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... discon-
â 20 02 Donald Rutherford
Seealso:economicsandpsychology
References
Akerlof,G.andDickens,W.T.(19 82) ‘The
economicconsequencesofcognitivedis-
sonance’,AmericanEconomicReview
72: 307–19.
Festinger,L.(1957)ATheoryofCognitive
Dissonance,Evanston,IL:Row,Peter-
son.
CohesionFund(O0)
EUROPEANUNIONfundcreatedin1993by
the
MAASTRICHTTREATYtoprovidemoney
forenvironmentalandtrans-European
networkprojectsinmemberstateswhose
grossdomesticproductislessthan90per
centoftheEUaverage.Thefundcan
contributeupto85percentofthepublic
expenditureonaproject.
coinage(E4)
Piecesofmetalofastandardsizeand
weightstampedbyasovereignpowerto
givethemthestatusofmoney.Coinswere
firstusedasmoneybytheLydians(Greek
inhabitantsofwhatisnowWestTurkey)
intheseventhcenturyBC.Thefirstcoins
weremadeofelectrum,anaturalalloyof
goldandsilver.Silver,bronzeandcopper
werelaterusedinAncientGreeceandthe
RomanEmpire.Coppercoins,usedfor
smalltransactions,wereissuedwitha
monetaryvalueinexcessofthevalueof
metalused,establishingtheprincipleof
tokenmoney,whichisthenatureofcoin-
agetoday.Thefirstproblemsofcoinage,
clippingandforgery,weresolvedbya
changeinproductionmethodfromham-
meringtomillingtoensureastandard
size.Thesecondproblem,theinconveni-
enceoftransportingittocarryoutlarge
financialtransactions,wasremediedby
theuseofbanknotes.
coincidentindicators(E3)
Measuresofeconomicactivityusedby
economicforecasterstotrackcyclical
movementsinthe
ECONOMY.Themainones
usedareemploymentinnon-agricultural
enterprises,personalincomelesstransfer
payments.andindicesoftotalindustrial
productionandmanufacturingandtrade
sales.
Seealso:economicindicators
Colbertism(H2,L5,N4,N6)
Governmentinterventioninindustry,
namedaftertheFrench
MERCANTILISTJean
BaptisteColbert(1619–83)whosuccess-
fullyreformedtheFrencheconomyafter
1649.InFrance,thehomeofColbertism,
thegovernment’sabilitytosubsidizein-
dustryandfollowprotectionistpolicies
hasbeenlimitedsinceentrytotheEur-
opeanEconomicCommunityin1958.
Seealso:dirigisme
collaborative ... with more than 2, 000 employees
should reconstitute their boards of direc-
tors according to a ‘2x + y’ principle of
equal numbers of employee and share-
holder representatives (2x) and co-opted
directors ... ofproduction;totheAUSTRIANSCHOOLtime
wascrucialtotheconcept;to
FISHER
capitalwasastockwhichproduceda
streamofincomewithitsvaluedeter-
minedbyrelativepreferenceforfuture
ratherthanpresentgoods.Importantde-
batesincludetherelationshipbetweenthe
RATEOFINTERESTandthevalueofcapital,
aswellasdiscussionofthenotionof
aggregatecapital.Astherearemany
importantsub-speciesofcapital,including
HUMANCAPITALandEQUITYcapital,specia-
listtheoriesofcapitalarealsopro-
pounded.Capitaltheoryexpandedits
concernsinthe1960swithinthecontext
ofgrowththeory.Amajorissuediscussed
thenwasthemethodofmeasuringaggre-
gateorsocialcapitaltoachieveavalue
independentofdistributionandprices.
Joan
ROBINSONsuggestedusinglabourtime
asameasure;Champernowneintroduced
a
CHAININDEXMETHOD.
Seealso:Cambridgecontroversies
References
Harcourt,G.C.(19 72) SomeCambridgeCon-
troversiesintheTheoryofCapital,Cam-
bridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Kregel,J.A.(1976)TheoryofCapital,
London:Macmillan.
capitaltransfertax(H2)
UKtaxintroducedin1975ontransfersof
wealthpayablebythedonororrecipient
duringlifeoratdeath.Estateduty,in
forcefrom1894to1975,wastheprede-
cessorofthistax.
capitalutilization(D2,E2)
1Theproportionoffixedcapital(build-
ingsandmachinery)inuse.Ifmachin-
eryisworkedforonlyhalfofatime
period,thecapitalutilizationrateis50
percent.
2Actualoutputasapercentageofpoten-
tialoutputatareferencedate.
Seealso:capacityutilization
capitalvalue(E2,M2)
Avaluationofanassetbroadlymeasured
eitherbydiscountingthetotalfuture
incomeexpectedfromtheassetorby
capitalizingtheexpectedincome.
Seealso:discounting;netpresentvalue
capitalwidening(E2)
Anincreaseintherealcapitalstock
leavingthe
CAPITAL–LABOURRATIOun-
changedasthecapitalstockandthe
labourforcegrowatthesamerate.
Seealso:capitaldeepening
capitationtax(H2)seepolltax
cappinganinterestrate(G1)
Separatingthepartofinterestpaymentsin
excessofrealinterestpaymentsandthen
capitalizingitbyaddingittothelong-
termdebt.
captiveinsurance(G2)
Aninsurancecompanywhosebusinessis
mainlysuppliedandcontrolledbyits
owners.Theprincipalbeneficiariesare
thoseoriginallyinsured.
capturetheory(K2,L4)seeregulatory
capture
carbonsequestration(Q2)
Storingcarbondioxidebyplantingtrees
orpumpingintoundergroundreservoirs:
anapproachtoreducingglobalwarming.
carbonsink(Q2)
Anareawithtreesandplantswhichhas
beencreatedtoabsorbcarbondioxide.
Thishasbeenproposedtoreduceglobal
warming.
carbontax(H2,Q2)
Ataxrelatedtothecarboncontentof
coal,naturalgasoroil,whichisimposed
toimprovethenaturalenvironment.The
taxcantaketheformofafixedamount
pertonofcarbonembodiedineachfuel
orbean
taxisrelatedtotheemissionreduction
targetchosen.
Seealso:effluentfee;environmentaltax;
marketabledischargepermit
cardinal...