asia pro eco ii

... trình bài giảng :I. ổ n định tổ chức lớp II. Kiểm tra bài cũ? Bài tập 4 a/sgk? Nêu phơng pháp điều chế khí o xi trong PTN và trong công nghiệp .III Bài mới :Hoạt động của thầy và trò Nội ... giảng :I.ổn định tổ chức lớp . II. Kiểm tra bài cũ? Nêu thành phần của không khí,dẫn chứng sự có mặt của nớc? Nêu các biện pháp bảo vệ không khí tránh ô nhiễm.III Bài mới :Hoạt động của thầy ... 38C. Tiến trình bài giảng :I.ổn định tổ chức lớp . II. Kiểm tra bài cũ+ Hoàn thành các phơng trình sau:H2 + H2OH2O ? + ?III Bài mới :Hoạt động của thầy và trò Nội dungGV cho...

... Cạc pháưn cå bn ca PROII 14 6.1 Giao diãûn ca PROII 14 6.1.1 Qui ỉåïc ban âáưu 14 6.1.2 Cỉía säø PRO/ II 15 7 Cạc thao tạc thỉåìng dng trong mä phng bàịng PRO/ II 16 7.1 Måí ... õang sổớ duỷng phión baớn PRO/ II 7.0 ã PRO/ II vỏỷn haỡnh theo caùc modul lión tióỳp, mọựi thióỳt bở õổồỹc tờnh rióng leợ vaỡ lỏửn lổồỹt tờnh cho tổỡng thióỳt bở. ã PRO/ II bao gọửm caùc nguọửn ... phỏửn móửm PRO/ II laỡ phỏửn móửm nọứi tióỳng nhỏỳt, õổồỹc sổớ duỷng rọỹng raợi nhỏỳt trong nhióửu lộnh vổỷc cọng nghióỷp. 2 Phỏửn móửm PRO/ II 2.1 Lộnh vổỷc sổớ duỷng ã Phỏửn móửm PRO/ II laỡ phỏửn...

... !ET=CTE?/13KS 5,EB3 ?/=, KE/ K1M DEF rCEO ?6@3, ,12/ ?CH () u3/? JCIIE6NS +:M? rCE. ?A3, ?1EO3 =EO= ?,/:M? Gj _) J?6:EI JCIIE6NS +:M? rCE. ?A3, ?1EO3 =EO= Q1F34S =EB3 GEd34 3,/:2?^ ?,EF3, Y,EP3^ ... =EO= Y,>-34 Y,EOY) k/:2= Y,EB3 T1EH/ ?E2Y ,-HY =EO= Y,>-34 Y,EOY GE1 41PIS · W;RJ&D ;II; ?SX&"R=<Y 9EBN TEF =EO= Y,>-34 Y,EOY 0>-H= QCF34 Y,1; G/:M3^ Y,CF ,-HY D-O/ ... !&!:"+%,<;+("- !0':1 =,1H3 I12? ?6134 =EO= ,1H =EMC ?>. KECS · W;RJ&D ;II; ?SX&"R=<Y&"-3 *$$ =EMC ?>. ,EN LCEM? ,/:23 ?6134 =EO= Q>H EO3 I1B...

... dàng hơn và giúp họ đánh giá kết quả của chính mình. 1.3 Giới thiệu về Pro/ II 1.3.1 Pro/ II và ứng dụng Pro/ II Pro/ II là một trong những sản phẩm của tổ hợp SIMSCI, được thành lập từ năm ... tôi thì mặc dù kém hơn HYSYS về các mặt trên nhưng Pro/ II có những ưu điểm sau: + Công ty sản xuất Pro/ II có nhiều kinh nghiệm hơn + Pro/ II có nhiều môđun phụ trợ, có thể áp dụng cho nhiều ... 1.3.2 Giao diện của Pro/ II 1.3.2.1 Khởi động Pro/ II Để khởi động chương trình kích đôi chuột vào biểu tượng của chương trình từ menu Star. Cửa sổ chào mừng của Pro/ II xuất hiện. Cửa sổ này...

... 37 kDa band probably corresponded tothe protease domain of TMPRSS13, suggesting theproteolytic activation of the pro- protein. Detection ofthe 67 kDa band suggests that the pro- protein wascleaved ... HAI-1–NK1LK2against the protease activity of TMPRSS13.Proteolytic activation of pro- HGF by TMPRSS13 Pro- HGF is proteolytically activated by matriptaseand hepsin, and the protease activity is inhibited ... 215075(kDa)1005037256325015075ABCFig. 1. Production and activation of the recombinant pro- TMPRSS13. (A) Schematic representation of the structure of pro- TMPRSS13 (wild-type), the recombinant pro- TMPRSS13 and the...

... alt="" ContentsProjectStaffviContributorsviiPrefacexiiiIntroductionxixMaps1.South Asia xxviii2.CulturalRegionsofSouth Asia xxix3.MajorLanguagesofSouth Asia xxx4.DominantReligiousGroupsofSouth Asia xxxi5.CulturalGroupsofSouth Asia xxxiiCulturesofSouth Asia 1Appendix:AdditionalCastes,CasteClusters,andTribes309Bibliography342EthnonymIndextoAppendix349Glossary363Filmography367Index372Bibliography373DirectoryofDistributors373EthnonymIndex375Introductionxxipopulationin1990 ... xxivIntroductionsibleforfamiliestoleavetheirtraditionalhomes,movetocit-iesfaraway,evenoverseas,andsobeginaprocessofupwardmobilityinaclass-structuredsociety.Thismodemurbanmi.grationdoesmuchtoexplainthepresentmassivepopulationsofBombayandCalcutta(12.5millionand10.8million,re-spectively,in1991),aswellasthemillionsofIndianandPa-kistaniimmigrantstoGreatBritain,NorthAmerica,andotherEnglish-speakingregions.ItwasprimarilytheHindureligiouscodethatmain-tainedthesocialorderthroughitsteachingsaboutreincama-tion.Therearestillhundredsofmillionswhobelievethatthesoulofapersonwhodoesmanygooddeedswillonedaybere-incarnatedintoanothernewbornofahighervamacategory,whereasthesoulofanevilpersonwillbereincarnatedasanUntouchableorevensomekindofanimal.Inessenceonehasonlyoneselftothankforone'spresentsocialstatus,sinceitisaneffectofdeeds(karma)onedidinapreviouslife.Withsuchapervasivebelief,ithasprovenimpossibletolegislatecasteoutofexistence,andsotodayitsinequalitiescoexistwithanationalidealofpoliticaldemocracyinIndia,PakistanandBangladesh.Insummary,accordingtoGeraldBerreman,"acastesys-temoccurswhereasocietyismadeupofbirth-ascribedgroupswhicharehierarchicallyorderedandculturallydis-tinct.Thehierarchyentailsdifferentialevaluation,rewards,andassociation.'TheCoverageofThisVolumeThereisnowayinwhichwemighthavecovered,evensche-matically,allthecastesandtribesofSouth Asia. Atacon-servativeguessthereareover3,000castesandsubcastes,withperhaps500tribesinadditiontothese.Ofcourse,incountingthemmuchwoulddependonwherethebound-ariesweredrawn;andtheseboundariesareusuallyalittlemorefluidthantheethnographicliteraturesuggests.Itshouldnotthereforebesurprisingthattotalingupthenum-berofcastesandtribeshasneverbeenaseriousanthropo-logicalenterprise,andtheappendixtothisvolumeiscer-tainlynotadefinitivelist.Attheoutset,Iwasfacedwiththetaskofselectingfromthesethousandsofdisparatesocialunitsarelativelysmallnumberthatmightrepresenttheculturaldiversity-religious,ethnic,social,andeconomic-ofthesubcontinent.Sincestatisticalsamplingdidnotseemareasonablewaytoproceed,theselectionofsocialunitstobeincludedinourcoveragede-pendedverymuchonwhatstudyhadalreadybeendone.For-tunatelytheethnographyofSouth Asia hasbeenveryrichlycovered,especiallyinIndia,Nepal,andSriLanka.Asastart-ingpoint,justunderfourdozen"peoples"thathadbeenin-cludedintheWorldEthnographicSampleweredeemed,bythatfactalone,worthyofinclusionhere(thoughinseveralcasesnoappropriatelivingauthorcouldbefound).Asecondprocedurewastostriveforcoverageofcastesandtribesthat,nomatterhowlargeorhowsmall,figureprominentlyintheethnographicliterature.TheTodas,forexample,numberingamereonethousandtoday,wouldhavebeenincludedeveniftheyhadnotbeenintheWorldEthno-graphicSample,simplybecauseoftheexcellentmonographsofW.H.R.Rivers,M.B.Emeneau,PrincePeter,andA.R.Walker.AthirdrequirementwastoensurethatmajorculturalcategoriessuchastheTamilsandBengaliswerecovered,ifonlybecausetheyoftennumberedtensofmillionsofpeople.Thiswilloftenmeanthatthevolumehasonesuchbroadarti-cleon,say,Tamils,aswellasmorespecificarticlesonVellalasandSriLankanTamils,whoareactuallyTamilstoo.Ithussawnodifficultyinincludingarticlesongroupsofdifferentscaleandsize.Afinalfactor,averyimportantone,thathelpeddeter-mineourcoveragewaswhichauthorsmightbeavailable.Insomecasesprofessionalanthropologistsvolunteeredtowriteaboutaparticularcasteortribewithwhichtheywerefamiliar,andofcoursesuchofferswereneverrefused.Inothercases,however,theobviouspersontowriteaboutaparticularsocialgroup-the"authority"onthem,sotospeak-wasunavaila-bleordeceased.Inthelatterinstances,wheresomesortofla-cunainourcoverageseemedunavoidable-orwhereageo-graphicalgapbecameapparentinsomeextensivetractofterritorythatremaineduntouchedbyourcoverage-theproj-ectstaffcameintoplay.ThesewerepeopleattheHRAFof-fice,especiallyHughR.Page,Jr.,andanthropologystudentsattheUniversityofIllinois,inChicago,whoworkedwiththeeditortoproducearticlesbasedonalreadypublishedethno-graphicliterature.ThesearticleshadtheeffectofbalancingandsupplementingourcoverageoftheSouthAsiansocietiesbyotherprofessionalscholars.Thearticleshavefollowedtheformatestablishedinvolume1fortheentireencyclopedia;butwehaveincludedinthisvolumeonelengthierarticle,onMagar,whichconcentratesonaparticularHinduvillageandgivesafairsenseofthereligious,economic,andinterpersonaldetailsthathavebeennotedthroughoutthesubcontinent,butforwhichspaceisotherwisenotavailablehere.ReferenceResourcesThebestsingle-volumeintroductiontoallaspectsofSouthAsiancultureandsocietyiseditedbyRobinson(1989).Basham(1963,1975)aretwoexcellentsurveysofthehistoryandculture.Forananthropologicalsurveyofthesubconti-nent,Tyler(1973)andMaloney(1974)arebothfairlygood;andamoredetailedsurveyoftheliteratureonSouthAsiansocietyisMandelbaum(1970),whichhasthevirtueofpayingseriousattentiontoregionalvariationsinsocialorganization.Thereareinnumerableotherbooksthatdeal-asthesedo-withcastesociety:ageneralintroductionisprovidedbyLannoy(1971),andtwoofthemostusefulareHutton(1963)andDumont(1970).TheymaybesupplementedwithRaheja'srecentsurveyarticle(1988).Forspecific,thoughneverup-to-date,culturaldetailsabouttheseveralthousandcastes,subcastes,andtribesthatmakeupSouthAsiansociety,oneshouldconsulttherelevanthandbooklistedattheendoftheappendixtothisvolume.Maloney(1980)isastudyoftheRepublicoftheMaldives,whileBenoist(1978)isahandyaccountofMauritiansociety.AninterestingculturalhistoryoftheIndianOcean,whichpaysparticularattentiontotheislandgroups,isToussaint(1966).AlonghistoryofIndiananthropologyhasbeenpublishedbyVidyarthi(1979),butitlacksbalance.MuchmorereliableistheextensivesurveyofanthropologyandsociologyeditedbySrinivasetal.(1972-1974).TherearenumerousexcellentculturalhistoriesoftheIndiansubcontinent,themostdetailedofwhichisthemul-tivolumeseteditedbyMajumdaretal.(1951-1969).Also

... orfivefamiliesstayinonecamp.Asthewetseasonends,eachfamilymovestoitsclan'straditionalhut,whichiscircularandhousesfromfifteentotwentysleepingplatforms.Aclan'shutisstationaryandismaintainedthroughouttheyearbythemenoftheclan.Withtheexceptionofaclan'shut,allhousingistemporary.Aclan'shut,usually5to7me-tersindiameter,hasawoventhatchedroofandsidewalls.Permanentlyinstalledsleepingplatformsforeachnuclearfamilyarearrangedcircularlywithineachhut.Housing,intheforestandatthecoast,isusuallydismantledbeforeleav-ingacampsite.Ateachnewcampsite-selectedforitsprox-imitytofreshwaterandfirewood-anewsleepingplatform,about70centimetersabovetheground,isconstructedforeachhut.Eachfamilyretainsitssleepingmatsandloghead-restsandmovesthemtoeachnewcampsite.ThegovernmentofIndiahasconstructedwoodenhousessituatedon2-meterstiltsfortheGreatAndamaneseandtheOngees.Somefami-liesusethese,butamongtheOngeestheyarenotverypopu-larandthestructuresareusedprimarilyforstorage.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Huntingandgathering,predicatedonaseasonaltranslocationarypattern,characterizeAndamaneseculture.TheJarwasandSenti-nelesearestillcompletelydependentonhuntingandgather-ingactivities.AmongtheOngees,however,plantationculti-vationofcoconutshasbecomeimportantsinceitsintroduc-tionin1958.AlthoughtheOngeesgatherthecoconuts,theydonotwanttobeinvolvedwith,nordotheyparticipatein,anyformofagriculturalactivity.TheOngeesarepaidforgatheringcoconutsbythewelfareagencywithfoodrationsandindustrialproductsfrommainlandIndia.Consequently,theforestproductstheyconsumeincreasinglyarebeingre-placedbyimportedproducts.AmongtheGreatAndamanesehuntingisonlyanoccasionalactivity.Theyarepaidamonthlyallowancebythegovernmentandalsoreceivewagesfortakingcareofthecitrusfruitplantations.Fishingintheseaisusuallydonewithbowsandarrowswhilestandinginknee-deepwater,especiallyduringlowtide,anditisayear-roundactivity.Occasionallylinesandhooksareusedtofishinthesea.Hand-heldnetsareusedtofishandtogathercrabsandothershellfishfromtheisland'sinlandcreeks.FishisanimportantpartofAndamaneseculture;inthedifferentdia-lectsthetermfor'food"isthesameasthatfor"fish."Tradi.tionallythenortherngroupscaughtseaturtlesinlargenets,butthisisnotdonebythesoutherngroups.Ongeespaddleouttoseaintheirdugoutoutriggercanoestohuntseaturtlesanddugongswithharpoons.DuringthewetseasontheAn-damanesehuntpigsintheforestwithbowsanddetachablearrowheads.Dogs,introducedtotheislandin1850andtheonlydomesticatedanimalsamongtheAndamanese,aresometimesusedtotrackdownthepigs.Throughouttheyearthereisastrongdependenceongatheringavarietyofitems,suchasturtleeggs,honey,yams,larvae,jackfruit,wildcitrusfruits,andwildberries.IndustrialArts.TraditionallytheAndamanesewerede-pendentontheforestandtheseaforallresourcesandrawmaterials.RawmaterialssuchasplasticandnyloncordshavenowbeenincorporatedintoAndamanesematerialculture:plasticcontainersareusedforstorage;nyloncordsareusedasstringtomakenets.Theseitemsareusuallydiscardedbypassingshipsandfishingboatsandarethenwashedupontotheislands.TheIndiangovernmentdistributesasgiftstotheOngees,Jarwas,andSentinelesemetalpotsandpans,andasaconsequencemetalcookwarehasnearlyreplacedthetradi-tionalhand-moldedclaycookingpotsthatweresun-driedandpartiallyfire-baked.TheOngeescontinuetomakeclaypotsbutusethemprimarilyforceremonialoccasions.Ongeesgrindmetalscraps,foundontheshoreorreceivedfromthegovernment,onstonesandrockstofashiontheircuttingbladesandarrowheads.Priortotheintroductionofmetalin1870bytheBritish,theOngeesmadeadzesandarrowheadsfromshells,bones,orhardwood.Althoughironishighlyval-uedbytheOngees,theydonotuseironnailstojoinobjects.Ongeesstilljoinobjectsbycarvingortyingrattanrope,canestrips,orstrandsofnyloncord.Smokingpipes,outriggerca-noes,andcylindricalcontainersforholdinghoneyareamongthemanyitemscarvedbytheOngees.Trade.Traditionallytradewithinagroupwasconductedbetweenthebandsidentifiedaspighunters(forestdwellers)andturtlehunters(coastaldwellers).Thepighunterbandtradedclaypaint,clayformakingpots,honey,woodforbowsandarrows,trunksofsmalltreesforcanoes,andbetelnutsinexchangeformetalgatheredfromtheshore,shellsfororna-ments,ropesandstringsmadefromplantfibersandnylon,andediblelimegatheredbytheturtlehunters.Thebandswouldtaketurnsservingashostfortheseorganizedeventsofexchange.HistoricallytheAndamanesegatheredhoney,shells,andambergristotradewithoutsidersinreturnforclothes,metalimplements,orevencosmetics.Undertheim-perialadministrationtradewithoutsiderswasthemeansofentryforopiumandliquorintotheNorthernAndamaneseAborETHNONYMS:Abuit,Adi,TaniOrientationIdentification.Thename"Abor"isapplied,inageneralsense,toallofthehilltribesthatliveintheareasurroundingtheAssamValley.Inamorespecificsense,itreferstothosepeoplesinhabitingthesouthernreachesoftheHimalayanrangeinA-runachalPradesh.TheAborlabelreferstofifteenrelatedgroups(Padam,Minyong,Pangis,Shimong,Ashing,Pasi,Karko,Bokar,Bori,Ramo,Pailibo,Milan,Tangam,Tangin,andGallong),ofwhichthePadam,Minyong,andShimongarethemostnumerous.AborsettlementsarealsofoundinTibetandChina.Theetymologyofthewordhasbeenthesubjectofconsiderabledebate.Twointerpretationsrepresenttherangeofopinionabouttheoriginoftheword.ThefirstholdsthataborisofAssameseoriginandisderivedfrombori,meaning"subject,dependent,"andthenegativeparticlea ... thesocietyaretheresponsibilityofthevillagekebang,thebangocouncil,andthebogumbokang.Orderismaintainedthroughasystemofcustomarylawthatdealswithmatrimonialandfamilialaffairs,propertyrights,personalinjury,andinheritance.Provisionismadefortheuseofordealswhenthemediationofdisputesbyhumansprovesunsuccessful.Conflict.DisputesbetweentheAborandneighboringpeoplesarenolongerresolvedbymeansofarmedconflict.In-temal(i.e.,within ... thatlifecontinuesbe-yondthegrave,inalandwhereeachoftheuyushasitsindi-vidualabode.Whenonedies,hisorhersoulistakentothedomainoftheuyuwhowasthecauseofdeath.Anindividualenjoysthesamestatusandlife-stylethatheorshehadwhilealive.Forthisreasonthedeceasedisprovidedwithfood,drink,possessions,andothertoolsandprovisionstoensurecomfortintheafterlife.BibliographyChowdhury,J.N.(1971).AComparativeStudyofAdiReli-gion.Shillong:North-EastFrontierAgency.Duff-Sutherland-Dunbar,G.(1905).AborandGalong.MemoirsoftheRoyalAsiaticSocietyofBengal,5(extranumber).Calcutta.Ffirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1954)."ReligiousBeliefsandRitualPracticesoftheMinyongAborsofAssam,India."Anthropos49:588-604.EncyclopediaofWorldCulturesVolumeIIISOUTH AsiA AnavilBrahman7AhirETHNONYMS:Gahra,Gaolan,Gaoli,Gerala,Goala,Golkar,Mahakul,RawatTheAhirareacasteofcowherds,milkers,andcattlebreederswidelydispersedacrosstheGangeticPlain,espe-ciallyinthemoreeasternlypart(Bihar,Bengal,andeasternMadhyaPradesh).TheAhiirmustnumberwelloveramilliontoday:theynumbered750,000in...

