespecializedstudiesincludeDixon(1980)onAustralianlanguages;Foley(1986)onPapuanlanguages;Pawley...