... 14Assameseahead.Theirlivesrevolvearoundriceproduction.Theyhavebuilttheirhousessothattheirfieldscanbeeasilyviewedastheircropsgrow;thegranaryispositionedatthefrontofeachhousesoafarmercanriseinthemorningandseehisstoreofricebeforeanythingelse.WithintheAssamesereligionaformofHinduismexistswithtwocontrastingemphases,thatofcasteandthatofsect.Incasteonefindspolytheism,hierarchy,membershipbybirth(inheritedstatus),collectiveideasofhumanity(castegroups),mediationofritualspecialists,ritesconductedinSanskritthroughpriests,complexityandextravaganceofrit-ual,multiplicityofimages,andsalvationthroughknowledgeorworks.Insectsonecanfindmonotheism,egalitarianismamongbelievers,membershipbyinvitation(acquiredstatus),BadagaETHNONYMS:Badacar,Badager,Baddaghar,Bergie,Budaga,Buddager,Buddagur,Burga,Burgher,Vadaca,Vadacar,Vud-daghur,Wuddghur(allformerspellings)OrientationIdentification.Thename"Badaga"(northerner)wasgiventothisgroupbecausetheymigratedfromtheplainsofMysoreDistrict,justtothenorthoftheNilgiriHills,inthedecadesfollowingtheMusliminvasionthatdestroyedthegreatHinduempireofVijayanagarinA.D.1565.BadagaisalsoacommonnamefortheGaudas,whoarebyfarthelarg-estphratryinthiscommunity.Inthenineteenthcenturythenamewasspelledinvariousways.TheBadagasarethelarg-estcommunityintheNilgiriHillsofTamilNaduState(for-merlyMadras)insouthernIndia,betweenlatitude11°and1°30'N.Location.TheBadagasoccupyonlythesmallNilgirisDis-trictatthejunctionofKerala,Karnataka,andTamilNadustates,buttheysharetheirterritorywithmanyothertribalgroupsandanevenlargernumberoffairlyrecentimmigrantsfromtheplainsofsouthIndia.Thedistrictareais2,549squarekilometers,aboutthesameasthestateofRhodeIs-land.AlthoughthemajorityofBadagasarestillsmall-scalefarmers,thereisnowasizablemiddleclasslivinginthefourmainBritish-builttownsontheplateau,andthecommunityindividualideasofhumanity(individualinitiates),directac-cesstoscripturalrevelation,worshipconductedinthever-nacularbythecongregation,simplicityofworship,incarna-tionofGodinthewrittenword,andsalvationthroughfaithandmysticalunion.BibliographyCantlie,Audrey(1984).TheAssamese.LondonandDublin:CurzonPress.CensusofIndia1961.Vol.3,Assam.NewDelhi:ManagerofPublications.LeSHONKIMBLEcanboastseveralthousandcollegegraduates.Badagadoc-tors,lawyers,teachers,andgovernmentofficialsareveryplen-tiful,andtherearealsoafewprofessors,agronomists,andpoliticians.Althoughstilllargelyaruralpopulation,theyhaveashigharateofliteracy(inTamilandEnglish)astheinhabitantsofMadrasCity.Afewhouseholdscanboastcarsandimportedvideotapeplayers.Severaldozendoctors,engi-neers,andarchitectshaverecentlysettledwiththeirfamiliesinAmerica.Demography.TheBadagasnumberanestimated145,000(1991),about19percentofthedistrictpopulationof630,169(asof1981).ProgressiveattitudeshavemadetheBadagasanunusuallysuccessfulfarmingcommunity.Popula-tionfiguresfromtheofficialcensusesbearoutthissuccess:in1812therewerereportedlyonly2,207Badagas;by1901therewere34,178;today,about145,000.Bydevelopingintensivecash-cropcultivationtheyhavemanagedtoaccommodatethisgreatlyincreasedlaborforceandimprovetheirstandardofliving.Withbirthcontrolinpracticenowforsometwentyyears,theannualpopulationgrowthrateisdowntoabout1.5percent(ourestimate).LinguisticAffiliation.AllBadagas-andonlyBadagas-speakBadaga,ormorecorrectlyBadugu,aDravidianlan-guage.Itisnowadistinctlanguage,butitwasoriginallyde-rivedfromsixteenth-centuryKannada(orCanarese),whichbelongstotheSouthDravidianSubfamily.TodayitcontainsmanywordsofEnglishandTamilorigin,aswellasmanyfromSanskrit.InpremoderntimesthelanguageservedasalinguafrancaamongthevariousNilgiritribes.Bhil39barkofbamboo.Clothingisboughtready-made.Earthen-warevesselsneedtobetradedforfromneighboringpottercastes.VohraandVaniatradersthatsetupshopinweeklymarketsaretheBhils'primarysourcesforironimplements,spices,salt,andornaments.Foralltheseproducts,theBhiltradeexcessagriculturalproduce,suchasgrainandvegeta-bles,aswellasproductsoftheforest,suchaswildhoneyandmahuaflowers.TheuncertainnatureoftheBhileconomyhasonmanyoccasionsmadethemdependentonmoneylend-ersforfundstomakeitthroughperiodsofscarcity,aswellastopayforceremoniesassociatedwithimportantritualocca-sions.Fortheseloans,collateralmaybeintheformoffuturecropharvestsorindenturedlabor.DivisionofLabor.Thefather,asheadofthehousehold,controlsthepooledincomeofallmembersofthefamilyanddistributesthedailyworkamongthem.Themotherassignsandsupervisestheworkamongherdaughtersanddaughters-in-law.Thesedutiesincludethepreparationofthefamilymealanditsdeliverytothemeninthefields.Drawingwaterfromitssource,milkingthecows,cleaningthecattleshed,andgatheringfirewoodandwildfruitsaresomeofwomen'sdailywork.Inagriculture,thewomenassistintransplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Thechildrenaregenerallyassignedthetaskoftakingthecattleouttopasture.Theagriculturalworkofplowingandsowingisdonebythemenandhuntingisprimarilyamaleactivity.LandTenure.Thepeacefulsolutiontotheconflictbe-tweentheBhilsandtheirneighborsinthelatenineteenthcenturyprovidedthetribalswith ... landforcultivation.ShiftingagriculturethattheBhilspracticedwasendedbygovernmentmeasuresthatbroughtpressuretosettlepermanentlyandfarmthelandsallocatedtothem.Landholdingsrangefrom1.2to6hectareswithfruitandnontimbertreesconsideredaspartofthepropertyiftheowner'sfatherhadharvestrightstothem.Timbertreesarethepropertyofthestate.PropertytaxesarepaidtothegovernmentannuallyandtheBhilsrarelyfallbehindinthesepayments,forfearofoffendingthegoddessofearthandbringingmisfortuneupontheircrops.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Withineach32-to40-kilometerradius,thelimitsofatribalanddialectalboundary,theBhilaredividedintoataks(clans),patrilinealexogamousdescentgroups.Clansareledbychiefswhohaveparamountpowerinmattersconcerningtheclanorcaste.Theseclansmaybesegmented,witheachportiondistributedamongsimi-lardivisionsofotherclansoverawidearea.Aprocessoffis-sionappearstobequiteactivelyinvolved,resultingindisper-sionofthepolysegmentaryclans.Clanshipappearstohavepracticallynoregionalorcorporatefunction.Thestructuralimportanceofclanshipislimited,apparently,toservingasguidelinesfordeterminingtheextentofexogamyas ... thatinBilaspurtheyadoptedChhattisgarhi,inMandlaandJub-bulporetheyspokeamodifiedEasternHindi,inBalaghattheyspokeMarathi,Hindi,Gondi(oracombinationofMarathi,Hindi,andGondi),andBaigani(alanguageofIndo-AryanStockbelongingtotheIndo-EuropeanPhylum).HistoryandCulturalRelationsBaigacontactwithotherpeoplesandknowledgeofregionsbeyondtheirownhasbeenminimal.Manyhaveneverheardofmajorurbanareasadjacenttotheirimmediateenvirons,suchasNagpur,Delhi,andBombay.RelationswiththeBrit.ishduringcolonialrulewerefavorableoverall;theonlysub-stantialpointofcontentionbetweenthetwopartieswaslimi-tationsplacedonbewar(shiftingagriculture)bytheBritish.AsIndiasoughtindependencefromBritishrule,mythologi-caltraditionsaboutMahatmaGandhibegantoemerge,su-perhumanstatusbeingascribedtohimbytheBaiga.Never-theless,Gandhi'sattitudetowardalcoholprohibitiondid48BohraandpracticesandthoseofregularMuslimsare:theDaudiBohraspayspecialattentiontoAli,tohissons,HassanandHussain,andtotheirhighpriest,theMullahSahibofSurat;theypayspecialattentiontocircumcision;theyrejecttheva-lidityofthethreecaliphs,AbuBakrSidik,Umar,andUsman;andatdeathaprayerforpityonthesoulandthebodyofthedeceasedislaidinthedeadman'shand.TheJaafariBohrasareSunnisinfaith.Theyhavenoreligioushead,butmanytraditionallyhavefollowedspiritualguides.ManyofthemareknownasKabariasfrombeingdevotedtothekabarorgraveofPirMuhammadShahatAhmedabad.Asalreadystated,theNagoshis'founderheldthepeculiardoc-trinethatanimalfoodwassinful;otherwisetheirreligioussectisverymuchliketheAliasect.TheSulaimaniBohrasonlydifferfromtheDaudiintheirrecognitionofthereligiousheadofthesect.TheirhighpriesttraditionallylivesinNajramintheHifainArabia.TheAliaBohrasstronglyre-sembletheSulaimaniBohrasintheirreligiouspractices.ManySunniBohrastraditionallyhavespiritualguides,whoaregivenmuchrespect,andmanyalsostillkeeptocertainHindupractices.Theygivedeathandmarriagedinners;theysometimesgiveHindunamestotheirchildrenormodifyMuslimones.SomeSunniBohras,however,arefollowersoftheGheit-MukallidteachersoftheWahabisect,whofollowstrictMuslimcustoms.BibliographyEngineer,AsgharAli(1980).TheBohras.Sahibabad:VikasPublishingHouse.Enthoven,ReginaldE.,ed.(1920)."Bohoras."TheTribesandCastesofBombay.Vol.1,197-207.Bombay:GovernmentCen-tralPress.Reprint.1975.Delhi:CosmoPublications.groupsaredescendantsofacommonancientAustroasiaticprogenitor.TheclassicethnographicaccountofBondocul-tureisElwin's1950study.Location.ThelocusofBondocultureextendsfromap-proximately18020'to18°30'Nand82°20'to82°30'E.TheBondohomeland(sometimesknownasBara-jangar-des)isahillyhabitatthatoverlookstheMachkundValleyandtheMalkangiriPlain.Theaverageannualrainfallisapproxi-mately150centimeters.Settlementsfallintothreegeo-graphicgroupings:theBara-jangargroup(alsoknownasMundlipadaorSerayen);theGadabagroup(northeastofMundlipada);andthePlainsgroup.Thefirstoftheseareasisthemostimportant.ItistheBondocapitalandisalsobe-lievedtohavebeentheancientBondohomeland.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatthetwelvevillagesthatbringyearlytrib-utetotherulerofthisplacearetheoriginalBondosettle-ments(eachhavingbeenfoundedbyoneoftwelvebrothers).Demography.In1971therewere5,338Bondos,75,430Gadabas,and227,406Porojas.linguisticAffiliation.TheBondospeakalanguageofMundaStockbelongingtotheAustroasiaticPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyprehistoryoftheBondoisunclearbecausethereexistnophysicalremainsuponwhichtobaseareconstruc-tionoftheirorigin.Itisbelievedthattheiroriginalhomeisnortheastoftheirpresenthabitat.ElwinconcurswithChristophvonFurer-Haimendorf'ssuggestionthattheBondobelongtothegroupofneolithicAustroasiaticpeopleswhocultivatedricebymeansofirrigationandterracing,do-mesticatedcattleforsacrificialanddietarypurposes,anderectedmegaliths(e.g.,dolmens,stonecircles,andmenhirs).Insaf,Saifuddin(1986).TheBohraControversy(AsReflectedthroughNewspapers)(inGujarati).Surat:CentralBoardofDawoodiBohraCommunityPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOBondoETHNONYMS:BondaGadaba,BondoPoroja,PorJa,RemoOrientationIdentification.TheBondoareanAustroasiaticpeoplewhoinhabittheareanorthwestoftheMachkundRiverinthestateofOrissa,India.WhiletheculturalrelationshipbetweentheBondoandneighboringpeoples(e.g.,thePorojaandGadaba)hasbeendebated,largelybecauseofsubstantialdif-ferencesinappearance,personaladornment,socialnorms,andreligiousbeliefs,VerrierElwinhasconcludedthatasuffi-cientdegreeofculturalcommonalityexistsbetweentheBondosandGadabastowarrantthesuggestionthatbothSettlementsGeneralizationsregardingthenatureofBondovillagesarenoteasilymade.ThetypicalBondovillageisbuilteitheralongorascendingahillside,reasonablyclosetoaspring.Theplace-mentofindividualdomicilesfollowsnosetpatternandtherearenoregularthoroughfareswithinvillageboundaries.Thegroupingofhousesaccordingtoclanobtainsattimes,butforthemostpartsocialandotherdistinctionshavenoimpactonthearrangementofhouses.Thesindibor(thestoneplatformthatisthelocusofvillagesocialandreligiousceremonies)isplacedatsomeshadyspotwithinthevillage.Villagesarenotfortifiedandtendtobesurroundedbygardenscontaininganassortmentoftrees,spiceplants,andotherplants.Fieldsforcultivationarelocatedinthegeneralproximityofthevillage.Publicstructureswithinthevillageconfinesincludemanurepitsandmaleandfemaledormitories.ThetypicalBondohouse,composedofmud,wood,andthatchinggrass,containstwomainroomsandaveranda.Attachedtotheoutsideofthehouseisaplaceforpigs.Cattle,goats,andchickensarealsohousedinthevicinityofthe...

... eldersisstressed.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Chakmasocietyishierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasisofage,sex,occupation,power,religion,wealth,andeducation.Anolderpersonisinvariablyre-spectedbyayoungerperson.Thehusbandismorepowerfulthanthewifeinthefamily;andamanisaffordedmorestatusoutsidethefamily.PowerisunequallydistributedinChakmasociety(seebelow).Thesocietyisalsohierarchicallyor-ganizedonthebasisofreligiousknowledgeandpracticeasfollows:monks,novices,religiouslydevotedlaymen,andcommoners.Educatedpersonswhoareengagedinnonagri-culturalworkareespeciallyrespected.Wealthalsoinfluencesbehaviorindifferentaspectsofsociallife.PoliticalOrganization.Theentirehillregionofsouth-easternBangladesh(whichisdividedintothethreepoliticalandadministrativedistrictsofRangamati,Khagrachhari,andBandarban)isalsodividedintothreecircles,eachhavingitsownindigenousname:MongCircle,ChakmaCircle,andBohmangCircle.Eachcircle,withamultiethnicpopulation,isheadedbyarajaorindigenouschief,whoisresponsibleforthecollectionofrevenueandforregulatingtheinternalaf-fairsofvillageswithinhiscircle.TheChakmaCircleisheadedbyaChakmaraja(theMongandBohmongcirclesbyMarmarajas).Unlikethesituationintheothertwocircles,ChakmaCircle'schieftaincyisstrictlyhereditary.Eachcircleissubdividedintonumerousmouzaor"reve-nuevillages"(alsoknownasgram,or'villages"),eachunderaheadman.Heisappointedbythedistrictcommissioneronthebasisoftherecommendationofthelocalcirclechief.Thepostofheadmanisnotintheoryhereditary,butinpracticeusuallyitis.Theheadmanhas,amongotherthings,tocollectrevenueandmaintainpeaceanddisciplinewithinhismouza.Finally,eachmouzacomprisesaboutfivetotenpara(alsocalledadam).Thesearehamlets,eachwithitsownkarbariorhamletchief.Heisappointedbythecirclechief,inconsulta-tionwiththeconcernedheadman.Thepostofkarbarialsoisusuallyhereditary,butnotnecessarilyso.Eachhamletcom-prisesanumberofclustersofhouseholds.Theheadofahouseholdorfamilyisusuallyaseniormalemember,thehus-bandorfather.Inadditiontothesetraditionalpoliticalarrangements(circle,village,andhamlet,eachhavingachieforhead),thelocalgovernmentsystem(imposedbythecentralgovem-ment)hasbeeninoperationsince1960.Fortheconvenienceofadministration,Bangladeshissplitintofourdivisions,eachunderadivisionalcommissioner.Eachoneisfurthersubdividedintozila,ordistricts.Theadministrativeheadofazilaiscalledadeputycommissioner.Eachzilaconsistsofsev-eralupazilaorsubdistricts,headedbyanelectedupazilachairman(electedbythepeople).Heisassistedbyagovern-mentofficerknownasupazilanirbahi,theofficerwhoisthechiefexecutivethere.Eachupazilaconsistsofseveralunionparishadorcouncils.AnelectedChairmanheadsaunionparishad.Severalgrammakeupaunionparishad.Thisad-ministrativesetupisalsofoundinthedistrictsofthehillre-gion.TheChakmaandotherethnicminorityhillpeopleareincreasinglyacceptingthislocalgovernmentalsystembe-causethegovernmentundertakesdevelopmentprojectsthroughthisstructure.SocialControl.Traditionallythevillageheadmanwouldsettledisputes.Ifcontendingpartieswerenotsatisfiedwiththearbitration,theymightmakeanappealtotheChakmaraja,thecirclechief.Traditionallyhewasthehighestauthor-itytosettlealldisputes.Todaytheycanmovetothegovem-mentcourtsiftheyarenotsatisfiedwiththeraja'sjudgments.AlthoughChakmawereusuallyexpectedtogettheirdisputessettledeitherbytheheadmanorraja,theyarenowatlibertytogotothesecourts.Inrecenttimes,dependingonthena-tureandseriousnessofdisputes,theChakmaareincreasinglydoingthisratherthansettlingdisputeslocally.Conflict.Inthepast,theChakmafoughtagainsttheBrit-ishimperialgovernmentseveraltimesbutfailed.Inrecenttimes(since1975),theyhavebecomeawareoftheirrights.Theydonotliketheinfluxofthenontribalpopulationinthehillregion,andtheyconsideritanimportantcauseoftheirgrowingeconomichardships.Therefore,since1975,someChakma(andafewfromothertribes)havefoughttobanishnontribalpeoplefromthehillregion.Thegovernmentistry-ingtonegotiatewiththeChakmaandothertribalelitestosettlethismatter.Ithasalreadygivensomepolitical, eco- nomic,andadministrativepowerstoelectedrepresentativesoftheChakmaandotherhillpeople.Theserepresentatives(whoaremostlyhillmen)aretryingtonegotiatewiththeChakma(andother)agitatorsonbehalfofthegovernment.Manydevelopmentprojectshavealsobeenundertakenbythegovernmentinthehillregion,sothattheeconomicconditionoftheChakmaandotherethnicpeoplesmightimprovegradually.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheChakmaareBuddhists.ThereisaBuddhisttemple(kaang)inalmosteveryChakmavillage.TheygivegiftstothetempleandattendthedifferentBud-dhistfestivals.TheChakmafollowTheravadaBuddhism,theirofficialandformalreligion.Buddhismdominatestheirlife.Indeed,itisnowaunifyingforceinthesoutheasternhillregionofBangladesh,asBuddhismisthecommonreligionofChakma,Marma,Chak,andTanchangya.TheseethnicgroupscelebratetogetheratoneannualBuddhistfestivalcalledKathinChibarDan,inwhichtheymakeyam(fromcotton),giveitcolor,drytheyam,weavecloth(formonks),andformallypresentthiscloth(aftersewing)tothemonksinafunction.TheChakmaalsobelieveinmanyspiritbeings,includingafewHindugoddesses.Someofthesearemalevo-lentwhileothersarebenevolent.Theytrytopropitiatemalev-olentspiritsthroughtheexorcistsandspiritdoctors(baidyo).Theyalsobelieveinguardianspiritsthatprotectthem.Themalevolentspiritsarebelievedtocausediseasesanddestroycrops.ReligiousPractitioners.ManyChakmagotothetemplestolistentothesermonsofthemonksandnovices.Theyalsogivefoodtothemonks,novices,andtheBuddha'saltar.Themonksreadsermonsandparticipateinlife-cyclerituals,buttheydonottakepartinvillagegovernmentaffairs.Inaddi-tiontothemonks,exorcistsandbaidyoarebelievedtomedi-atebetweenhumansandtheworldofspiritsthroughincanta-tions,charms,possession,andsympatheticactions.ChitpavanBrahman69ityinmanyChitpavans'speech.ThelasttracesmaybeseeninthepopulardidacticbookofshortsketchesbySaneGuruji(1899-1950),ShyamchiAi(Shyam'sMother),publishedin1933andstillreadforenjoyment,moraltales,anditsculturalimportance.HistoryandCulturalRelationsFromthebeginningoftheeighteenthcenturytothecontem-poraryperiod,ChitpavanshaveplayedapartinthehistoryofIndiafarbeyondtheirnumbers.Unheardofbeforethelateseventeenthcentury,theChitpavansbegantheirrisetofamewiththeappointmentofBalajiVishwanathBhataspeshwa(primeminister)toShahu,thegrandsonofthefounderoftheMarathaKingdom,Shivaji.BalajiraisedtheofficeofthepeshwatodefactoruleoftheMarathaEmpire,andfrom1713untiltheirdefeatbytheBritishin1818,thepeshwasruledoneofthelastlargeindependentkingdomsinIndia.Duringthisperiod,ChitpavansfromtheKonkanjoinedthemilitaryandadministrativeranksoftheMarathaEmpireinlargenumbers.ChitpavansservednotonlyinthecitiesoftheMarathi-speakingareabutalsointheotherkingdomsoftheMarathaexpansion:Gwalior,Baroda,Indore.EvenaftertheBritishvictoryoverthepeshwa,oneoftheimportantChitpavanadministrativefamilies,thatofthePatwardhans,waslefttorulesevensmallprincelystatesinsouthernMarathaterritory.Thepeshwahimselfwasexiledtothenorthlestheformanucleusofrebellion,andtheBritishruledwhatthenbecamepartofBombayPresidency.NanaSaheb,theheirofthepeshwa,becamefromhisexilenearKanpur(Cawnpore)oneoftheimportantfiguresinthe1857rebel-lionagainsttheBritish.UnderBritishrule,theChitpavansquicklytooktoEng-lisheducation,andmostofthefamousnamesofMarathahistoryfromthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesarefromthiscaste:theearlyreformerandessayistHariGopalDeshmukh(Lokahitawadi)(1823-1892);reformersandna-tionalistsonanall-IndiascaleMahadeoGovindRanade(1842-1901)andGopalKrishnaGokhale(1866-1915),whomGandhicalledoneofhisgurus;themostfamousMaharashtrianwomanofthenineteenthcentury,educatorandChristianconvertPanditaRamabai(1858-1922);theradicalpatriotBalGangadhar(Lokamanya)Tilak(1856-1920);theHindurevivalistVinayakDamodarSavarkar(1893-1966);orientalistsPandurangVamanKane(1880-1972)andRamchandraNarayanDandekar(b.1909);econ-omistD.R.Gadgil(1901-1971);MahatmaGandhi's"spiri-tualsuccessor,"VinobaBhave(1895-1982);anthropologistIravatiKarve(1905-1970);cricketerD.B.Deodhar(b.1891);andmanyothers.EvenMaharashtra's"terrorists"wereChitpavan,fromthenineteenth-centuryrebelWasudeoBalwantPhadke,throughtheChapekarbrothersinthe1890s,toNathuramVinayakGodse,Gandhi'sassassinin1948.ThenationalistactivitiesoftheChitpavans,bothradi-calandmoderate,causedconsiderablehatredandfearonthepartofsomeBritons,andtherearemanyreferencestothear-rogantand"untrustworthy"ChitpavansintheRajliterature.Maharashtrianstodayarejustifiablyproudofthemanycon-tributionstoIndiannationalismmadebyChitpavans.WiththeriseofGandhiafter1920,theMaharashtraareaceasedtobeamaincenterofIndianpoliticallife,andsuchChitpavanpoliticalfiguresasTilak'ssuccessor,N.C.Kelkar,hadlittlepoweronthenationalscene.Thenon-BrahmanpoliticalmovementbroughtthelargecasteoftheMarathastothefore,anditisclaimedthatChitpavanN.R.Gadgilbroughtthenon-BrahmanleadershipintotheIndianNationalCongresstostrengthenthat ... hisbehavioraccordingtothecontext(e.g.,atworkheadoptsasecularselfwithoutobservingcastetaboos,butathomeheisacasteHindu).Castebecomesapotentforceinamoderndemocraticpoliticalsystemwhenitbecomesacasteblockwhosemem-berscanaffecttheoutcomeofelections.Atlocallevelsthiscanleadtoamonopolyofpowerbyonecaste,butnocasteislargeenoughorunitedenoughtodosoatanationallevel.Anothermoderntrendistobefoundamongmigrantsfromruralpartswhotendtosettleclosetoeachotherinthecity,formingacasteneighborhood.Oftentheyformcasteassocia-tionsforcivicandreligiouspurposes(e.g.,celebratingInde-pendenceDayorperformingreligiousrecitals).Inadditiontheymaypetitionforgovernmentbenefits,setupstudenthostels,commissionthewritingofacastehistory,orinotherwayspromotethewelfareoftheirgroup.Inrecenttimessomehighcasteshaveresentedtheprivilegesnowflowingtolowcastesandhaveeventakenthematterintotheirownhandsinintercommunalstrife.SeealsoBengali;Brahman;Kshatriya;Sudra;Untoucha-bles;VaisyaBibliographyBerreman,GeraldD.(1979).CasteandOtherInequities:Es-saysonInequality.NewDelhi:ManoharBookService.Kolenda,PaulineM.(1978).CasteinContemporaryIndia:BeyondOrganicSolidarity.ProspectHeights,Ill.:WavelandPress.68Stevenson,H.N.C.(1943).TheEconomicsoftheCentralChinTribes.Bombay:TimesofIndiaPress(forTheGovern-mentofBurmainExile).F.K.LEHMAN(MARK-PA)Schermerhorn,RichardAlonzo(1978)."TheChinese:AUniqueNationalityGroup."InEthnicPluralityinIndia,byRichardAlonzoSchermerhorn,290-313.Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress.Thurston,Edgar(1909).'Chinese-TamilCross."InCastesandTribesofSouthernIndia,editedbyEdgarThurstonandKadamkiRangachari.Vol.2,98-100.Madras:GovernmentPress.PAULHOCKINGSChineseofSouth Asia ETHNONYMS:Chini,IndianChineseThisarticlerefersnottoChinesesoldiers,whoformorethanthirtyyearshavepatrolledtheTibetanborderthatformsthenorthernlimitofSouth Asia, butrathertoethnicChi-nesewhohavelivedmainlyinmajorSouthAsiancitiesforacenturyormore.In1982therewere700ChineseinBan-gladesh,110,000inIndia,3,600inPakistan,and3,000inSriLanka.Therearealso700,000ChineseinMyanmar(Burma),whousuallyareclassifiedasChineseofSoutheast Asia (ratherthanofSouth Asia) .InallSouthAsiannationstheChinesepopulationhasincreasedsince1955,although,exceptinMyanmar,theyareasmallminority.Calcutta,Bombay,Madras,Delhi,andColomboeachhavesizablepop-ulations,withmostoftheChineseprovidingspecialized eco- nomicservicessuchasrunningshoeshopsandrestaurants;inCalcuttaChinese-ownedtanneriesarealsoimportant.EvenatownthesizeofOotacamund(population100,000)hastwolong-residentChinesebusinessfamilies.AfewBuddhistpilgrims,mostnotablyFaHien(fl.A.D.399-414),cametoIndiafromChinainveryearlytimes;andearlyinthefifteenthcenturyafewthousandcametothecoastofKerala,toCalicut,withtheMingexpeditions;butitwasonlyafter1865thatChinesecameinsignificantnum-bers.Theyworkedasteaplantationlaborers,carpenters,roadbuilders,tradesmen,andseamen'slaunderers;alsoafewwereconvicts.ThosewhomigratedtoSouth Asia camemainlyfromthesoutheasternprovincesofGuangdong,Hunan,Jiangxi,andFujian,speakingeitherCantoneseorHakka(aminoritylan-guageofthatregion).TheytendedtosettleintheseaportsofSouth Asia, andtheyhaveremainedinsomecasesforfiveorsixgenerations.Although ... tothegovernment.TheChakmarajatraditionallyreceivedasmallportionoftaxonswiddenland.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.Theparibar(family)isthebasickinshipunitinChakmasociety.Beyondtheparibarandbari(homestead),multihouseholdcompoundsarethenextwidestunit,themembersofwhichmayformworkgroupsandhelpeachotherinotheractivities.Nextarethehamlets,com-prisedofanumberofbari.Theyformworkgroupsfor eco- nomicactivitiesrequiringtravel,suchasswiddencultivation,fishing,collecting,etc.Hamletpeopleareorganizedandledbyaleadercalledthekarbari.Thevillageisthenextlargergroupwhoarrangeafewritualstogether.DescentamongtheChakmaispatrilineal.Whenawomanmarries,sheleavesherownfamilyandisincorporatedintothatofherhusband.Propertyisinheritedinthemaleline.Despitethepatrilineal-ity,somerecognitionisgiventomaternalkin.Forexample,anindividual'smother'sfamilywillparticipateinhisorhercremationceremony.KinshipTerminology.ThepatrilinealnatureoftheChakmakinshipsystemispartiallyreflectedinthekinshipterminology.Thus,differenttermsareusedtoaddressafa-ther'sbrotherandamother'sbrotherandtoaddressafa-ther'ssisterandamother'ssister.Ontheotherhand,inthegrandparentalgenerationthedistinctionbetweenpaternalandmaternalkindisappears,withallgrandfathersbeingcalledajuandallgrandmothersnanu.Inthefirstdescendinggeneration,thereisagainnodistinctionbetweenpatrilinealandothertypesofkin.Thusfather'sbrother'schildren,fa-ther'ssister'schildren,mother'sbrother'schildren,andmother'ssister'schildrenarealltermedda(male)anddi(female).MarriageandFamilyMarriage.PolygynousmarriagesarepermissibleamongtheChakma,althoughtheyarelesscommontodaythaninthepast.Marriagesareusuallyarrangedbytheparents,butopinionsofpotentialspousesareconsidered.Ifaboyandgirlloveeachotherandwanttomarry,theparentsusuallygivetheirconsentprovidedtherulesofmarriageallowthemtodoso.Chakmarulesofexogamyforbidmarriagebetweenpeoplebelongingtothesamegutti(orgusthi).Thisguttimaybede-finedasapatrilineagewhosememberstraditionallytraceddescentfromacommonancestorwithinsevengenerations.However,earlyinthepresentcenturyaChakmaprince,RamonyMohonRoy,tookforhiswifeawomanrelatedtohimwithinfivegenerations,bothbeingdescendantsofthesamegreat-grandfather.Followingthisexample,ithasnowbecomecommonformarriagestobeallowedwithanyonenotpatrilineallyrelatedwithinfourgenerations.Theguttiseemstohavebeenredefinedaccordingly.Inmorerecenttimes,Chakmastillsaythatmarriageshouldnottakeplacewithinthegutti,andyetitsometimeshappensthatsecondcousins(thedescendantsofthesamegreat-grandfather)arepermit-tedtomarry.Virilocalresidenceaftermarriageisthenormandpeopledonotlookfavorablyuponuxorilocalresidence;however,rareinstancesofuxorilocalresidencehavebeenreported.DomesticUnit.Thefamily(paribar)usuallycomprisesahusbandandwife,togetherwiththeirunmarriedchildren.However,thereareinstancesofmarriedsonswiththeirwivesandchildrenlivingtogetherwiththeirparentsinoneparibar.Usuallyallmembersoftheparibaroccupyasinglegharorhouse.However,ifaparibarexpandstothepointwhereitisimpossibleoruncomfortableforallmemberstoliveunderthesameroof,oneortwoannexesmaybeaddedatthesideofthemainbuilding.Butevenwhentheparibarmembersliveunderseparateroofs,theycontinuetocookandeattogether.Inheritance.Propertyisdividedequallyamongthesons.Thedaughtersusuallydonotinherit.Usuallyayoungersonwhocaresforhisparentsintheiroldagereceivesthehome-steadinadditiontohisshare.Socialization.Infantsandchildrenareraisedbybothpar-entsandsiblings.Inathree-generationfamily,grandparentsalsotakeactiverolesinsocializingandenculturatingthechil-58Castes,HinduMandelbaum,David.G.(1970).SocietyinIndia.2vols.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Raheja,GloriaG.(1988)."India:Caste,Kingship,andDom-inanceReconsidered."AnnualReviewofAnthropology17:497-522.W.D.MERCHANTChakmaETHNONYM:ChangmaOrientationIdentification.TheChakmaspeakadialectofBengaliorBangla,liveinsoutheasternBangladesh,andarepredomi-nantlyoftheBuddhistfaith.AlthoughtheyaregenerallyknownintheanthropologicalliteratureasChakma-andareofficiallysotermedinBangladesh-theyusuallycallthem-selvesChangma.Location.Bangladeshislocatedbetween20034'and26038'Nand88001'and92041'E.Chakma(andanotherelevenethnicminoritypeoples)occupythreehillydistrictsofBangladesh-Rangamati,Bandarban,andKhagrachhari.Thishillregioniscutbyanumberofstreams,canals,ponds,lakes,andeasternrivers;itcoversatotalareaofabout13,000squarekilometers.SomeChakmaalsoliveinIndia.Demography.Accordingtothe1981censusthetotalChakmapopulationinBangladeshwas212,577,makingthemthelargesttribalgroupinBangladesh.In1971afurther54,378ChakmawereenumeratedinneighboringIndianter-ritory.Theyconstitute50percentofthetotaltribalpopula-tionofthesoutheasternhillregion,althoughtherearealsomanyBengali-speaking(nontribalororiginallyplains)peopleintheregionwhomigratedthereatvarioustimesinthepast.Asaresult,Chakmanowconstitutelessthan30percentofthetotalpopulationofthatregion.In1964,thisregionlostitsofficiallydesignatedtribalstatus,andasaresultmanypeo-plefromtheplainsmigratedthere.LinguisticAffiliation.TheChakmaspeakadialectofBangla(Bengali),whichtheywriteinthestandardBanglascript.(Thisisthemothertongueofalmost99percentofthetotalpopulationinBangladesh-i.e.,ofsome110millionpeople.)However,itseemslikelythattheChakmaoncespokeanArakanese(Tibeto-Burman)language,whichtheylaterabandonedinfavoroftheIndo-EuropeantongueoftheirBengalineighbors.TheChakmawriterBirajMohanDewangivesafigureof80percentfortheBangla-derivedChakmavocabulary.HistoryandCulturalRelationsScholarsdifferontheoriginandhistoryofChakma.OnepopularviewamongtheChakmaisthattheirancestorsoncelivedinChampoknagar,althoughopinionsdifferastoitslo-cation.ItisalsoguessedthattheChakmaderivedtheirnamefromChampoknagar.AccordingtooralhistorytheChakmaleftChampoknagarforArakaninBurmawheretheylivedforabout100years.TheyhadtoleaveArakanforBangladeshinoraroundsixteenthcentury,whenBangladeshwasgovernedbyMuslimrulers,beforethearrivaloftheBritish.EvenifwedonotbelievethestoryoftheirorigininChampoknagar,wehavereasontobelievetheChakmalivedinArakanbeforetheymigratedtoBangladesh.Theywerethennomadicshift-ingcultivators.OntheirarrivalinBangladeshtheChakmachiefsmadeabusinesscontractwiththeMuslimrulers,promisingtopayrevenueortaxincotton.Inreturntheywereallowedtoliveinthehillregionandengageintradewiththelargersociety.Bythelateeighteenthcentury,Britishauthori-tieshadestablishedthemselvesinthesoutheasterndistrictsofBangladesh.TheBritishformallyrecognizedadefiniteter-ritoryoftheChakmaraja(theparamountchief).In1776,SherdoulatKhanbecametheChakmaraja.Hefoughtunsuc-cessfullyagainsttheBritish.FurtherfightingbetweentheChakmaandtheBritishtookplacebetween1783and1785.In1787,RajaJanbuxKhan,sonofSherdoulatKhan,madeapeacetreatywiththeBritishgovernment,promisingtopaythelatter500maundsofcotton.TheBritishrecognizedtheofficeofChakmarajathroughouttherestoftheirrule.Differ-entChakmarajasmaintainedgoodrelationswiththeauthor-itiesofcentraladministrationandtheChakmaincreasinglycameincontactwiththeBengalipeopleandculture.SettlementsTraditionallytheChakmabuildtheirhousesabout1.8me-tersabovethegroundonwoodenandbamboopiles.Withtheincreasingscarcityofbambooandwood,theyhavestartedtobuildhousesdirectlyonthegroundintheBengalistyle.TheChakmahaveasettledvillagelife.Afamilymaybuildahouseonaseparateplotofland.Afewfamiliesalsobuildhousesonthesameplotofland.Theseunits(clustersofhouses)areknownasbari(homestead).Anumberofbariconstituteahamlet(paraoradam).Anumberofhamletsmakeupagramorvillage.Thisisalsoknownasamouza,a"revenuevillage."Mosthousesarebuiltontheslopesofthehills,usuallynearstreamsorcanals.Bambooiswidelyusedinmakinghouses.Thepillarsaremadeofbamboo(orwood);theplatform(abovetheground)andwallsarealsoofbamboo.Theroofismadewithbambooandhemp.AveryfewChakmahavestartedusingtinformak-ingroofs.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theeconomyisbasedonagriculture.Chakmafarmersutilizethreedifferentmicroenvironments:flatlands,whichcanbeirrigated,slightlyhigherlands,whicharenotusuallyirrigated;andrela-tivelysteephighlands.Eachmicroenvironmentisutilizedforthecultivationofspecificcrops.Intheirrigatedlowlands,theChakmagrowwetrice.Hereplowingisdonewithasinglemetal-bladewoodenplowdrawnbybullocksorwaterbuffalo.TheChakmawholearnedplowagriculturefromBengalisinthemid-nineteenthcenturygrowwetricetwiceayearonthesameland.Thecropisharvestedbyhandwiththehelpofsickles.OnslightlyhigherlandstheChakmacultivateavari-Chin67theresultingdangerousspiritsandmadeitpossibletosendthemasservantstotheLandoftheDead.TheSouthernChinneverpracticedheadhunting.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheChin-Lushaitraditionalpantheoniscomplicated.Thereisgenerallyasomewhatremotecreatorgod,sometimeswithafemalecounterpart.SomesayhisrealmiscoextensivewiththeLandoftheDead.Heisreveredasaremotefatherfigure,buthispowerconsistsonlyofavagueabilitytoprotectoneagainstultimateadversity.Itisinthelightofthesecharacteristicsthatthetraditionalhighgodservedasasortofmodeltowhichthe...

... oldcultureiscomprisedofthreemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephaseofArabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ingofEnglish.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremadeoflocalvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothoseofotherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildingsofcoralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.NearbyistheairportislandofHulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstayoftheeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershareoffishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekindsofmilletsgrownandtarointhesouth.Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsourceofincome,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefitofmapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsourceofcowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunitof192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiplesof4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomiesofotherSouthAsiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.DivisionofLabor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjoboftwistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecasesoftheseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomostofthehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.BoatcrewsandleadersofIslamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorpartsofislandstoprominentpeopleforcollectionofproduce,aspartofitssystemofcontrol.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplotoflandforahouseandgardenintheirislandofregistration.InFueMulakuinthesouth,residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombinationofDravidianandArabwithelementsofNorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).ThematrilinealvariantoftheDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansinSouth Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:AWorldEthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,232-236.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).PeopleoftheMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:74-103.EuropeansinSouth Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:WhiletheimpactofEuropeontheSouthAsiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumberofEu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtensofthou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)ButevenintheheydayofBritishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000EuropeansinallofSouth Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-IndiansoftheSouthAsianmainland,andtheBurghersofSriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeopleofpart-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategoriesofEuropeansasbeingresidentinSouth Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.TechnicalspecialistsfromtheWorldHealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmostSouthAsiancountries.Studentsofanthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumberofveryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetimeofindependencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.WhiletheSouthAsianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestillofsomeimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.AtanygiventimetherearesomethousandsofAustralian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearchofreligiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtraditionofHinduspirituality.Someofthesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenterofAuroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.ThegreatmajorityofthesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(ManyofIndia'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-EuropeansfromotherSouthAsiancountries.)80EuropeansinSouth Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpactoftheBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesinSouth Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistoriesofthe"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothisvolume.Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreviewoftheadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiodofBrit-ishadministrationofmostofthesubcontinent.WemayinsteadhighlightthecontributionofEuropeansfromIndiatothearts.BestknownofcourseistheliterarycontributionofRudyardKipling(1865-1936),oneoftwoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore).Ofnumerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.TheartisticimpactoftheBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildingsofNewDelhi.LessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpactofthisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquityofschoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;FrenchofIndia;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,1793-1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomenofVictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeographyofaSouthIndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,334-359.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,1608-1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.FrenchofIndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(nameoftownandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritoryofPondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)WhilelegallystillcitizensofFranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituencyofNice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percentofthepresentpopulationofPondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifactoftheFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishmentofFrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajorityoftheseFrenchareHindusorChristiansoflocalormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percentofthemspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuchoftheirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansinSouth Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrenchofIndia(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:252-273.Ramasamy,A.(1987).HistoryofPondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-etyofPondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,1750-1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatractoftheupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbankoftheInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptionsoftheGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villagesoffrom400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileallofthismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitantsofGilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeakofthe'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroupoflanguagesoftheIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorthofPakistan.Ofthese,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpartoftheupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).TribesoftheHindooKoosh.Calcutta:SuperintendentofGovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRacesofDardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguageoftheRepublicoftheMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheislandofMaliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechainofatollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.ThecountrywasanexusofIndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands,ofwhich201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthtosouthandclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorthoftheMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherpartsofthearchipelago.Demography.Asof1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspartoftheCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecauseofstormsthatinterruptedimportsoffood,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrateof43per1,000andagrowthrateof3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecauseofthemomentumofIslamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarterofallDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhalaofSriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof ... oldcultureiscomprisedofthreemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephaseofArabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ingofEnglish.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremadeoflocalvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothoseofotherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildingsofcoralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.NearbyistheairportislandofHulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstayoftheeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershareoffishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekindsofmilletsgrownandtarointhesouth.Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsourceofincome,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefitofmapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsourceofcowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunitof192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiplesof4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomiesofotherSouthAsiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.DivisionofLabor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjoboftwistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecasesoftheseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomostofthehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.BoatcrewsandleadersofIslamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorpartsofislandstoprominentpeopleforcollectionofproduce,aspartofitssystemofcontrol.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplotoflandforahouseandgardenintheirislandofregistration.InFueMulakuinthesouth,residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombinationofDravidianandArabwithelementsofNorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).ThematrilinealvariantoftheDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansinSouth Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:AWorldEthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,232-236.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).PeopleoftheMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:74-103.EuropeansinSouth Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:WhiletheimpactofEuropeontheSouthAsiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumberofEu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtensofthou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)ButevenintheheydayofBritishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000EuropeansinallofSouth Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-IndiansoftheSouthAsianmainland,andtheBurghersofSriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeopleofpart-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategoriesofEuropeansasbeingresidentinSouth Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.TechnicalspecialistsfromtheWorldHealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmostSouthAsiancountries.Studentsofanthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumberofveryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetimeofindependencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.WhiletheSouthAsianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestillofsomeimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.AtanygiventimetherearesomethousandsofAustralian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearchofreligiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtraditionofHinduspirituality.Someofthesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenterofAuroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.ThegreatmajorityofthesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(ManyofIndia'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-EuropeansfromotherSouthAsiancountries.)80EuropeansinSouth Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpactoftheBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesinSouth Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistoriesofthe"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothisvolume.Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreviewoftheadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiodofBrit-ishadministrationofmostofthesubcontinent.WemayinsteadhighlightthecontributionofEuropeansfromIndiatothearts.BestknownofcourseistheliterarycontributionofRudyardKipling(1865-1936),oneoftwoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore).Ofnumerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.TheartisticimpactoftheBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildingsofNewDelhi.LessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpactofthisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquityofschoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;FrenchofIndia;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,1793-1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomenofVictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeographyofaSouthIndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,334-359.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,1608-1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.FrenchofIndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(nameoftownandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritoryofPondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)WhilelegallystillcitizensofFranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituencyofNice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percentofthepresentpopulationofPondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifactoftheFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishmentofFrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajorityoftheseFrenchareHindusorChristiansoflocalormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percentofthemspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuchoftheirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansinSouth Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrenchofIndia(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:252-273.Ramasamy,A.(1987).HistoryofPondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-etyofPondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,1750-1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatractoftheupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbankoftheInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptionsoftheGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villagesoffrom400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileallofthismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitantsofGilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeakofthe'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroupoflanguagesoftheIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorthofPakistan.Ofthese,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpartoftheupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).TribesoftheHindooKoosh.Calcutta:SuperintendentofGovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRacesofDardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguageoftheRepublicoftheMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheislandofMaliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechainofatollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.ThecountrywasanexusofIndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands,ofwhich201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthtosouthandclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorthoftheMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherpartsofthearchipelago.Demography.Asof1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspartoftheCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecauseofstormsthatinterruptedimportsoffood,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrateof43per1,000andagrowthrateof3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecauseofthemomentumofIslamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarterofallDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhalaofSriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof ... oldcultureiscomprisedofthreemainlayers:theTamil-Malayalamsubstratumwithitsmanysubtleroots;oldSinhalacultureandlanguage,whichisthedominantelement;andthephaseofArabicin-fluence.ButtheMaldivesweretouchedbyeveryculturalwindthatpassedovertheIndianOcean.SinceindependencetherehasagainbeeninfluencefromSriLanka,throughitsteachersbroughtovertosetupmodemeducationwithteach-ingofEnglish.UnusuallyrapidchangehasoccurredinDivehicultureinthepasttwenty-fiveyears.SettlementsThe201inhabitedislandsarethelargerorbestfishingis-lands.Housesaremadeoflocalvegetationandthatchorcoralstones,sometimeswithimportedironortileroofs.Peo-pledesirepleasanthouses,andtheyoftenarrangethemonstreetswiththeplotsmarkedbystickfences.Theislandisthesocialandadministrativeunit.Everybodyhasofficialregistra-tiononhisorherislandandcannotchangeittoanotheris-landwithouttwelveyears'residence.Eachislandcomprisesaninsularsocialcommunity,inwhichitsland,people,andproductsarepreferredtothoseofotherislands.Theislandsaregroupedintonineteenadministrativeatolls.Maleistheonlycity,withsomemultistoriedbuildingsofcoralstoneneatlywhitewashedandmostlybuiltalongthestraightsandystreets.Ithasapiousair,withthirty-fivemosquesandmanytombs.NearbyistheairportislandofHulule,witharunwayextendingonthereef.Some60"uninhabited"islandsarenowbuiltupasprofitabletouristresorts,whichespeciallyat-tractEuropeansinwinter,butthegovernmenttriestomini-mizetheirculturalinfluence.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Themaintradi-tionaleconomicactivitiesaretradingandfishing.Bonitosandlargertunaareamainstayoftheeconomy,caughtbypole-and-lineortrolling-linefromsailboatsormotorizedwoodenboats.ThefamousMaldivesfishispreparedbyboil-ing,drying,andsmoking.Amanmaximizeswealthbyacquir-ingfishingboatsbecausetheownergetsalargershareoffishthanthefishingcrew.Aboatownermightalsoobtaintherightfromthestatetoleaseuninhabitedislands,mainlyforcollectingcoconuts.Therearethreekindsofmilletsgrownandtarointhesouth.Somehomeshavebreadfruit,mango,papaya,andbananatrees,butfewvegetablesareeaten.Seatradehasalwaysbeenavitalsourceofincome,andnowthereisamodemshippingindustry;profitsfromitandtourismac-cruemostlytoafewprominentfamiliesinMale.Incomepercapitafromforeignaidisrelativelyhigh.IndustrialArts.Themoststrikingtraditionalcraftisbuildingwoodenboats,bothsmallandlargeoneswithlateensails,whichcanfishinthedeepseaandcarrygoodstothecontinents.Sailinglongdistanceswithoutbenefitofmapsandchartsisaremarkabletraditionalskill.Maldivesropetwistedfromcoconutcoirwasalwaysindemandbyforeignnavies.Theislandersalsomakefineproductssuchasmatswovenfromlocalreedsandlacquerworkonturnedwood.Cottonweaving,silverwork,stonecutting,andbrassworkhavemostlydiedout.Trade.FormanycenturiestheMaldiveswerefamousasthemainsourceofcowrieshells,usedasmoneyinBengalandAfrica.Divehisareskilledinrapidcounting,necessaryforhandlingcowries,coconuts,orfish.Thetraditionalmethodwastocountbytwosto96andmarkeachunitof192bylaying2coconutsontheside;theytherebycouldcountrap-idlytomanythousands.Thebasenumberwas12,whichClarenceMaloneyfindssignificantinMaldiveshistory.WhatismorepeculiaristhatIndo-Aryanwordsfor25,50,75,100,and1,000areappliedrespectivelyto24,48,72,96,and960,asthedecimalsystemhasbeenreplacingtheduodecimal.Weightsandmeasuresarebasedonmultiplesof4and12.Themainimportshavebeenrice,wheatflour,cottontextiles,kerosene,metalproducts,tobacco,salt,andcondiments.Nowthewholecountryisaduty-freeentrepot,contrastingwiththecontrolledeconomiesofotherSouthAsiancoun-tries,andthereismodembanking.DivisionofLabor.Menfish,whilewomenprepareanddrythefish.Mengrowmillets,whilewomencultivaterootcrops.Menconductinterislandandoverseastrade,climbcoconuttrees,andaretheartisansincotton,silver,lacquer,andstonework,whilewomenweavematsanddoembroidery.Womendothetediousjoboftwistingcoirintosmallropes,whichmenthentwistintothickropesfortheirboats.How-ever,thesesexrolesarenotabsolutelyfixed;therearecasesoftheseactivitiesbeingdonebytheothersex.Womendomostofthehouseworkandchildcare,butmenmayalsodoit.BoatcrewsandleadersofIslamicritualandlaw,however,areallmales.LandTenure.Alllandbelongstothestate,whichleasesuninhabitedislandsorpartsofislandstoprominentpeopleforcollectionofproduce,aspartofitssystemofcontrol.AllhouseholdsintheMaldives,exceptonMale,canclaimtherighttoaplotoflandforahouseandgardenintheirislandofregistration.InFueMulakuinthesouth,residentshavetherighttocultivateasmuchtarolandastheywish.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheDivehikinshipsysteminoriginisacombinationofDravidianandArabwithelementsofNorthIndiankinshipderivedfromSriLanka.Althoughthesethreesystemsaresharplyatvariance,theyareresolvedinDivehiculture.TheDravidiansystemisbasedonpreferredcross-cousinmarriage,andamaleclassifiesallfemalesasei-thersister(unmarriageable)orfemalecrosscousin(marriage-able).ThematrilinealvariantoftheDravidiansystemoccursEuropeansinSouth Asia 79Maloney,Clarence(1984).-Divehi."InMuslimPeoples:AWorldEthnographicSurvey,Vol.1,232-236.Rev.ed.,editedbyRichardWeekes.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Maloney,Clarence(1980).PeopleoftheMaldiveIslands.Ma-dras:OrientLongman.Ottovar,Annagrethe,andNilsFinnMunch-Petersen(1980).Maldiverneoet0samfundidetIndiskeOcean(TheMaldivianIslandcommunityintheIndianOcean).Copen-hagen:Kunstindustrimuseet.CLARENCEMALONEYANDNILSFINNMUNCH-PETERSENMunch-Petersen,NilsFinn(1982).'Maldives:History,DailyLife,andArtHandicraft."BulletinduC.E.M.O.I.(Brussels).1:74-103.EuropeansinSouth Asia ETHNONYMS:Ferangi(fromMemsahib;child:ChhotaSahib"Franks"),Sahib(fem.:WhiletheimpactofEuropeontheSouthAsiansubcon-tinenthasbeenimmeasurableanddatesbacklongbeforeVascodaGama'sexploratoryvisitin1498,thenumberofEu-ropeansresidentintheareanowismerelyafewtensofthou-sands.(Theymoveaboutsomuchthatacloseestimateisdif-ficult.)ButevenintheheydayofBritishimperialismtherewereonlyabout167,000EuropeansinallofSouth Asia (1931census).LeavingasidefromthisdiscussiontheAnglo-IndiansandLuso-IndiansoftheSouthAsianmainland,andtheBurghersofSriLanka,whoareallinfactlocalpeopleofpart-Europeanancestry,wecanidentifythefollowingcategoriesofEuropeansasbeingresidentinSouth Asia today.(1)Diplomatsandjournalists.Foundonlyinthecapitalcitiesandotherconsularposts.(2)Developmentworkers,etc.TechnicalspecialistsfromtheWorldHealthOrganization,otherUnitedNationsagen-cies,theU.S.PeaceCorps,etc.areregularlyencounteredinmostSouthAsiancountries.Studentsofanthropology,lin-guistics,andsomeothersubjectsmaybefoundalmostany-where,thoughneveringreatnumbers.SometeaandcoffeeplantationsinIndiastillhaveEuropeanmanagersandindeedareownedbyBritishcompanies.(3)RetiredBritishresidents.Asmallnumberofveryeld-erlypeoplewhoretiredinIndiaorSriLankaataboutthetimeofindependencearestillthere.(Most,however,leftthesub-continenttoretireinBritain,theChannelIslands,Cyprus,orAustralia.)(4)Christianmissionaries.WhiletheSouthAsianchurchesareessentiallyself-governing,severalhundredEuro-peanandAmericanmissionariesandCatholicpriestsandnunsmaystillbeencounteredintheregion.Theyarestillofsomeimportanceineducation,aswellasinfunnelingWest-emaidtotheirparishioners.(5)Religiousseekers.AtanygiventimetherearesomethousandsofAustralian,European,orAmericanpeople,usu-allyfairlyyoung,whoarewanderingaroundIndia,Nepal,andelsewhereinsearchofreligiousenlightenmentwithinthebroadtraditionofHinduspirituality.Someofthesepeoplehavebeenlooselyclassedas"hippies."Frenchpeoplearepar-ticularlyattractedtoPondicherryandthenearbyreligiouscenterofAuroville,whileothershavebeenespeciallyat-tractedtospecificashrams,toRishikeshandotherHima-layansites,ortotheTheosophicalCenterinMadrasCity.(6)Tourists.Theregionhasanenormoustouristpoten-tial,whichhasbeenslowlydevelopedsinceindependence,andin1991India,SriLanka,Nepal,andtheMaldiveshaveathrivingtouristindustry.Unlikethereligiousseekersmen-tionedabove,whomaystayformanymonths,ordinaryWest-erntouristsusuallyvisitforjusttwoorthreeweeks.ThegreatmajorityofthesetouristsarefromwesternEuropeandAustralasia.(ManyofIndia'stourists,ontheotherhand,arenon-EuropeansfromotherSouthAsiancountries.)80EuropeansinSouth Asia TheBritishImpactTheculturalandpoliticalimpactoftheBritishoverthepasttwocenturiesinSouth Asia hasbeenvastandextremelyper-vasive.Numeroushistoriesofthe"Britishperiod"testifytothis,anditisaninfluencereferredtointheIntroductiontothisvolume.Spacedoesnotpermitevenabriefreviewoftheadministrative,legal,religious,educational,publichealth,military,agricultural,industrial,sporting,andcommunica-tionaldevelopmentsthatoccurredduringtheperiodofBrit-ishadministrationofmostofthesubcontinent.WemayinsteadhighlightthecontributionofEuropeansfromIndiatothearts.BestknownofcourseistheliterarycontributionofRudyardKipling(1865-1936),oneoftwoIndian-bomwriterstoreceivetheNobelPrizeforLiterature(theotherwasRabindranathTagore).Ofnumerousprofes-sionalartiststoworkinIndia,themostoutstandingwastheAnglo-GermanpainterJohnZoffany,whoworkedtherefrom1783to1790.TheartisticimpactoftheBritishonIndianar-chitecturewasvast,andwelldocumented:witnessonlytheofficialbuildingsofNewDelhi.LessrecognizedduringthepresentcenturyhasbeentheimpactofthisrelativelysmallethnicgroupontheBritishfilmindustry.JulieChristie,VivienLeigh,MargaretLockwood,MerleOberon,andsev-eralotheractors,aswellasthedirectorLindsayAnderson,wereallbornandatleastpartlybroughtupinBritishIndia.Onemightwonderwhethertheubiquityofschoolplaysandamateurdramaticsocietiesinthaterahadsomethingtodowiththesecareers.SeealsoAnglo-Indian;FrenchofIndia;IndianChristianBibliographyBallhatchet,Kenneth(1980).Race,SexandClassundertheRaj:ImperialAttitudesandPoliciesandTheirCritics,1793-1905.NewYork:St.Martin'sPress.Barr,Pat(1976).TheMemsahibs:TheWomenofVictorianIndia.London:Secker&Warburg.Hervey,H.J.A.(1913).TheEuropeaninIndia.London:StanleyPaul&Co.Hockings,Paul(1989).'BritishSocietyintheCompany,Crown,andCongressEras."BlueMountains:TheEthnogra-phyandBiogeographyofaSouthIndianRegion,editedbyPaulEdwardHockings,334-359.NewDelhi:OxfordUniversityPress.Kincaid,Dennis(1938).BritishSocialLifeinIndia,1608-1937.London:GeorgeRoutledge&Sons.Moorhouse,Geoffrey(1983).IndiaBritannica.NewYork:Harper&Row.FrenchofIndiaETHNONYMS:FrenchTamils,Pondicheriens,Pondicherry(nameoftownandterritory)Therewere12,864FrenchnationalsresidinginIndiain1988.NearlyallareintheUnionTerritoryofPondicherryinsoutheasternIndia(11,726in1988),withmuchsmallernumbersinKaraikal(695individuals),Mahe(50),Yanam(46),and342elsewhereinIndia.(Thesewerecoastalpock-etsbelongingtotheformerFrenchEmpire.)WhilelegallystillcitizensofFranceandresidentaliensinIndia,theyareethnicallyIndian,about90percentbeingethnicTamils.Al-mostunaccountably,theyvoteintheFrenchconstituencyofNice.Theyformasmallminority,accountingforlessthan3percentofthepresentpopulationofPondicherry.TheFrenchinIndiaareanartifactoftheFrenchpres-encethere,whichbeganin1673withtheestablishmentofFrenchIndiaandcontinueduntil1962whentheFrenchter-ritorywasformallytransferredtoIndia.TheFrenchpresencewasalwayssmallandminorcomparedwiththeBritishpres-enceandtheFrenchinIndiaweregenerallyignored.Today,themajorityoftheseFrenchareHindusorChristiansoflocalormixedfamilyorigin,andlessthan50percentofthemspeakFrench.Atthesametime,however,FrenchistaughtinschoolsattendedbyFrenchIndianchildrenandadultFrenchclassesarewellattended,reflectinganinterestinmaintainingtiesandanallegiancetoFranceorinfindingjobswithFrenchcompanies.TheFrenchIndiansarethewealthiestgroupinPondicherry(asidefromthoserunningtheAurobindoAshram),derivingmuchoftheirincomefrompension(some20percentareretirees),socialsecurity,welfare,andotherprogramsoftheFrenchgovernment.TheyarealsoentitledtoemigratetoFrance,althoughfewdosoandtheFrenchgov-ernmentdoesnotencouragethepractice.SeealsoEuropeansinSouth Asia; TamilBibliographyGlachant,Roger(1965).Histoiredel'IndedesFranqais.Paris:LibrairiePlon.Miles,WilliamF.S.(1990)."CitizenswithoutSoil:TheFrenchofIndia(Pondicherry)."EthnicandRacialStudies13:252-273.Ramasamy,A.(1987).HistoryofPondicherry.NewDelhi:SterlingPublishers.Scholberg,Henry,andEmmanuelDivien(1973).Biblio-graphiedesFrangaisdansl'Inde.Pondicherry:HistoricalSoci-etyofPondicherry.Nilsson,Sten(1968).EuropeanArchitectureinIndia,1750-1850.London:FaberandFaber.Trevelyan,Raleigh(1987).TheGoldenOriole.NewYork:Vi-kingPenguin.PAULHOCKINGSDivehi75DardETHNONYMS:noneAlthoughthisnameappearsintheanthropologicalliter-ature,itseemsthatthereisnodiscreteculturalgroupidentifi-ableasDards.ItistruethatPlinyandPtolemyinancienttimesbothreferredtosuchapeopleinhabitingatractoftheupperIndusValleyinwhatistodayPakistan,andinthatareapeoplelivingontheleftbankoftheInduswerecalledDards.TheDards,basedondescriptionsoftheGilgitareaaround1870,aredescribedasahunting,herding,andfarmingpeoplewith:large,extendedfamiliesandsomepolygyny;sometrans-humance;noextensivecerealagriculture;villagesoffrom400to1,000inhabitants;patrilocalpostmaritalresidence;andnolocalizedclansbutlineagesorsibsspreadingbeyondasinglecommunity.Whileallofthismayhavebeentrueforthein-habitantsofGilgit,thereisstillsomequestionastowhetherthoselabeledDardsare,infact,adistinctculturalentity.Itismoreappropriatetospeakofthe'Dardicbranch,"atermusedbylinguiststodesignateasmallgroupoflanguagesoftheIndo-AryanSubfamilyspokeninandnearthenorthofPakistan.Ofthese,Kashmiriisthemostimportant.ThereisalsoaterritorythereknownasDardistan,whichincludesGilgitValley,Hunza,Chitral,Yasin,Nagar,Panyal,Kohis-tan,theAstoreValley,andpartoftheupperIndusValleybe-tweenBunjiandBatera.SeealsoKashmiri;KohistaniBibliographyBiddulph,John(1880).TribesoftheHindooKoosh.Calcutta:SuperintendentofGovernmentPrinting.Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRacesofDardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSDivehiETHNONYMS:Divehin,Dives,MaldiviansOrientationIdentification.DivehisarethosewhospeakDivehi,thelanguageoftheRepublicoftheMaldives.TheyoccupyalltheMaldivesandalsotheislandofMaliku(Minicoyonthemaps)tothenorth,whichbelongstoIndia.ThepeoplecallthemselvesDivehi(fromdive-si,meaning"island-er"),andtheircountryisDivehiRAjje(kingdom).Thename'Mal-dives"isprobablyfrommdild-dfv("garland-islands"inIndianlanguages),referringtothedoublechainofatollsthatap-pearslikeagarlandornecklace.ThewordatolisDivehi,origi-nallyspelledwithone1.ThecountrywasanexusofIndianOceanshipping,andithasremainedmostlyindependentsinceancienttimes.Location.TheMaldivesstretchfrom002'Sto7°0'N,withMinicoyat8°2'.Longitudeisabout730E.Thereareabout1,200islands,ofwhich201arepermanentlyinhabited.Theislandsarelowandflat,mostlylessthanakilometerlongwithonly9aslongas2kilometers,ringingcoralatolls.Totallandareaisonlyabout280squarekilometers,andnowhereisthelandmorethan2metersabovesealevel.TheMaldivesextendfor867kilometersnorthtosouthandclaimthesur-roundingoceanasnationalterritory.Malikuisthelargestis-land,16.5kilometerslongandlying140kilometersnorthoftheMaldivesproper,butitispoliticallycutofffromotherpartsofthearchipelago.Demography.Asof1991therewere228,000Divehis-220,000Maldiviansandroughly8,000onMaliku.Thefirstcensuswasin1911aspartoftheCeyloncensus,anditshowed72,237Divehison217inhabitedislands.Populationwaspreviouslykeptincheckbyepidemics,faminebecauseofstormsthatinterruptedimportsoffood,andcerebralmalaria,butduringrecentdecadesthepopulationhasbeenshootinguprapidly.The1990censusshowedacrudebirthrateof43per1,000andagrowthrateof3.5percentayear.Thegovern-menthastakenlittleinitiativeonfamilyplanningbecauseofthemomentumofIslamictradition.Malehas57,000people,aquarterofallDivehis,thoughitisonly1.6kilometerslongandthethingroundwaterlenshasbecomepolluted,sothegovernmenttriestocurbmigrationthere.Lifeexpectancyisabout62yearsformalesand60forfemales.LinguisticAffiliation.DivehiisderivedfromtheoldSinhalaofSriLanka,andsoitisclassifiableasanIndo-Aryanlanguage,althoughattheveryendof...

... asamoregeneralizedorganizingprincipleinGurungsociety.Descentintermsofrightstolineagere-sourcesandclanaffiliationispatrilineal,butdescentthroughthemother'slineinfluencesmarriagepossibilitiesand pro- hibitions.KinshipTerminology.TheGurungshaveawidearrayofkinterms,whicharehighlydifferentiatedandprecise.BirthorderandrelativeageareimportantmatricesinthestructureofGurungkinship.KintermsareusedfornearlyeveryonewithwhomGurungsinteract;unrelatedpersonsareassignedafictiveterm.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.MarriageandchildbearingareimportanttotheassumptionoffulladultstatusforGurungs.Marriagesarear-rangedwhendaughtersareintheirmid-tolateteensandsonsintheirlateteenstotwenties.Inpreviousgenerationstheageatmarriageforgirlswasearlier,fromabout9to13.AmongGurungs,cross-cousinmarriageispreferred.Thecat-egoryofcrosscousinisbroad,includingalargenumberofclassificatoryrelatives.Residenceispatrilocal,withaprefer-enceforvillageexogamy.Divorcecanbeinitiatedbyeitherthemanorthewoman.Bride-wealthintheformofgoldjew-elryisgiventothebrideatmarriage.Ifthehusbandinitiatesadivorcewithoutduecomplaint,suchasadultery,thewifehastherighttokeepthebride-wealth.However,ifthewifecausesorinitiatesthedivorcesheisrequiredtoreturnthebride-wealthtoherhusband.DomesticUnit.AmongGurungs,thedomesticunitchangesovertime.Ahouseholdwillbeginasanuclearfamily,and,assonsreachadulthoodandmarry,theirbridescomeintotheparentalhomeandremaintherewhiletheirfirstoneortwochildrenaresmall.Thedomesticunitisthenanextendedfamilyforaperiodoffivetotenyears.Astheson'schildrengrow,hewillbuildaseparateresidence,usuallynexttothatofhisparents.Inheritance.ResourcesaredistributedequallyamongsonsinGurungsociety.Ifthereisnoson,adaughtercanin-herit,andtheson-in-lawwillcometoresideinthehouseholdofhisparents-in-law.Thepatrimonymaybedividedpriortothedeathofthefather.Inthatcase,thefathercanreserveasmallportion.AlthoughitrunscontrarytoGurungcustom,Nepaleselawspecifiesthatunmarriedadultdaughtersshouldinheritashareoffamilyproperty.Socialization.Childrenaretaughttobeobedientandre-spectfulofelders.Theylearnbyimitationandtheactiveen-couragementoftheolderchildren,whooftencareforsmallerones.Corporalpunishmentisoccasionallyused,andunrulychildrenmaybeisolatedbriefly.Moreoftenchildrenarecoaxedtowardgoodbehaviorandinstructedthroughstoriesaboutpossiblesocialandsupernaturalconsequencesofbadbehavior.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Gurungsocietyisorganizedintotwotiersorsubgroupscalledthe"CharJat"or"fourclans"andthe"SoraJat"or"sixteenclans."Thesubgroupsareendoga-mousandwithinsubgroupseachclanisexogamous.TheCharJatgrouphastraditionallyclaimedsuperiorstatustotheSoraJatgroup.Clanswithineachsubgroupintermarryandotherwisetreatoneanotherasequals.Grasia87causedbyblackmagic.Gondsalsobelieveintheevileyeandinwitchcraft.Awitchisusuallyawomanwhobyherevilpowerbringssicknessanddeathtopeopleintheneighbor-hood.Whendiscovered,sheispubliclydisgracedandex-pelledfromthevillageorevenkilled.Ceremonies.TheGondscelebratemanyfeastsconnectedmainlywiththeagriculturalseasonsandwithlife-cycleevents(birth,marriage,sickness,anddeath).Onallfestiveocca-sionssacrificesandofferingsareperformedeitherbytheoffi-cialvillagepriest,bythesoothsayersandmagicians,orbytheheadofthefamilythatiscelebratinganevent.Allthesesacri-ficesareaccompaniedbyappropriateceremoniesofsymbolicsignificance.Theofferingsandsacrificescanbeeitheranimalorvegetable;itdependsonthetypeofdeitybeingaddressed.Femaledeitiesgenerallydemandthatbloodbespilled;thevictimsareusuallychickensorgoats,sometimesmalebuffalo,and,occasionallyinthepast,humanbeings.Vegetableoffer-ingsincludefruits(especiallycoconuts),flowers,coloredpowder,andstrings.Arts.Likemosttribals,theGondsareaccomplishedarti-sansandcanmanufacturealmostalltheimplementstheyre-quirefortheirworkonthefarmandintheforest,allfurnitureinhouseandkitchen,andalloftheirornamentsanddecora-tions.Theyareartisticallygifted:theypainttheirhousewallswithartisticdesigns,andtheycarvememorialpillarsinwoodandstonefortheirdead.Theyhaveinventedvariousoriginaldancesandarepassionatedancers.Theyaregoodmusiciansonthedrum,theflute,andotherinstruments.Theyaregoodsingers,thoughthemelodiesoftheirsongssometimessoundmonotonousandmaynotbeoftheirowninvention.Theyareinventiveincomposingnewsongs,folktales,legends,andmythsandinretellingthemdramatically.Theyhavecom-posedagreatepiccelebratingtheoriginsandexploitsofacul-tureheronamedLingo.Medicine.TheGondsarefullyawarethatcertaindiseaseshaveanaturalcause,andtheyknowmanyjunglemedicinestocuresuchdiseases.Butwhentheseremediesremaininef-fective,theyresorttomagicaldevices.DeathandAfterlife.AfterdeathanadultGondmanorwomaniscremated;childrenareburiedwithoutmuchcere-mony.Ceremoniesareperformedatthefuneraltopreventthesoulofthedeceasedfromfindingitswaybacktoitshouseandvillage.TheGondsbelieveinanafterlife.Theybelieveeachhumanbeinghastwosouls,thelifespiritandtheshadow.Theshadowmustbepreventedfromreturningtoitshome,oritwillharmthesurvivingrelatives.ThelifespiritgoestoBhagwantobejudgedandrewardedbyreincarnationintoahigherformorpunishedinapoolofbitingworms;afterawhilethesoulisrebornandbeginsanewlife.Othersbelievethatthesouljoinstheotherancestorsoftheclan,especiallyafterastonememorialhasbeenerected.StillothersbelievethatthesoulisabsorbedinBhagwanorBaraDeo.Thebeliefinthesurvivaloftheancestralspiritsis,however,quitestrong.TheseancestorspiritswatchoverthemoralbehaviorofthelivingGondandpunishoffendersoftriballaw.ThustheyactasstrictguardiansoftheGondcommunity.SeealsoAgaria;Ahir;Baiga;Kond;KoyaBibliographyElwin,Verrier(1943).MariaMurderandSuicide.London:OxfordUniversityPress.2nded.1950.Elwin,Verrier(1944).TheMuriaandTheirGhotul.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Fuchs,Stephen(1960).TheGondandBhumiaofEasternMandla.Bombay: Asia PublishingHouse.2nded.1968.Bombay:NewLiteraturePublishingCo.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1948).TheAboriginalTribesofHyderabad.Vol.3,TheRajGondsofAdilabad.Lon-don:Macmillan.Fiirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon,andElizabethvonFilrer-Haimendorf(1979).TheGondsofAndhraPradesh:TraditionandChangeinanIndianTribe.NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse.Grigson,William(1938).TheHillMariasofBastar.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Russell,RV.,andHiraLal(1916).'Gond."InTheTribesandCastesoftheCentralProvincesofIndia.Vol.3,38-143.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Reprint.1969.Ooster-hout:AnthropologicalPublications.Singh,Indrajit(1944).TheGondwanaandtheGond.Luck-now:UniversityPublishers.STEPHENFUCHSGrasiaETHNONYMS:Bhil-GrasiaBhomia,Dungri-Grasia,Gara,Garasia,GirisiaOrientationTheterm"Grasia"referstotheRajputandotherlandholdersinsectionsofGujaratandRajasth,wheretheyholdlandsgiventothemasgaras(landlords)bythechieftainsformain-tenance.Itissaidthattheterm'Grasia"isderivedfromthenativetermfor"landlords."TheGrasiasaretheprincipalin-habitantsoftheBhakkarsectionofPakistaniPunjab,andalsoofpartsofKachchhDistrict,inGujarat.SirJohnMalcolmnotedthattheterm"Girasias"denotes"chiefswhoweredrivenfromtheirpossessionsbyinvadersandestab-lishedandmaintainedtheirclaimtoashareoftherevenueuponthegroundoftheirpowertodisturborpreventitscol-lection."ThewordcanbederivedfromtheSanskritgiras,whichsignifies"mouthful,"andinthepastitwasusedmeta-phoricallytodesignatethesmallshareoftheproduceofthecountrythattheseplunderersclaimed.TheGrasiasaresaid92Gujaratiheadedbythevillageheadman(patel)andcontainsleadingrepresentativesofeachofthecastegroups.Itsfunctionispartlytoconductformalcommunityaffairs,suchasseason-alfestivals,andpartlytoresolveintercastedisputesandoffenses.Conflict.Becausetherehasbeenlittlelaborunrestinre-centtimes,Gujarathasbecomearelativelyprosperousstate.Publiclifehashoweverbeenmarredbyseveralriotsledbyupper-castestudents,inprotestagainstthegovernmentpol-icyofreservingplacesinthecollegesforScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes.ReligionandExpressiveCultureGujaratiHindusaredividedintoalargenumberofreligioussects.Therearetwobroadcategories:thosewhoworshiponeoracombinationofsomeofthegreatVedicdeitiesorofthePuranicaccretionstotheorthodoxpantheon;andthosewhodenytheregulardeitiesandprohibitidolworship.TheformeraretheShaivites,ShaktasorDeviBhaktas,Vaishnavites,andthefollowersofminordeities.ThelatterbelongtotheAryaSamaj,KabirPanthi,andothersuchfairlymodernsects.Thesesectsarenotmutuallyexclusive.ReligiousBeliefs.AGujaratiHinduattachesthegreatestimportancetobathing.Heorsheobservesfastsonceaweekandeveryeleventhdayinafortnight.AGujaratiHindube-lievesinHeaven,Hell,andthetransmigrationofthesoul.Onehopestobetterone'spositioninthisandthelifetocomebyone'sdevotiontoGod,bydan(charity),andbydaya(mercytowardfellowhumanbeingsandcows,etc.).GujaratiJains,thoughfewinnumber,occupyanimportantplaceinGujaratisocietyandtheeconomy.Jainismrejectstheauthor-ityoftheVedasandthespiritualsupremacyoftheBrahmans.ThehighestgoalofJainismisnirvanaormoksha,thesettingfreeoftheindividualfromthesanskara,thecycleofbirthanddeath.TheJainsaredividedintotwosects,DigambarisandSvetambaris.ThecowisworshipedandconsideredsacredbyHindus.Besidesworshipingvariousidols,anaverageHinduworshipsanimals,trees,fire,etc.andbelievesinbhuts(pos-sessingspirits).Beliefinomensisalsocommon.Hindusbe-lievethattheresultofeveryundertakingisforeshadowedbycertainsignsandhints.ReligiousPractitioners.Thelife-cycleceremoniesareper-formedbyBrahmans.Wanderingholymen,however,arere.veredirrespectiveoftheircaste,religion,ororigin.Gujaratisalsopatronizemenwhohaveareputationforbeingabletoridtheindividualofbhuts.Ceremonies.Ceremoniesareperformedatbirth,mar-riage,anddeathwhenrelativesareinvitedforfeasts.Amongtheimportantfestivalsare:Diwali,thefestivaloflamps;Hindunewyear'sday,whichisthenextdayafterDiwali;UtranorSankrant,afestivaloftheharvest;andNavratra,afestivalofthe"ninenights"involvingafolkdancecalledGarba.Arts.RasandGarbaareimportantfolkdancesperformedbybothmalesandfemales.Melas,fairseitheratpilgrimageplacesoronthebankofariverduringcertainfestivals,attractalargecrowdwherepeopledance,sing,andwatchbullfightsorcockfights.Bhavaiisapopularfolkdrama,generallyper-formedinopenspacesinvillagesandtowns.Woodandstonesculpturesdecoratingtemples,palaces,andprivatebuildingsarewellknown.Paintingscalledsathiaandrangoli,donebyusingpowderedchalk,aremadebywomenatthethresholdoftheirhousesforfestivalsandotherceremonies.ThecalicoprintingofGujaratisfamous.TattooingiscommonamongcertaincastesinSaurashtraandnorthGujarat.Medicine.Traditionally,diseasewasbelievedtobecausedbyanimbalanceofelementsinthebody,aswell ... thehamlet.Eachhomesteadhousesafamily,oftenajointfamilyconsistingofthefamiliesofthemarriedsonslivingwiththeirparents.IntheplainswheretheGondsaremoreSanskritized,orinfluencedbyhighHinduculture,somehaveadoptedHinduwaysandbeguntoliveinclosedvillages,yetapartfromtheothercastesandtribes.EconomyAllGondsareinsomewayorotherengagedinagricultureorworkintheforest.Theywouldnotdreamofacceptinganyotheroccupation.Originallytheymusthavebeennomadichuntersandfoodgatherersandthenswitchedtoshiftingcul-tivation,retaining,however,theircloseconnectionwiththeforest.Shiftingcultivationisnotmerelyonetypeofagricul-turebutacomplexculturalform,awayoflife.Itrequiresnodraftanimalsandallowsthecultivatorsmoreleisuretimeforworkintheforest,hunting,fishing,andthecollectionofjun-gleproduce.However,mostGondshavebeenforcedtoaban-donshiftingcultivationbythegovernmentbecauseitisharmfultotheforest,andsomeGondsectionshadalreadyvoluntarilychangedovertoplowcultivationandeventoter-racecultivation.Theyprosperedeconomicallyandacquiredahighsocialstanding.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGondshaveapronouncedpatrilinealandpatriarchalclansystem.Theycallitgotraorkur.AGondclancomprisesagroupofpersonswhobelievethattheyaredescendantsinthemalelinefromacommonancestor.Whileamalecanneverchangehisclan,awomanonmarriageistakenintotheclanofherhusband.TheGondspracticeclanexogamy,consideringintermarriagewithinaclantobeincest.Theybelievethegodswouldpunishsuchasinwithaskindisease,wormsinawound,orleprosy.Offend-ersagainstthelawofexogamyareexcludedfromthetribalcommunityandcanonlybereadmittedafterseparation.ManyoftheGondclansbearanimalorplantnames,whichsuggestsatotemicoriginoftheclans,andsomeGondclansstillobservetotemictaboos.Butgenerally,exceptfortheob-servanceofexogamy,theclansystemhasnoimportantfunc-tion.IntheMandlaDistrictatleast,eighteenclanshavebeencombinedintoaphratry.Thecombinationoftheclansvarieslocally,butthenumber-eighteen-isalwaysretained.Thephratrytooobservesexogamy,butwiththepaymentofafinethemarriageprohibitioncanbewaived.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.AnormalmarriageamongtheGondsisthemo-nogamousunionofamanandawomanbasedonmutualchoice,sanctionedbytheceremonialexchangeofvows,withtheapprovalofthetribalcouncil,witnessedbytherelativesofthepartnersandthevillagecommunity,andconcludedwithafestiveweddingdinner.AlthoughtheGondshaveliberalviewsonpremaritalsex,theyarestrictintheobservanceofmarriedfidelity.Theybelievethatadulteryispunishedbytheancestralspiritsthatcancausecropfailureoranepidemicamonghumansandcattle.AGondweddingissolemnizedwithmanysignificantceremonies.Theessentialweddingriteconsistsofthegroomwalkingwithhisbrideseventimesaroundaweddingposterectedinthecenteroftheweddingbooth.Marriageisobligatory.OriginallyGondboysandgirlsmarriedonreachingphysicalmaturity.NowadaystheGondsincreasinglyfollowtheexampleoftheruralHindupopula-tionandparentsarrangethemarriagewhenchildrenarestillyoung.Thefatherofthegroomhastopayabride-price,theamountofwhichdependsonthepositionandwealthofthetwofamilies.Cross-cousinmarriagesaremuchpreferred,somuchsothatayouthhastopayafineifherefusestomarryanavailablecrosscousin.AGondcanhavemorethanonewife,polygynybeingrestrictedonlybythecapabilityofthemantosupportanumberofwives.TheGondspracticethesororateandthelevirate.WidowmarriageisforbiddenonlyamongtheSanskritizedGonds.Gondswhoaretoopoortopaythebride-priceandtheweddingexpensescontractaserv-icemarriage.Familieswithnosonsprefersuchamarriagear-rangement.OthermoreirregularformsofmarriageamongtheGondsaretheelopementofanunmarriedgirlwithaboyorthecaptureofagirlandherforcedmarriagetohercaptor.Marriagebycapturewasinthepastapopularformofmar-riageamongtheGonds.Themarriagemustlaterbelegalizedbytherelativesandvillagecouncilsofthepartners.TheGondspermitdivorceandeasilyresorttoitforvariousrea-sons.Forinstance,amanmayobtainadivorceifhiswifeisbarren,quarrelsome,ornegligentindoingherassignedwork.Likewise,awomanmayelopewithanothermanifherhus.bandisabadprovider,adrunkard,orawifebeater,orifheishabituallyunfaithful.Adivorcerequiresthelegalsanctionofthetribalcouncilofthevillage.DomesticUnit.Gondmarriagesareasarulehappyandlastingifthehusbandisabletoprovideafrugallivelihoodforwifeandchildrenandifthewifeiscompetentinherhouse-holdtasksandfieldwork.Gondmenandwomenareaffec-tionatetowardchildrenandenjoyhavinglargefamilies.86GondInheritance.Property,primarilyland,descendspatrilin-eallytothesonsequally(unlessonesonshouldmoveelse-where,inwhichcaseheforfeitshisrights).Daughtersinheritnexttonothingfromtheirfathers.Awidowusuallyremainsinthehouse,whichisinheritedbyheryoungestson(ultimo-geniture).Ifnottooold,thewidowmayberemarriedtoacloserelativeof ... herdeceasedhusband.Socialization.TheambitionofeveryGondwomanistobearason.Barrennessinawomanisconsideredacurse.Preg-nancyandbirtharesurroundedwithprotectiveritesagainstmagicspellsandevilinfluences.Childrenaregenerallywel-comeandtreatedwithaffection.Althoughsonsarepreferred,daughtersarewelcometoo.Childrengrowupwithoutmuchrestriction,butthecommunityteachesthemcorrectbehav-ior.Childrenareearlyinvitedtotakeoversometasks,firstplayfully,theninearnest.Boysspontaneouslyseemtoprefermalecompany,whilegirlsseemtogravitatenaturallytowardotherfemales.Thechangetoadulthoodisgradual;thereisnoinitiationceremony.Thefirstmenstruationofagirlisnotspeciallycelebrated,butshedoeslearninadvancewhat pro- hibitionsshehastoobserve.OnlythreeGondsectionsinthesouthhaveyouthdormitories,andonlytheMuriasusethedormitoryfortheeducationofyouthinmarriedandciviclife.TheotherGondsectionshavenodormitorysystem.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.SincetheGondsarespreadoverawidearea,therearemanylocalsubsectionsthathavenoso-cialcontactwitheachother.ThemoreSanskritizedthesesec-tionsare,thehigheristhesocialranktheyclaim.ButthehighestrankisgiventothedescendantsoftheGondrajasandtheirretainers,theRaj-GondsandKatholias.AmongthesetwosectionswefindthegreatestnumberofGondswithsubstantiallandholdings.OtherGondsectionsoutsideofGondavanaaretheKisans,inthesouthofBiharandintheneighboringdistrictsofOrissa.TheGondsreachedeventhehillsalongthesouthernbankoftheGanges.TheretheyareknownasMajwarsorMajhis(headmen).AkintotheGondsareanumberofothertribes,suchastheBhattras,Koyas,KondaKapus,KondaDeras,andHalbas.TheKhondsofOrissa,anotherimportanttribe,alsomayoriginallyhavebeenGonds.PoliticalOrganization.TheentireGondtribewasneverapoliticalunit.Tribalsolidaritydoesnotextendbeyondtheconfinesofasubsection.ThebasicpoliticalunitistheGondvillagecommunity.Itisademocraticorganizationinwhichtheheadmanandotherofficialsarechosenbythevillagers.Eachvillagehasitscouncil,withofficialsliketheheadman,thepriest,thevillagewatchman,andfourorfiveelders.Moreimportantaffairsarediscussedanddecideduponbyallthemenofthecommunity.Avillagehasalsoitsservantcastes,suchastheAhir(cowherds),Agaria(blacksmiths),Dhulia(drummers),andPardhan(bardsandsingers).AtthetownsofGarha-Mandla,Kharla,Deogarh,andChanda,theleadingheadmenmanagedtorisetotherankofrulers(rajas)andtoestablishdynastiesthatlastedforcenturies.ButtheveryfactthattheserajassurroundedthemselveswithHinduofficialsandeagerlyadoptedHinduorMogulmethodsofadministra-tionprovesthatroyaltywasalientotribaldemocracy.InthepresentpoliticalsituationtheGondsare,despitetheirnum-bers,politicallypowerless,whichispartlybecauseofthistri-baldisunitybutalsobecauseoftheircomparativelackofedu-cationanddrive,andtheirgreatpoverty.ThosefewGondswhoaremembersofthelegislativeassembliesoreventhena-tionalparliament(LokSabha)areeitheralienatedfromtheirtribalcultureoreasilymanipulatedbyotherpoliticians.ConflictandSocialControl.Insettlingdisputesthecourtoffirstinstanceisthevillagecouncil(panch),whichispre-sidedoverbytheheadman.Usuallyitstrivestorestorehar-monybetweenthelitigantsratherthantoimplementcus-tomarylaw.Asettlementcommonlyinvolvesafine,orex-communicationinvaryingdegrees.Thosewhooffendagainsttheruleofclanexogamyincursupernaturalsanctions.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.ThereligionoftheGondsdoesnotdif-fermuchfromthatofthenumerousothertribesincentralIndia.Likethem,theGondsbelieveinahighgodwhomtheycalleitherbyhisHinduname,"Bhagwan,"orbyhistribalname,"BaraDeo,"the"GreatGod."Butheisanotiosedeityandisrarelyworshiped,thoughhisnameisofteninvoked.Heisapersonalgod-eternal,just,merciful,makerofthefertileearthandofman-thoughtheuniverseisconceivedascoex-istingwithhim.IntheGondbeliefsystem,besidesthishighgodtherealsoexistagreatnumberofmaleandfemaledeitiesandspiritsthatpersonifyvariousnaturalfeatures.Everyhill,river,lake,tree,androckisinhabitedbyaspirit.Theearth,water,andairareruledbydeitiesthatmustbeveneratedandappeasedwithsacrificesandofferings.Thesedeitiesandspir-itsmaybebenevolent,butoftentheyarecapricious,malevo-lent,andpronetoharminghumanbeings,especiallyindivid-ualswhohavemadethemselvesvulnerablebybreakingaruleofthetribalcode.Thedeitiesandspirits,especiallytheances-torspirits,watchoverthestrictobservanceofthetribalrulesandpunishoffenders.ReligiousPractitioners.Gondsdistinguishbetweenpriestsandmagicians.Thevillagepriestisappointedbythevillagecouncil;however,hisappointmentisoftenhereditary.Hisresponsibilityistoperformallthesacrificesheldatcer-tainfeastsforthevillagecommunityforwhichhereceivesaspecialremuneration.Sacrificesandreligiousceremoniesonfamilyoccasionsareusuallyperformedbytheheadofthefamily.Thedivinersandmagicians,ontheotherhand,areunofficialcharismaticintermediariesbetweenthesupernat-uralworldandhumanbeings.TheGonds,liketheothertri-balsofcentralIndia,believethatmostdiseasesandmisfor-tunesarecausedbythemachinationsofevilspiritsandoffendeddeities.Itisthetaskofthesoothsayersanddivinerstofindoutwhichsupernaturalagencieshavecausedthepres-entsicknessormisfortuneandhowtheycanbeappeased.Ifsoothsayersanddivinerscannothelp,magiciansandsha-mansmustbeemployed.Magiciansbelievethatbymagicfor-mulasanddevicestheycanforceaparticulardeityorspirittocarryouttheircommands.Shamansarepersonswhoeasilyfallintotrancesandarethenbelievedtobepossessedbydei-tiesorspiritsthatprophesythroughtheirmouths.Thesefre-quentecstasiesdonotseemtohaveanydetrimentalmentalorphysicaleffectsontheshamans,whomaybemaleorfe-male.Magicmaybe"white"or"black":itiswhiteifitcoun-teractsblackmagicoreffectsacurewhenasicknesshasbeenGaro83thebeginningsilentbarterwaspossiblebecauseeachpartyunderstoodfromlonginvolvementtherespectivevaluesoftheirgoods.Thisprocesshascontinuedtothepresent,withincreasinginvolvementoftradersfromneighboringareas,andhasnowbecomefullymonetized.Cotton,ginger,anddriedchiliesproducedbytheGarosaresoldtothetraders.TheGarosinturnpurchasepottery,metallictools,andotherindustrialgoodssuchasclothfromthetraders.DivisionofLabor.Thedivisionoflaborbetweenmembersofthehouseholdisasfollows:themalesareresponsibleforclearingjungleandsettingfiretothedebrisforshiftingculti-vation,whilewomenareresponsibleforplanting,weeding,andharvesting.Duringthepeakoftheagriculturalopera-tionsthemensometimeshelpthewomen.Constructionandrepairofthehousearemaleduties.Menmakebaskets,whilewomencarrycropsfromthefieldandfirewoodfromjungle.Womenlookafterthekitchenandpreparebeer,andmenservethebeertoguests.Womenrearthechildrenandkeepthedomesticanimals.Bothmenandwomensellfirewoodandvegetablesinthemarket.LandTenure.Landforshiftingcultivationisownedbytheclan.Eachvillagehasatraditionallydemarcatedareaofitsowntermedadok.Thisareaissubdividedintoplotsthatareusedforcultivationinacyclicorder.Theplotsaredistrib-utedtothefamilies.Allotmentofthegeneralplotsisdonebycommonconsensusofthevillageelders,buttheflatareaforpermanentwetcultivationisownedbyindividuals.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheGarosreckontheirkinshipthroughthemother.Individualsmeasurethedegreeoftheirrelationshiptooneanotherbythedistanceoftheirmatrilin-eages.Formen,childrenoftheirsistersorsisters'daughtersareveryimportantkin.Forwomen,childrenoftheirsisters'daughtersareequivalenttothoseoftheirowndaughters.KinshipTerminology.ThekinshiptermsusedbytheGarosformaset,whichisbroadenoughsothateachGarocanbeassignedaterm.Thetermsarearrangedinasystemthatclassifiesthekin.Thisclassificationisbasedonnineprinciples,asfollows:(1)sex,(2)generation,(3)relativeage,(4)moietymembership,(5)collaterality,(6)inheritance,(7)typeofwife,(8)intimacyofrelationship,(9)speaker'ssex.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Descentismatrilineal,residenceuxorilocal.Themother'sbrother'sdaughtertypeofcross-cousinmar-riageisthemostwidelyacceptedandprevalentamongthepeople.Itisarigidcustomthatamanmustmarryawomanfromtheoppositechatchi(moiety).Theruleofchatchiexogamystipulatesthataman'smother'sfatherwillbeintheoppositechatchiandaman'swife'spotentialhusbandswillbeinhisownchatchi.Aftermarriageamankeepsuphisrela-tionwithhismachong(clan).Hisrelationwithreferencetohiswife'smachongisdesignatedasgachi.Marriageestab-lishesapermanentrelationbetweentwomachong,knownasakim.Aftermarriage,amalemovestotheresidenceofhiswife.Inthecaseofanokrom(husbandoftheheiressofprop-erty),marriagedoesnotcreateanewhouseholdbutratheraddsanewleaseonlifetoanoldhousehold.Evenafterthedeathordivorceofaspousetheakimrelationcontinues.Itistheresponsibilityofthedeceased'smachongtoprovideare-placementspousetothesurvivingpartner.DomesticUnit.Thehouseholdistheprimaryproductionandconsumptionunit.AGarohouseholdcomprisesparents,unmarriedsonsanddaughters,amarrieddaughter(heiress),andherhusbandandtheirchildren.Inprincipleamarriedgranddaughterandherchildrenshouldbeincluded,butinre.alitygrandparentsrarelysurvivetoseetheirgrandchildrenmarried.Somehouseholdsmay-forshortperiodsonly-includedistantrelativesornonrelatedpersonsforvariousreasons.Inheritance.PropertyamongtheGarosisinheritedinthefemaleline.Oneofthedaughtersisselectedbytheparentstobetheheiress.Ifthecouplehavenofemalechild,agirlbe-longingtothemachongofthewife(preferablythedaughterofhersister,whetherrealorclassificatory)isadoptedtobeanheiress.Sheisnotconsideredtobetheabsoluteowneroftheproperty.Decisionaboutthedisposalofpropertyistakenbyherhusband,whoisconsideredtobethehouseholdauthority(nokniskotong).Afterthedeathofthefather-in-lawresponsi-bilitytransferstotheson-in-law.Ifadeadmanissurvivedbyawidow,shestaysinthefamilyofherdaughterandissome-timesreferredtoasanadditionalwife(Uk)ofherdaughter'shusband.Socialization.Childrenstarthelpingtheirmothertolookaftertheinfantswhentheirmotherisbusywithwork.Todaytherearedifferenteducationalinstitutions-namely,themis-sionschoolsandotherIndianestablishments-thatactasmajoragentsofeducation.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InGarosocietythemostimportantsocialgroupisthemachong(clan).Amachongisanexoga-mousmatrilinealdescentgroupwhereinaGaroisautomati-callyassignedbybirthtotheunilinealgroupofhismother.Achatchi(moiety)isdividedintomanymachong.Eachmar-riedcouplechoosesonedaughter-or,iftheyhavenone,theyadoptacloserelativeofthemother-tobeheiress(noknadongipikamechik)ofthefamily.Herhusbandtradi-tionallyisselectedfromthelineagegroupofthefatherandisacceptedasthenokromofthehouse.Heresideswithhiswifeinherparents'house.Hehastotakeontheresponsibilityoflookingafterhisparents-in-lawduringtheiroldage,andhiswifeinheritstheproperty.PoliticalOrganization.Traditionally,theGaroswerenotapoliticallyorganizedsociety,andeventodaythereexistsnoclear-cutpoliticalstructure.Chieftainshipinvolvesreligiousfunctionsonly.SocialControl.Thekinshipsystem,thekinshipbond,andtherelatedvaluesystemactasaneffectivemeansofsocialcontrol.Formerlythebachelors'dormitorieswereimportantagentsofsocialcontrol.Conflict.AmongtheGarosmostdisputesariseovertheis-suesofproperty,inheritance,anddomesticquarrelswithinthefamily.Suchproblemsaretoalargeextentsettledbythemahari(lineage)oftheoffendedandtheoffender.Anewsit-uationdevelopswhensomeone'scattlecausedamagetoan-other'scrops.Insuchasituationthenokma(villagehead-man)actsasanintermediaryonly.IfhefailstosettletheGurung95PoliticalOrganization.Until1962theGurungvillagesweregovernedbyhereditaryclanleadersandvillagehead-men.In1962thenationalgovernmentinstitutedanelectoralsystemwherebyvillagesaregroupedtogetherinunitsoffive,calledpanchayats,anddividedintoneighborhoodsorwardsfromwhichlocalcouncillorsareelected.Theelectoratealsochoosesapradhanpancheanduperpradhan(likeamayorandvicemayor,respectively)toleadthepanchayat.SocialControl.Gossipandfearofwitchattackarecom-monmeansofsocialcontrol.Thelocalcouncilisabletolevyfinesagainstpanchayatresidents,andforseriouscrimesgov-ernmentpolicemaybecalledin.Conflict.Disputesareoftenresolvedbyelderstrustedbythepartiesinvolved.Ifthisdoesnotprovideasolutionthentheymaybebroughtbeforethevillagecouncilor,asalastre-sort,tothedistrictcourt.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheGurungspracticeaformofTibetanBuddhismstronglyinfluencedbythepre-BuddhistreligionofTibet,andtheyalsoobservemajorHindufestivals,suchasDasain.TheybelieveinsometenetsofBuddhismandHindu-ism,suchaskarma,yettheyhaveasetofbeliefsaboutanaf-terlifeintheLandoftheAncestorsandinlocaldeitiesthatarepeculiarlyGurung.Gurungsbelievetheirlocaletobein-habitedbysupernaturalforestcreaturesandbyavarietyofformlesswraithsandspirits.Someoftheseexistinandofthemselves,whileothersarebelievedtobethespiritsofhu-manswhohavediedviolentdeaths.GurungsbelieveinthemajorHindudeitiesandintheBuddhaandbodhisattvas.Particularvillageshavetheirowndeities,whicharefelttobeespeciallypowerfulintheirimmediatesurroundings.ReligiousPractitioners.Practitionersofthepre-BuddhistGurungreligion,calledpanjuandklihbri,areactiveintheperformanceofexorcismsandmortuaryrites.Buddhistlamasarealsoimportantinfuneraryrituals,aswellasperformingpurificationritesforinfantsandsomeseasonalagriculturalrituals.WealthierGurungsoccasionallycalllamasintoper-formhouse-blessingceremonies.Brahmanpriestsaresum-monedtocasthoroscopesandperformdivinationsattimesofmisfortune.Dammisfromthelocalservicecastesarebelievedtobeparticularlypotentexorcistsandareoftencalledincasesofillness.Arts.Gurungsmakenothingthattheywouldidentifyasart.Thegoodsthattheyproduce,suchasbasketsandblan-kets,areusefulandtendtobeofaconventionalplaindesign.TheartistryofGurungsisexpressedintheirfolkmusicanddanceandespeciallyintheevanescentformofsongex-changesbetweenyoungmenandwomen.Medicine.Gurungsoftenemployexorcistsaswellassci-entificdrugswhensufferingfromanillness.Scientificmedi-cineishighlyvalued,butitiscostlyandisnoteasilyavailableinruralareas.Herbsandplantsarealsousedintreatingill-nessandinjury.DeathandAfterlife.Deathisofcentralsymbolicimpor-tanceforGurungs.Thefuneraryritual(pae)isthemaincere-monialoccasioninGurungsociety,involvingtwonightsandthreedaysofritualactivity.Itisattendedbykin,villagers,andalargenumberofpeoplewhocomefortheconvivialityandspectacle.Buddhistlamasandthepanjuandklihbripriestsofthepre-Buddhistreligionmayofficiateatthepae.Deathisbelievedtoinvolvethedissolutionofelementsthatmakeupthebody,sothattheearthelementreturnstoearth,airtoair,firetofire,andwatertowater.Thisprocessleavestheplahorsouls(nineformenandsevenforwomen),whichmustbesentthroughtheperformanceofthepaetotheLandoftheAncestors.Therelifecontinuesmuchasitdoesinthepresentworld,andfromtherethespiritcantakeotherrebirths.SeealsoGurkha;NepaliBibliographyMacfarlane,Alan(1976).ResourcesandPopulation:AStudyoftheGurungsofNepal.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Messerschmidt,DonaldA.(1976).TheGurungsofNepal.Warminister:Aris&Phillips.Pignede,Bernard(1966).LesGurungs:UnePopulationhinalayenneduNepal.TheHague:Mouton.ERNESTINEL.McHUGH82GaroHajong,theKoch,theRabha,theDalau,andtheBanaiswhoresideontheadjacentplainsoftheneighboringdistrict.Thereremainsanobscurityabouttheoriginoftheword"Garo."Theyareknownas"Garos"tooutsiders;buttheGarosalwaysdesignatethemselvesas"Achik"(hillmen).TheGarosaredividedintoninesubtribes:theAwe,Chisak,Matchi-Dual,Matabeng,Ambeng,Ruga-Chibox,Gara-Gan.ching,Atong,andtheMegam.Thesearegeographicsub-tribes,buttheyarealsodialectalandsubculturalgroups.Ac-cordingtotheirbeliefsandreligion,theGarosaredividedintothe"Songsarek"(thosewhofollowindigenousbeliefsandpractices)andtheChristians.Location.ThetwoGaroHillsdistrictsaresituatedbe-tween25°9'and26°1'Nand89°49'and91°2'E,coveringanareaof8,000squarekilometers.ThedistrictsborderBangla-deshonthesouthandwestandAssamonthenorth.Hillscovermostofthedistrict,withsomeadjacentfringesofplainsborderingthemonsoonarea,producingthickvegetationonthehills.Thereareanumberofhillystreamsandrivers;ex-ceptfortheSimsangRiver,whichformsawidefloodplain,noneisnavigable.Demography.AccordingtothecensusofIndiafor1971,Garosnumbered342,474.ChristianGaroswere54.3percentofthetotalGaropopulation;nowtheymaybemorethan60percentofthetotalGaropopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.AccordingtoSirGeorgeGrierson'sclassificationinTheLinguisticSurveyofIndia,GarobelongstotheBodoSubsectionoftheBodo-NagaSection,undertheAssam-BurmaGroupoftheSino-TibetanorTibeto-BurmanLanguageFamily.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThereremainsnorecordofwhentheGarosmigratedandset-tledintheirpresenthabitat.Theirtraditionallore,asre-cordedbyA.Playfair,indicatesthattheymigratedtotheareafromTibet.Thereisevidencethattheareawasinhabitedbystone-usingpeoples-PaleolithicandNeolithicgroups-inthepast.Aftersettlinginthehills,Garosinitiallyhadnocloseandconstantcontactwiththeinhabitantsofthead-joiningplains.In1775-1776theZamindarsofMechparaandKaraibari(atpresentintheGoalparaandDhuburidis.trictsofAssam)ledexpeditionsintotheGarohills.ThefirstcontactwithBritishcolonialistswasin1788,andtheareawasbroughtunderBritishadministrativecontrolintheyear1873.SettlementsThepopulationinaGarovillagemayrangefrom20to1,000persons.Thepopulationdensitytendstodecreaseasonemovestowardtheinteriorareasfromtheurbanareasofthedistricts.Villagesarescatteredanddistantfromoneanotherintheinteriorareas.Thesevillagesaregenerallysituatedonthetopofhillocks.Thehousesarebuilt,togetherwithgrana-ries,firewoodsheds,andpigsties,onpilesaroundtheslopeofthehillock,usinglocallyavailablebamboo,wood,grass,etc.Theapproachtotherectangularhouseisalwaysbuiltfacingtheleveledsurfaceofthetop,whiletherearpartofthehouseremainshorizontaltotheslope.Nowadaysnewpile-typebuildingsusingwoodandironasmajorcomponentsarebeingmadeinsometraditionalvillagesalso.Inaddition,buildingssimilartothoseoftheneighboringplainsareconstructed.Thevillagesmayremaindistantfromagriculturalfields(hum).Inordertoguard...

... notattempted(oratleasthavenotpublished)adetailedtribe-by-tribeenumera-tionsincegainingtheirindependence.OnehastogobacktotheBritishcensusofundividedIndiain1931tofindthelastsetofreliablefiguresonindividualtribesandcastesthrough-outtheentireregion.Butatthattime,sixtyyearsago,thetotalpopulationofthesubcontinentwaslessthan400mil-lion,comparedwithmorethanonebilliontoday.Presumablythetribeshaveincreasedproportionately.ThefutureoftheSouthAsianhilltribesisanuncertainone:whileveryfewgroupsshowanysignsofdyingout,mostareintheprocessofrapidculturalandeconomicchangethatwilleventuallyalterthem,ortheirsocialboundaries,beyondrecognition.WhetherthegovernmentofIndiacon-tinuesitsspecialbenefitsforScheduledTribesintothein-definitefutureisoneverybigfactor.Anotheristhealiena-tionof"tribal"land-itsseizurebyimmigrantsettlersortimbermerchants-whichhaslongbeenreportedinmanyhillareas,perhapsmostnotablyinAndhraPradesh.Ingen-eralvirtuallyallhilltribesarenowchanginggreatlythroughtheimpactofHinduismorChristianmissionaries,aswellastheeffectsofmodernization,secularization,andsometimesindustrialization.Thesefactors,amongothers,aretendingtowardaweakeningoftriballanguagesandtribalidentity.SeealsoScheduledCastesandScheduledTribes98Hijrathetransformationfromimpotentmaletopotenthijra.EmasculationlinksthehijrastobothShivaandthemothergoddessandsanctionstheirperformancesatbirthsandwed-dings,inwhichtheyareregardedasvehiclesofthegoddess'screativepower.Bahucharahasaspecialconnectionwiththehijrasasemasculated,impotentmen.Hijrasbelievethatanyimpotentmanwhoresistsacallfromthegoddesstoemascu-latehimselfwillbebornimpotentforsevenfuturebirths.Emasculationincreasestheidentificationofthehijraswiththeirgoddess,andit ... Greece,whosedevoteesalsodressedinwomen'sclothingandsometimescastratedthemselves.ETHNONYM:EunuchOrientationIdentification.Hijrasareasocialgroup,partreligiouscultandpartcaste,wholivemainlyinnorthIndia.Theyarecul-turallydefinedeitheras"neithermennorwomen"orasmenwhobecomewomenbyadoptingwomen'sdressandbehav-ior.HijrasaredevoteesofBuhucharaMata,aversionoftheIndianmothergoddess.Throughtheiridentificationwiththegoddess,ratifiedbyanemasculationritual,hijrasarebelievedtobevehiclesofthegoddess'spower.Althoughculturallyde-finedascelibate,hijrasdoengageinwidespreadprostitutioninwhichtheirsexual-eroticroleisaswomenwithmen.Theirtraditionalwayofearningalivingisbycollectingalms,receiv-ingpaymentsforblessingnewbornmales,andservingatthetempleoftheirgoddess.Hijrasaregenerallycalledeunuchs,andsexualimpotenceiscentraltothedefinitionofahijraandamajorcriterionforinitiationintothegroup.Location.MosthijrasliveinthecitiesofnorthIndia,wheretheyhavemoreopportunitiestoengageintheirtradi-tionaloccupations.Hijrasarealsofoundinruralareasinthenorth,aswellascitiesinsouthIndiawheretheyworkmainlyasprostitutes.Demography.ThecensusofIndiadoesnotlisthijrassep-arately;theyareusuallycountedasmen,butuponrequesttheymaybecountedaswomen.ItisthusimpossibletosaywithcertaintyhowmanyhijrasthereareinIndia.LargecitieslikeBombayorDelhimayhave5,000hijraslivingintwentyorthirtylocalities;thenationalestimatemaybeashighas50,000.LinguisticAffiliation.Hijrasspeakthelanguageofthere-gionsofIndiainwhichtheywerebornandlivedbeforejoin-ingthecommunity.Thereisnoseparatehijralanguage,al-thoughthereisafeminizedintonationanduseofslangthatcharacterizestheirtalk.HijrascomefromalloverIndiaandthosefromsouthIndiawhomovetothenorthlearnHindiaswellastheregionallanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsThehistoryandculturalrelationsofthehijrasarerootedbothinancientHinduism,whereeunuchsarementionedinavarietyoftexts,includingtheepicMahabharata,andinIslam,whereeunuchsservedintheharemsoftheMogulrulers.Theritualparticipationofhijrasinlife-cycleceremonieshasaclearlyHinduorigin,thoughtheymayperformforMuslimsaswell.ManyaspectsofhijrasocialorganizationaretakenfromIslam,andmanyofthemostimportanthijraleadershavebeenandareMuslim.However,hijrasdifferfromtraditionalMuslimeunuchs,whodidnotdressaswomenandweresexu-allyinactive.NorwereMuslimcourteunuchsendowedwiththepowerstoblessandtocursethathijrasderivefromtheirambiguoussexualityandconnectionwiththemothergod-dess.IntheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesHinduandMuslimhijrasdidnotlivetogether,butincontemporaryIndiatheyoftendo.AnotherhistoricalconnectionofthehijrasappearstobewiththeMagnaMatacultsinancientEconomyLikeeverycasteinIndia,hijrasareprimarilyassociatedwithafewtraditionaloccupations,foremostamongthembeingritua-lizedperformancesatchildbirthandmarriage.Thehijras'per-formanceconsistsofdancingandsinging,accompaniedbyatwo-sideddrum,andtheblessingofthechildorthemarriedcoupleinthenameofthemothergoddess.Inreturnfortheseblessingsthehijrasreceivebadhai,traditionalgiftsincashandgoods,alwaysincludingsomesweets,cloth,andgrains.Hijrasalsobeginthestreetsforalmsfrompassersbyandfromshops;theseactivitiesareregulatedonadailyrotationalbasisbytheeldersofthehijracommunity.Althoughprostitutionisconsid-ereddeviantwithinthehijracommunity,asitisinIndiagener-ally,manyhijrasearnalivingfromit.Prostitutioniscarriedoutwithinahijrahousehold,underthesupervisionofahousemanageror"madam,"whowillcollectpartorallof theprostitute'searningsinreturnforshelter,food,asmallallow-ance,andprotectionfromthepoliceandrowdycustomers.Al-thoughmanyyounghijraprostitutesfeelthattheyareex-ploitedbytheir"madams,"fewliveorworkontheirown.Becauseoftheirhistoricalroleasperformers,hijrassometimesdanceinnonritualroles,suchasatstagparties,forcollegefunctions,orinfilms.AsmallnumberofhijrasalsoservethegoddessBahucharaathermajortempleinGujarat,blessingvisitorstothetempleandtellingthemthestoriesofthegod-dessinexchangeforafewcoins.Hijrascanalsobe ... foundashouseholdservantsandcooks,andinsomecitiesinIndiatheyrunpublicbathhouses.HijrascomplainthatincontemporaryIndiatheiropportunitytoearnalivingbytherespectablemeansofperformingatmarriagesandbirthshasdeclined,duetosmallerfamilies,lesselaboratelife-cycleceremonies,andageneraldeclineintherespectfortraditionalritualspecialists.Hijrashaveeffectivelymaintainedeconomicpredominance,ifnottotalmonopoly,overtheirritualrole.Definedbythelargersocietyasemasculatedmen,theyhaveclearlyseenthatitisintheirinteresttopreservethisdefinitionoftheirrole.Theydothisbymakingloudandpublicgesturestodenouncethe"frauds"and"fakes"whoimitatethem.Theythusreinforceinthepublicmindtheirownsolerighttotheirtraditionaloccu-pations.Whenhijrasfindotherfemaleimpersonatorsattempt-ingtoperformwhereitistheirrighttodoso,theychasethemaway,usingphysicalforceifnecessary.Hijraclaimstoexclusiveentitlementtoperformatlife-cyclerituals,tocollectalmsincertainterritories,andeventoownlandcommunallyreceivehistoricalsupportintheedictsofsomeIndianstatesthatoffi-ciallygrantedthemtheserights.Hijrashavealsobeensuccessfulincontrollingtheiraudi-encesintheirowneconomicinterest.Hijrasidentifywithre-nouncers(sannyasis)and,likethem,hijrashaveabandonedtheirfamilyandcasteidentitiesinordertojointheirreligiouscommunity.Likesannyasis,then,hijrastranscendnetworksofsocialobligation.TheyoccupythelowestendoftheIndiansocialhierarchyand,havingnoordinarysocialpositiontomaintainwithinthathierarchy,hijrasarefreedfromthere-straintsofordinarybehavior.Theyknowthattheirshame-lessnessmakesordinarypeoplereluctanttoprovokethemortoresisttheirdemandsformoneyandhencetheytradeonthefearandanxietypeoplehaveaboutthemtocoercecom-96HijraHijra100HillPandaraminusage.Apartfromconjugaltiesandclose"affinal"relation-ships(whichincontrasttothe"kin"linkshavewarmthandintimacy),kinshiptiesarenot"load"-bearinginthesenseofimplyingstructuredroleobligations.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Bothpolyandrousandpolygynousmarriageshavebeenrecorded,butmostmarriagesaremonogamous.Cross-cousinmarriageisthenormandmarriagesemergeal-mostspontaneouslyfrompreexistingkinshippatterns,ascampaggregatescenteronaffinallyrelatedmen.Thereislit-tleornomarriageceremonyandthereisnoformalarrange-mentofmarriagepartners,althoughyoungmentendtoes-tablishpriortieswithprospectiveparents-in-law.MarriagesarebrittleandmostolderHillPandaramhaveexperiencedaseriesofconjugalpartnershipsduringtheirlifetime.Acohab.itingcoupleformsanindependenthouseholdonmarriage,butthecouplemaycontinueasaunitinthecampaggregateofeithersetofparents.DomesticUnit.Theconjugalfamilyisthebasiceconomicunit.Membersofafamilymayliveinseparateleafshelters(thoughspousessharethesameleafshelter)andmayformforagingpartieswithothermembersofacampaggregate,butallfoodgatheredbyanindividualbelongstohisorherownimmediatefamily,whoshareasimplehearth.Onlymeat,to-bacco,andtheproceedsofhoney-gatheringexpeditionsaresharedbetweenthefamiliesconstitutingacampaggregate.Inheritance.AstheHillPandarampossessnolandandhavefewmaterialpossessions,littleemphasisisplacedoninheritance.Socialization.TheHillPandaramputanormativestressonindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andfromtheirearliestyearschildrenareexpectedtoassertindependence.Childrencollectforestproducefortradeandwilloftenspendlongperiodsawayfromtheirparents.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Organizedasaforagingcommunity,livinginsmallcampaggregatesoftwotothreefamiliesscat-teredoverawidearea,theHillPandaramexhibitnowiderstructuresofsociopoliticalorganization.Therearenoritualcongregations,microcastes,noranyothercommunalassocia-tionsorcorporategroupingsabovetheleveloftheconjugalfamily.Alackofwiderformalorganizationiscoupledwithapervasivestressonegalitarianism,self-sufficiency,andtheautonomyoftheindividual.Someindividualsinthesettle-mentsarerecognizedasmuttukani(headmen)buttheirroleisnotinstitutionalized,fortheyareessentiallyapartofthesystemofcontrolintroducedbyadministrativeagenciesoftheForestryandWelfareDepartmentstofacilitateefficientcommunicationwiththecommunity.SocialControl.TheHillPandaramhavenoformalinsti-tutionsforthesettlementofdisputes,thoughindividualmenandwomenoftenactasinformalmediatorsorconciliators.Socialcontrolismaintainedtoanimportantdegreebyavaluesystemthatputsapremiumontheavoidanceofaggres-sionandconflict;likeotherforagers,theHillPandaramtendtoavoidconflictbyseparationandbyflight.ReligionandExpressiveCultureAlthoughnominallyHindu,HillPandaramreligionisdis-tinctfromthatoftheneighboringagriculturalistsinbeingun-iconic(i.e.,veneratingnotimagesofdeities,butthecrestsofmountains)andfocusedonthecontact,throughpossessionrites,oflocalizedmaladevi(hillspirits).HillPan-darammayoccasionallymakeritualofferingsatvillagetem-ples,particularlythoseassociatedwiththegodsAiyappanandMuruganatthetimeoftheOnamfestival(December)oratlocalshrinesestablishedinforestareasbyTamillaborers;butotherwisetheyhavelittlecontactwiththeformalritualsofHinduism.ReligiousBeliefs.ThespiritualagenciesrecognizedbytheHillPandaramfallintotwocategories:theancestralghostsorshades(chavu)andthehillspirits(maladevi).Thehillspiritsaresupernaturalsassociatedwithparticularhillorrockpreci-pices,andinthecommunityasawholethesespiritsarelegion,withahilldeityforaboutevery8squarekilometersofforest.Althoughlocalizedspirits,thehillspiritsarenot'familyspir-its"fortheymayhavedevoteeslivingsomedistancefromtheparticularlocality.Theancestralshades,ontheotherhand,arelinkedtoparticularfamilies,butlikethehillspiritstheirin-fluenceismainlybeneficent,givingprotectionagainstmisfor-tuneandprofferingadviceintimesofneed.Oneclassofspir-its,however,isessentiallymalevolent.Thesearethearukula,thespiritsofpersonswhohavediedaccidentallythroughfall-ingfromatreeorbeingkilledbyawildanimal.ReligiousPractitioners.Certainmenandwomenhavetheabilitytoinduceatrancelikestateandinthiswaytocontactthespirits.Theyareknownastullukara(possessiondancers,fromtullu,"tojump"),andattimesofmisfortunetheyarecalleduponbyrelativesorfriendstogivehelpandsupport.Ceremonies.TheHillPandaramhavenotemplesorshrinesandthusmakenoformalritualofferingstothespirits,leadinglocalvillagerstosuggestthattheyhavenoreligion.Nordotheyritualizethelife-cycleeventsofbirth,puberty,anddeathtoanygreatdegree.Theimportantreligiouscere-monyisthepossessionseance,inwhichthetullukaragoesintoatrancestateinducedbyrhythmicdrummingandsing-ingandincarnatesoneormoreofthehillspiritsoranances-tralshade.Duringtheseancethecauseofthemisfortuneisascertained(usuallythebreakingofatabooassociatedwiththemenstrualperiod)andthehelpofthesupernaturalissoughttoalleviatethesicknessormisfortune.Arts.IncontrastwithotherIndiancommunitiestheHillPandaramhavefewartforms.Nevertheless,theirsingingishighlydeveloped,andtheirsongsarevariedandelaborateandincludehistoricalthemes.Medicine.Allminorailmentsaredealtwiththroughher-balremedies,sincetheHillPandaramhaveadeepthoughunstructuredknowledgeofmedicinalplants.Moreseriouscomplaintsarehandledthroughthepossessionrites.BibliographyFirer-Haimendorf,Christophvon(1970)."NotesontheMalapantaramofTravancore."BulletinoftheInternationalCommitteeforUrgentAnthropologicalandEthnologicalRe-search3:44-51.HillPandaram99withtheirneighborsandcameunderthepoliticaljurisdictionoftheearlyTamilkingdomsorlocalpettychieftains,whotaxedforestproductssuchascardamom,bamboo,ivory,honey,andwax.Theimportanceofthistradeatthebegin-ningofthenineteenthcenturyishighlightedinthewritingsoftheAbbeDuboisandintheeconomicsurveyoftheformerTravancoreStatemadeatthattimebytwoBritishofficials,WardandConner.ForesttradestillservestolinktheHillPandaramtothewiderHindusociety.SettlementsTheHillPandaramhavetwotypesofresidentialgrouping-settlementsandforestcamps-althoughabout25percentofHillPandaramfamiliesliveacompletelynomadicexistenceandarenotassociatedwithanysettlement.Atypicalsettle-mentconsistsofabouttenhuts,widelyseparatedfromeachother,eachhousingafamilywholivethereonasemiper-manentbasis.Thehutsaresimple,rectangularconstructionswithsplit-bambooscreensandgrass-thatchedroofs;manyarelittlemorethanroofedshelters.Aroundthehutsitesfruit-bearingtreessuchasmangoandtamarind,cassavaandsmallcultivationsmaybefound.Thesettlementsareoftensomedistancefromvillagecommunities(withtheirmulticastepopulations)andhavenocommunalfocuslikereligiousshrines.Settlementsareinhabitedonlyonanintermittentbasis.Thesecondtypeofresidentialgroupingistheforestcamp,consistingoftwotosixtemporaryleafshelters,eachmadefromaframeworkofbamboothatissupportedonasin-gleuprightpoleandcoveredbypalmleaves.Theseleafshel-tershaveaconicalappearanceandareformedoverafireplaceconsistingofthreestonesthatwerefoundonthesite.Rec-tangularlean-tosmayalsobeconstructedusingtwouprightpoles.Settlementsarescatteredthroughouttheforestrangesexceptintheinteriorforest,whichislargelyuninhabitedapartfromnomadiccampsoftheHillPandaram.Themajor-ityoftheHillPandaramarenomadicandtheusuallengthofstayataparticularcampingsite(orarockshelter,whichisfrequentlyused)isfromtwotosixteendays,withsevenoreightdaysbeingtheaverage,althoughspecificfamiliesmayresideinaparticularlocalityforaboutsixtoeightweeks.No-madicmovements,inthesenseofshiftingcamp,usuallyvaryoverdistancesfromahalf-kilometerto6kilometers,thoughindailyforagingactivitiestheHillPandarammayrangeoverseveralkilometers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.AlthoughtheHillPandaramoccasionallyengageinpaidlaborforthefor-estdepartment,andasmallminorityoffamiliesaresettledagriculturalistsontheforestperimeter,themajorityareno-madichunter-gatherers,whocombinefoodgatheringwiththecollectionofminorforestproduce.Themainstaplecon-sistsofvariouskindsofyamcollectedbymeansofdiggingsticks,togetherwiththenutsofaforestcycad,kalinga(Cycascincinalis).Suchstaplesaresupplementedwithpalmflour,andcassavaandriceareobtainedthroughtrade.Thehuntingofsmallanimals,particularlymonkeys,squirrels,andmonitorlizards,isimportant.Theseanimalsareob-tainedeitherduringforagingactivitiesorinahuntingpartyconsistingoftwomenoramanandayoungboy,usingoldmuzzle-loadingguns.Dogs,anaidtohunting,aretheonlydomesticanimals.Trade.Thecollectionofminorforestproduceisanimpor-tantaspectofeconomiclifeandtheprincipalitemstradedarehoney,wax,dammar(aresin),turmeric,ginger,cardamom,inchabark(Acaciaintsia,onevarietyofwhichisasoapsub-stitute,theotherafishpoison),variousmedicinalplants,oil-bearingseeds,andbarkmaterialsusedfortanningpurposes.Thetradeoftheseproductsisorganizedthroughacontrac-tualmercantilesystem,aparticularforestrangebeingleasedbytheForestDepartmenttoacontractor,whoisnormallyawealthymerchantlivingintheplainsarea,oftenaMuslimorahigh-casteHindu.ThroughthecontractortheHillPan-daramobtaintheirbasicsubsistencerequirements:salt,con-diments,cloth,cookingpots,andtinsforcollectinghoney.Allthematerialpossessionsofthecommunityareobtainedthroughsuchtrade-eventhetwoitemsthatarecrucialtotheircollectingeconomy,billhooksandaxes.Asthecontrac-tualsystemexploitedtheHillPandaram,whorarelygotthefullmarketvaluefortheforestcommoditiestheycollected,moveshavebeenmadeinrecentyearstoreplaceitbyaforestcooperativesystemadministeredbyforestryofficialsundertheauspicesofthegovernment'sTribalWelfareDepartment.DivisionofLabor.Althoughwomenaretheprincipalgatherersofyams,whilethehuntingofthelargermammalsandthecollectionofhoneyaretheprerogativesofmen,thedivisionoflaborisnotarigidone.Menmaycookandcareforchildren,whilewomenfrequentlygohuntingforsmallerani-mals,anactivitythattendstobeacollectiveenterprisein-volvingafamilyaidedbyadog.Collectionofforestproducetendstobedonebybothsexes.LandTenure.EachHillPandaramfamily(orindividual)isassociatedwithaparticularforesttract,butthereislittleornoassertionofterritorialrightsorrightsoverparticularforestproductseitherbyindividualsorfamilies.Theforestisheldtobethecommonpropertyofthewholecommunity.Nocom-plaintisexpressedattheincreasingencroachmentonthefor-estbylow-countrymenwhogatherdammarorotherforestproducts,oratincreasingincidencesofpoachingbythem.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.UnlikethecastecommunitiesofKerala,theHillPandaramhavenounilinealdescentsys-temorideologyandtherearenorecognizedcorporategroup-ingsabovethelevelofthefamily.Thesettlementsare...

... per-formmanyagriculturaltasks.Malestypicallydothesowing,andwomenoftendothemostboringoftaskssuchasweed-ing,reaping,andthecarryingofloadsofharvestedgardenproduceorgrain.Bothmalesandfemalesarehiredforahostoflaboringtasks.Becauseinfantcarethusbecomesaprob-lem,itisnotunusualforwomentotaketheirinfantstowork-places.Olderchildrennotattendingschoolareoftentakencareofbytheelderlyinextendedfamilies.LandTenure.MembersoftheThengumarahadaCooper-ativeSocietycultivateallottedamountsofland.AfewoftheIrulaowntitletoland,sometimesintheformofpatta(landownership)documents.GaudasandChettiarsinparticularhavetakenoverIrulalandthroughloanmanipulation,andsometherebynowalsohaveIrulasworkingforthem.ManyIrulaleaselandfromlandowners.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.TheIrulaformanendogamouscastewithtwelveexogamouspatricians(inSanskritgotras,inTamilkulams)-Devanan(orThevananorDevala),Kal-katti,Koduvan(orKodugar),Kuppan(orKoppilingam),Kurunagan,Ollaga,Peratha,Porigan,Pungan(orPoong-karu),Samban(orChamban),Uppigan(orUppali),andVellagai(orVellai)-andaclanrepresentedbythethudaitree(Ilexdenticulata).Nevertheless,becausemembersofapatriciancannotmarrymembersinoneormore"brother"pa-tricians,thereareexogamouspatricianunitsamongtheIrula.Theoverallsizeoftheseunitsvariesfromoneareatoanother.Thus,theIrulakinshipsystemissimilartotheonethatdomi-natesinsouthernIndia.Inaddition,theIrulahaveasystemwherebyeachpatricianisaffiliatedwithafriendshippatricianwhosemembershelpwhenanevent,typicallyariteofpas-sage,requirescooperativeeffort.TheidealmarriageamongtheIrulaisofafemalewithherfather'ssister'sson(i.e.,amalewiththe ... asthebridesmaid,andthebride'sbrotherwillserveasthebestman.Thebrideisbroughtbyherrelativesandthegroom'spartytothegroom'shouseontheweddingday.Inthehouseorwithinatemporaryshelter(pandal)erectednearthehouse,thegroominthemostpertinentactofthemarriageceremonyandinconformitywiththewidespreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,tiesanecklace(tali,providedbyhismaternaluncle)aroundthebride'sneck.Afeastisthenprovidedbythegroom'speople.Milletwouldinpasttimeshavebeenserved,butitisnowfashionabletoservericewithcurry.Thegroomafterwardbowstothefeetofgueststoreceivetheirblessingandisfollowedinthisactbyhiswife.Alongwiththeirbless-ing,theguestsgivemoney(typicallyRs1,2,or5)tothecou-ple.Alllatergotothebride'shouse,andthereisthenan-otherfeast(again,withriceandcurry),whichrunsintothenight.Allfeastingisaccompaniedbythedancingofmalesandfemales(usuallyinseparategroupsbutinonecircle).Theconsumptionofintoxicatingbeveragesisalsoliabletotakeplace.Theestablishmentofaseparatepatrilocalhouse-holdaftermarriageisthenorm.Conformingwiththewide-spreadpracticeinsouthernIndia,thewifeusuallyreturnstoherpaternalhomeinherseventhmonthofpregnancyandre-mainsthereuntilafterherinfantisdelivered.Whileawom-an'sinabilitytobearachildisnotconsideredgroundsfordi-vorce,anIrulamanmaymarryanotherwomanifhisfirstwifecannotconceive.Hethenismarriedtobothwomen.Theusualgroundsfordivorceareunfaithfulnessorahusband'slackofprovisionforhiswife.Whenamarriageistroubled,aIndianChristian103BibliographyChaudhuri,NiradC.(1979).Hinduism,aReligiontoLiveBy.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress;London:Chatto&Windus.Zaehner,RC.(1962).Hinduism.London:OxfordUniver-sityPress.PAULHOCKINGSStutley,Margaret,andJamesStutley(1977).Harper'sDic-tionaryofHinduism:ItsMythology,Folklore,Philosophy,Liter-ature,andHistory.NewYork:Harper&Row.IndianChristianETHNONYMS:noneIndianChristiansarebelieversinthedivinityofJesusChrist.DespitethepersistingideainSouth Asia thatChris-tianityisthe"whiteman'sreligion,"ithasamassivefollowingtodayinthesubcontinent.Still,itisverymuchaminorityfaith,accountingfornearly8percentoftheSriLankanpopu-lationbutlessthan3percentineachoftheotherSouthAsiancountries.In1991Indiahadanestimated21millionChristians,andtheotherSouthAsiancountriestogetherhadanother3million.TheideathatChristianitywasintroducedbythecolo-nialpowers-RomanCatholicismbythePortugueseandthenAnglicanismbytheEnglish-isnotstrictlytrue.KeralaandsomeotherpartsofthewestcoasthadcertainlybeenevangelizedbyNestorianmissionariessincethesixthcentury,andmanyinsouthIndiabelievethattheapostleThomascametoTamilNaduandwasmartyredandburiedinwhatisnowMadrascity.TheseearlyreligiousconnectionswerewithSyria(cf.SyrianChristians).ThePortuguesebroughtPortu-gueseandItalianpriestswiththem,andin1557Goa,theirmajorIndiancolony,becameanarchbishopric.WiththefoundingoftheEastIndiaCompanyin1600theEnglishin-troducedtheAnglicanfaith,andastimepassedotherProtes-tantsectsappeared.Theyears1850-1900werethehighpointofProtestantmissionactivityinSouth Asia, withmin-istersfromAmericaandvirtuallyeverycountryinEuropevyingforconverts,especiallyamongtheUntouchables,tri-bals,anddowntroddenslumdwellers.Insomeareastheyweredramaticallysuccessfulatgainingconverts:theMizosofnortheasternIndiaarenearlyallChristianstoday,thankstothesomewhatobscureWelshBaptistmission.Attheotherendofthecountry,though,theBadagasare97percentHinduafterseventyyearsofconcertedeffortbytheBaselEvangelicalmission,followedbyanotherseventyyearsofothermissionaryactivity.TheRomanCatholicmissionarieshavenotfaredanybetteramongtheBadagas;butelsewheretherearelargeCatholiccongregationsinmanytownsandcit-ies.BytheCongregationdePropagandaFide(1622)theCatholicchurchencouragedthetrainingof ... Indianpriests,andalsobroughtinlargenumbersofEuropeanJesuitsinasu-pervisorycapacity.Theyear1947markedalandmarkinProtestantchurchhistory,notjustbecausethiswastheyearofindependenceforbothIndiaandPakistanbutalsobecauseitwastheyearwhentheChurchofSouthIndiacameintobeing-thefirstunifiedProtestantchurchanywhere.ItofcourseabsorbedtheformerAnglican,Methodist,andseveralothersectarianinstitutions.In1970therefollowedaunifiedProtestantChurchofNorthIndiaandaProtestantChurchofPakistan.Thesechurches,bothProtestantandCatholic,arenowentirelyinthehandsofSouthAsianbishopsandarchbish-ops,withveryfewoftheformerEuropeanmissionariesre-maining.InSriLankaandsouthIndia,thegreatestgrowthshaverecentlybeenseenamongtheRomanCatholics,notprimarilybecauseofnewconversionsbutratherbecauseofacalculatedavoidanceoffamilyplanning.InNepalChristianandMuslimmissionaryactivityisprohibitedbylaw.ThehistoryofChristianityinSouth Asia hasindeedbeenacheckeredone,butithasbeenanimportantinstru-mentofWesternization.ThefirstprintingpressesandthefirstmodemcollegeswereintroducedbyEuropeanmissionar-ies.Bythemiddleofthenineteenthcenturythesepeopleweremakingimportantcontributionstothegeneralsocialupliftofthecountry(andnotonlyforChristianconverts)bytheirpromotionofruralandurbanschooling,adultliteracy,femaleeducation,colleges,hospitalsandclinics,andmodemurbancareers.AsaresulttheChristianpopulationhaswieldedadisproportionateinfluenceinmodemIndianandSriLankanlife.Littleconversionisstilltakingplace.IndianChristianstodaytendtobeurban,arealwaysmo-nogamous,andformnuclearfamiliesuponmarriage(whichtakesplaceinachurch).TheyusuallyfollowWesternizedprofessions,becomingteachers,nurses,bankclerks,andcivilservants.SeealsoEuropeansinSouth Asia; SyrianChristianofKeralaBibliographyCoutinho,Fortunato(1958).Leregimeparoissialdesdiocesesderitelatindel'Indedesorigines(XVIesiecleanosjours).Paris:EditionsBiatrice-Nauwelaerts.Gibbs,MildredE.(1972).TheAnglicanChurchinIndia,1600-1970.Delhi:IndianSocietyforPromotingChristianKnowledge.Nanjundayya,H.V.,andL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer(1930)."IndianChristian."InTheMysoreTribesandCastes,editedbyH.V.NanjundayyaandL.K.AnanthakrishnaIyer.Vol.3,1-76.Mysore:MysoreUniversity.Neill,Stephen(1984).AHistoryofChristianityinIndia.2vols.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Thomas,AbrahamV.(1974).ChristiansinSecularIndia.Rutherford:FairleighDickinsonUniversity.PAULHOCKINGSIrula105gosa)andtamarindareoftenpresentwithinlowlandsettle-ments.ThelowlandIrulawhoherdcattleforothers,typicallyindrierareaswiththornforest,areassociatedwithadistinc-tivesettlementpatterninwhichalargecattleenclosureissur-roundedbyathornywallofpiledbranches.TheIrulaalsohaveburialgroundswithancestraltemples,calledkoppamanais,inwhichstonesassociatedwiththedepartedspiritsofthedeadarehoused.Eachpatricianhasaburialplaceandakoppamanai,butthetwoarenotnecessarilytogether(forexample,whileSambanpeopleareonlyburiedatKallampa-layam,thereareSambankoppamanaisatHallimoyarandKunjappanai).Althoughaburialgroundisusuallyclosetoasettlement,itcanbefartheraway.Asinmanyotherpartsof Asia andintothePacificBasin,thesacrednessofaburialgroundisoftenassociatedwiththepagodatree(thePolyne-sianfrangipani).LargelybecausemanyoftheIrulaarelandlesslaborers,mostofthemliveinone-roomedhouses.Nevertheless,IrulaplantationlaborersinhabitingtheNilgirislopesstilloccupybipartitehouseswiththesacredcookingareaformallyseparated(typicallynotwithawallbutwithashallowearthenplatform)fromthelivingandsleepingareas.TheKasabatothenorthoftheNilgirimassif,whoherdcattleforothers(Badagasincluded),occupytripartitestructureswithlivingquartersforhumanstoonesideofaroomwithanopenfront,andacalfroomtotheotherside.Theopenfrontofthecenterroomfacilitatesthewatchingoftheenclosedcattleatnight,anditismostusefulwhenpredatorsorwildel-ephantscomenear.WhiletraditionalIrulahousesaremadeofwattleanddaub,withthatchedroofs(orinsomeinstancesbananasheathsforwallingandroofing),moreIrulaarelivinginhouseswithwallsofstoneorbrickandroofswithtiles,es-peciallyifthegovernmenthasprovidedfinancialassistance.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Theearliestre-portsindicatethatthehoe-usingIrulaoftheeasternNilgirislopesobtainedonecropofmilletinayearfromshiftedplots,involvingagrowingperiodthatcoincidedwiththewesterlymonsoon.Theythendependedupongardenproduce,gath-erededibles,andhuntingforsurvivaloncetheharvestedgrainhadbeenconsumed.ThattheseIrulawereprobablynamedafterayamspeciesisindicativeofhowimportantyamsweretothemwhentheyturnedtogathering.Severalwildyamspecieswereavailable.Irulaarestillwellknownforthegatheringandsupplyofhoneytotheirneighbors.DespitesculpturedrepresentationsofbowsandarrowsinsomeNilgiridolmensathigherelevation,itisnoteworthythattheIrulaseemalwaystohaveusednetsandspearswhentheyhunted.OurrecordofatleasteightyspeciesofplantsgrowinginIrulagardenstestifiestothepastandcontinuingsignificanceofgardenstoalltheIrula.Thatatleasttwenty-fiveoftheidenti-fiedplantshadaNewWorldoriginalsoprovesthewilling-nessoftheIrulatoincorporateintroducedspeciesintotheireconomy.Thecontinuedcultivationoffingermillet(Eleusinecorocana),Italianmillet(Setariaitalica),andlittlemillet(Panicumsumatrense)andnodryricebytheIrulaonthehigherslopesmayinitselfrepresentaNeolithicsurvival,be-causethecultivationofdryricehasinSoutheast Asia widelyreplacedtheearliercultivationoftheItalianandlittlemilletsfromChina.TheIrulastillcommonlygrowthesetwospeciesofmillettogetherandthenharvesttheItalianmilletwhenthelittlemilletisfarfrommaturation.Verysmallsicklesareusedforharvestingindividualgrainheads.Whenfingermillet(grownapartfromtheothertwo)istobeharvested,theplantsarevisitedperiodicallytopermittheremovalofgrainasitripens.Anothereconomicpursuitthatmayhavecontin-uedfromNeolithictimes,duringwhichcattlerearingwaswidespreadinsouthernIndia,isthemannerbywhichlow-landIrulainforestedareaskeepcattlefortheirneighbors(Kuruvasincluded).ThefewIrulawhostillmanagetoprac-ticeshiftingagriculturesetfireinAprilorMaytothevegeta-tiontheyhavecut,sothecultivationofmilletwillthentakeplaceduringthewesterlymonsoon.Thebarnyardmillet(Echinochloa),bullrushmillet(Pennisetum),commonmillet(Panicummiliaceum)andsorghummillet(Sorghum),allofthelowland,renownedfortheirdroughtresistance,andthustypicallygrownondryfields,arecultivatedwiththeaidofplowsandmainlyintheseasonofthewesterlymonsoon.NowwiththecooperationoftheForestDepartment,theIrulagatherforestproduce(includingmedicinalplants)forsale.SincemostIrulaoftheNilgirislopescurrentlyworkasplantationlaborers,plantationmanagementsstartingwiththoseinthetimeoftheBritishRajhadtoprovideperiodicre-leasetimeforthoseIrulawhoneededtoperformtheirownagriculturalchores.TheGandhianquesttoimprovethelivesofmembersoftheScheduledTribesisdemonstratedbythemannerinwhichthegovernmenthasenabledIrulaoftheeasternNilgirislopestoestablishcoffeeandteagardensoftheirown,andatKunjappanaitheSilkBoardofthegovern-mentofTamilNaduisnowprovidingfinancialassistancetoenablesilkwormfarmingamongtheIrula.From1974thegovernmentgavesmallplotstoIrulaontheeasternslopes,andtheCooperativeLandDevelopmentBank(anagencyoftheTamilNadugovernment)atthenearesttown(Kotagiri)wasby1979helpingtofinancethegrowingofcoffeeandteainnurseries,sothattheIrulacouldhavetheirowncommer-cializedgardens.WhileafewIrulawhowiselymanagedtheirgrantedlandsandloansprospered,manydidnotmanagetheirendeavorswellandthereturnpaymentonloansatalowratewaseventuallyendedinmanyinstancesbyaspecialbillpassedinMadrasbytheTamilNadugovernment.Itispri-marilythecooperationofthegovernment,withtheForestDepartmentofTamilNaduplayinganimportantrole,thathasenabledmorelowlandIrulatobecomeinvolvedinthean-nualcultivationofirrigatedrice.Hallimoyar,Kallampalayam,andThengumarahada(withitsCooperativeSociety),inwhichtheIrulaliveclosetothemembersofseveralcastes,haveirrigationnetworks.OnericecropstartedinMarchisharvestedinJune,andthesecondcropstartedinJulyisreadyinDecember.In1978anewlyconstructedricemillbecameoperationalatThengumarahada.IrulalivingtothesouthoftheNilgirimassifare...

... areaswithplentifulwater,andthesearepreciselytheareasinwhichagriculturehasexpandedmost.TheystillliveinthemoistregionoftheIndusDelta,butmanyhavehadtosettlepermanently.Formerlythecamelbreedersmigratedoverlargerareas,butincreasinglytheyarerestrictedtothedeltaregionoftheIndusRiver,thedesertareasoftheTharandtheThal,andthesemidesertsstretch-ingwestoftheIndustoMakranandBaluchistan.Thecameldriverswere,atleastafewdecadesago,fairlywidespreadinmostpartsofSindhandthewesternPunjab,andKachchh.WhileinsomelessdenselypopulatedareaseachJatclanhasacompactgeographicareaofitsown,elsewhereseveralclansmayinhabitthesamevillage.MostJatpeasantsliveinflat-roofedhousesmadeofbakedorunbakedbricksinlargecom-pactvillages,withfewopenspaceswithintheinhabitedarea;allvillageshavecattlesheds,villagecommons,andwellsorponds.Dependingontheregionandtheprecisecommunity,Jatnomadicpastoralistsuseavarietyofhuts,mostlymadeofreedmatsandwood,thatarefairlyeasytodismantle.Thereedmatsarewovenbythewomen.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.ThemainstayofsedentaryJateconomyisandhasalwaysbeenagriculture,andthereareseveralproverbsandsayingsinlocallanguagesthatemphasizeboththeskillandindustryoftheJatpeasant,aswellasthetraditionalattachmentofthiscommunitytothesoil.Cerealssuchaswheat,maize,andtypesofmillet,as ... asmanywaysaspossible.Thelaitysupportthewanderingascetics,providingthemwithfoodandshelter,theasceticsinturnprovidereligiousandmoralguidance.LayJainsincludesomeofIndia'sleadingindustrialists,jewelers,andbankers,concentratedparticularlyinthecitiesofBombay,Ahme-dabad,andDelhi.Becausesomanyarebusinesspeople,theJainsareoneofthefewreligiousgroups(alongwiththeParsisandJews)whoaremorenumerousincitiesthaninruralareas.ThroughoutwesternIndiaJainsaretobefoundineveryurbancenter,howeversmall,workingasmerchants,traders,wholesalers,andmoneylenders.Assooftenhappensinreligioussects,theJainsarenostrangerstoschism.Themostbasicandwidelyknownsplitwithintheircommunityofbelievers,datingbacktothefourthcenturyB.C.,separatesthe'sky-clad"(Digambaras)fromthe"white-clad"(Svetambaras);thenamesrefertothefactthatthehighestorderofDigambaramonksgonakedtoannouncetheircompleteindifferencetotheirbodies,whileSvetambaramonksandnunsalwayswearsimplewhiteclothing.Thesetwosectsdifferintheirattitudestowardscripture,theirviewsoftheuniverse,andtheirattitudestowardwomen(theDig-ambarasbelievethatnowomanhaseverachievedliberation).Anothermajorsectariandivision,foundparticularlyamongtheSvetambarasanddatingbacktofifteenth-centuryGu-jarat,rejectsallformsofidolatry.Whilemurti-pujaka(idol-worshiping)layandasceticSvetambarasbuildandvisittem-plesinwhichidolsofthetirthankarasareinstalled,theSvetambaraSthanakavasisect-likecertainProtestantChristiansects-holdsthatsuchformsofworshipmaymis-leadthebelieverintothinkingthatidols,famoustemples,andthelikearesourcesofsomemysteriouspower.InsteadlayandasceticSthanakavasisprefertomeditateinbarehalls.Today,layJains-mostlyofGujaratiorigin-aretobefoundineastAfrica,GreatBritain,andNorthAmerica,wheretheyhavemigratedoverthelastcenturyinsearchofbusinessandtradingopportunities.Templeshavebeenestab-lishedinseveralofthesecountriesandtheJains ... aremakingthemselvesfeltasadistinctivepresencewithinthewiderSouthAsianmigrantcommunityoverseas.SeealsoBaniaBibliographyBanks,Marcus(1992).OrganizingJainisminIndiaandEng-land.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Carrithers,Michael,andCarolineHumphrey,eds.(1991).TheAssemblyofListeners:JainsinSociety.Cambridge:Cam-bridgeUniversityPress.Dundas,Paul(1992).TheJains.London:Routledge.Fischer,Eberhard,andJyotindrajain(1977).ArtandRituals:2,500YearsofJainisminIndia.Delhi:SterlingPublishersPri-vateLtd.Jaini,PadmanabhS.(1979).TheJainaPathofPurification.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Mathias,Marie-Claude(1985).DIlivranceetconviviality:LesystemeculinairedesJaina.Paris:EditionsdelaMaisondesSciencesdel'Homme.Pande,G.C.,ed.(1978).SramanaTradition:ItsContributiontoIndianCulture.Ahmedabad:L.D.InstituteofIndology.Sangave,VilasA.(1959).JainaCommunity:ASocialSurvey.Reprint.1980.Bombay:PopularBookDepotVinayasagar,Mahopadhyaya,andMukundLath,eds.andtrans.(1977).KalpaSutra.Jaipur:D.R.Mehta,PrakritBharati.MARCUSBANKSJatETHNONYMS:Jt,JatOrientationIdentificationandLocation.Primarilyendogamouscom-munitiescallingthemselvesandknownasJatlivepredomi-nantlyinlargepartsofnorthernandnorthwesternIndiaandinsouthernandeasternPakistan,assedentaryfarmersand/ormobilepastoralists.Incertainareastheytendtocallthem-selvesBaluch,Pathan,orRajput,ratherthanJat.Mostofthesecommunitiesareintegratedasacasteintothelocallyprevalentcastesystem.Inthepastthreedecadesincreasingpopulationpressureonlandhasledtolarge-scaleemigrationofthepeasantJat,especiallyfromIndia,toNorthAmerica,theUnitedKingdom,Malaysia,andmorerecentlytheMid-dleEast.SomemaintainthatthesedentaryfarmingJatandthenomadicpastoralJatareofentirelydifferentorigins;oth-ersbelievethatthetwogroupsareofthesamestockbutthattheydevelopeddifferentlife-stylesoverthecenturies.Neitherthefarmersnorthepastoralistsare,however,tobeconfusedwithotherdistinctcommunitiesofperipateticpeddlers,arti-sans,andentertainersdesignatedinAfghanistanbytheblan-ketterms"Jat"orJat;thelattertermsareconsideredpejora-tive,andtheyarerejectedasethnonymsbytheseperipateticcommunities.InPakistanalso,amongtheBaluchi-andPashto-speakingpopulations,thetermswere,andtoacertainextentstillare,usedtoindicatecontemptandlowersocialstatus.Demography.Noreliablefiguresareavailableforrecentyears.In1931thepopulationofallsedentaryandfarmingJatwasestimatedat8,377,819;intheearly1960s8,000,000wastheestimateforPakistanalone.TodaytheentireJatpopula-tionconsistsofseveralmillionmorethanthat.linguisticAffiliation.AllJatspeaklanguagesanddialectsthatarecloselyconnectedwithotherlocallyspokenlan-guagesoftheIndo-IranianGroup.Threealphabetsareused,dependingprimarilyonreligionbutpartlyonlocality:theArabic-derivedUrduoneisusedbyMuslims,whileSikhsandHindususetheGurmukhi(Punjabi)andtheDevanagari(Hindi)scripts,respectively.Jatav115ciallytobedependentuponthemother,whomayinturnbe-comedependentupontheminoldage.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.InIndia'svillagesthecastesystemisanorganicdivisionoflabor,eachcastehavingatraditionallyassignedanddistinctoccupationandduty.BecauseJatavs,asChamars,dothepollutingandpollutedtasksofremovingdeadcattlefromthevillageandofworkingwithleather,theyarerankedasUntouchablesatthebottomofthesystem.Tra-ditionally,theirmajoroccupationinthevillagewasagricul-turalandothermeniallaborforlandowners.Incities,wherethetraditionalinterdependenciesofthecastesystemarevir-tuallynonexistent,Jatavsaremorelikeadistinctandde-spisedethnicgroup.PoliticalOrganization.InpreindependentIndiaJatavsgainedconsiderablepoliticalexpertisebyformingassocia-tionsandbydevelopingaliteratecadreofleaders.Theytriedtochangetheirpositioninthecastesystemthrough'Sanskri-tization,"theemulationofupper-castebehavior.JatavsclaimedKshatriyaorwarrior-classoriginandrank,andtheyorganizedcasteassociationstoreformcastebehaviorandlobbyfortheirclaims.AfterindependenceIndialegallyabol-ishedthepracticeofuntouchability,establishedtheuniversalfranchise,anddevelopedthepolicyof"protectivediscrimina-tion."ThatpolicyreserveselectoralconstituenciesforSched-uledCastecandidatesaccordingtotheirpercentagesofpop-ulationinthenationandthestates;itdoeslikewiseforjobsinthenationalandstatecivilservices;anditofferseducationalbenefitstothem.JatavshavetakenadvantageofthatpolicyandturnedtoactiveparticipationinIndia'sparliamentarysystemofgovernment.Attimestheyhaveelectedmembersoftheircastetovariousstateandnationallegislatures.Invil-lagestheyhavebeenlesssuccessfulatinfluencinglocalpoliti-calinstitutionsandcapturingfundsmeantfordevelopmentalprojects.AmajorinfluenceuponJatavswastheUntouchableleaderDr.B.RAmbedkar(d.1956)whoencouragedUn-touchablestofightfortheirrights,and,asfirstministerforlawinIndia,providedapowerfulrolemodel.Throughtheirpoliticaleffortshisstatueandpicturemaybefoundinpublicparksandbusstations,symbolicallyassertingtheirquestforequalcitizenshipinthenation.SocialControl.Everydaycontrolandleadershipoflocalcommunitieswastraditionallyinthehandsofhereditaryheadmen(chaudhari).Seriouscasesofconflict,breachesofcasterules,andothercaste-relatedproblemsweredecidedbycouncilsofadultmen(panchayat)ineachlocality.Inthepast,higher-levelcouncilsexistedformoreseriouscasesorforappeals.Thecouncilsystemandthepowersofhereditaryheadmenhavegraduallyeroded,especiallyincitieswherethecourtsandthemoreeducatedandpoliticallyinvolvedleadersandbusinessmenhavebecomemoreprominentandin-fluential.Conflict.Conflictsarisewithinandbetweenfamiliesandindividualsovermoney,children,inheritanceclaims,drink-ing,insults,andthelike.Inrecentyearsconflicts,bothincit-iesandvillages,havetakenapoliticalturnasJatavs,andotherUntouchables,havetriedtoasserttheirrights.Non-Untouchablecasteshavereactednegatively.Seriousriotsbe-tweenJatavsanduppercasteshaveoccurredincities,suchasAgra,anddangerousconflictshavealsooccurredinvillages.Jatavsfeelthatthepaceofchangeismuchtooslow,whileuppercasteshaverejecteditastoofast,unjustified,andcon-trarytoorthodoxHinduteaching.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Ingeneral,JatavsandotherChamarsareHindus.Theyreject,however,theHinduteachingthatmakesthemUntouchables,aswellastheBrahmanpriestswhowrotethesacredtextssodefiningthem.MostmajorHindufestivals,particularlyHoli,areobserved,asaremajorlife-cycleceremonies.InpostindependentIndiaJatavsmayentermajorHindutemplesandvisitpilgrimagespots.SomeChamarsaredevoteesoftheChamarsaintRaviDas.Anum-berofJatavshavefollowedDr.AmbedkarandconvertedtoBuddhismasarejectionofthecastesystemandasanasser-tionoftheequalityofallindividuals.Buddhismforthemisapoliticalideologyinreligiousform.Ambedkarhimselfhasbeenapotheosizedasabodhisattva;hisbirthdayisthemajorpublicJatavfestival.BeliefisinthemajordeitiesofHindu-ism,especiallyintheirlocalizedforms.TheBuddhaandDr.Ambedkarhavebecomepartofthepantheon.Ghostsofthosewhodiedbeforetheirtime(bhut)andotherspiritsarebelievedtobeabletopossessorharmlivingpeople;fearoftheevileyeisalsowidespread.ReligiousPractitioners.BrahmanprieststraditionallyhavenotservedJatavsandotherUntouchables.Insteadlocalheadmenhaveofficiatedatrituals.Shamans(bhagat),whoaresometimesJatavs,havebeenknowntobeconsultedincasesofspiritpossessionandotherillnesses.Ceremonies.Life-cycleceremoniesatbirth,firsthaircut-ting,marriage,anddeatharethemajorpublicceremonies.Marriageisthemostimportantritualasitinvolvespublicfeasts,thehonorofthegirl'sfamily,cooperationofneighborsandspecifickin,andgiftgivingoveryearstothefamiliesofmarrieddaughters.Deathritualsalsorequireparticipationofagnatesandmaleneighborstocrematethecorpseimmedi-atelyandofwomentokeenritually.Verysmallchildrenareburied.Memorialfeastsormealsforthedeadaregivenoveraperiodofayear.Arts.Theverbalarts,particularlythecompositionofvari-ousformsofpoetry,arecultivated,asistheskillinsingingvariousformsofsong.Medicine.FolkremediesareusedandpractitionersofAyurvedic,Unani,andhomeopathicmedicinesarecon-sulted.Modemmedicinesandphysiciansareusedwhenaffordable.DeathandAfterlife.Beliefintransmigrationofsoulsiswidespread,andsomebelieveinanafterlifeinHeaven(Svarg)orHell(Narak).Asontoperformthefuneralobse-quiesisessential.Thedeadsoullingersafterdeathbutpassesonafteranumberofdays.SeealsoNeo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyBriggs,GeorgeW.(1920).TheChamars.Calcutta:Associa-tionPress.Cohn,Bernard(1954)."TheCamarsofSenapur:AStudyofJat111HistoryandCulturalRelationsLittleisknownabouttheearlyhistoryoftheJat,althoughseveraltheorieswereadvancedbyvariousscholarsoverthelast100years.Whilesomeauthorsarguethattheyarede-scendantsofthefirstIndo-Aryans,otherssuggestthattheyareofIndo-ScythianstockandenteredIndiatowardthebe-ginningoftheChristianera.TheseauthorsalsopointtosomeculturalsimilaritiesbetweentheJatandcertainothermajorcommunitiesofthearea,suchastheGujar,theAhir,andtheRajput,aboutwhoseoriginssimilartheorieshavebeensuggested.Infact,amongbothMuslimsandSikhstheJatandtheRajputcastesenjoyalmostequalstatus-partlybecauseofthebasicegalitarianideologyenjoinedbybothre-ligions,butmainlybecauseofthesimilarpoliticaland eco- nomicpowerheldbybothcommunities.AlsoHinduJatcon-sidertheGujarandAhirasalliedcastes;exceptfortheruleofcasteendogamy,therearenocasterestrictionsbetweenthesethreecommunities.Inotherscholarlydebatesabouttheori-ginsoftheJat,attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifythemwiththeJarttika,referredtointheHinduepictheMahabharata.SomestillmaintainthatthepeopleArabhisto-riansreferredtoastheZutt,andwhoweretakenasprisonersintheeighthcenturyfromSindhinpresent-daysouthernPa-kistantosouthernIraq,wereactuallybuffalo-herdingJat,orwereatleastknownassuchintheirplaceoforigin.Inthesev-enteenthcenturya(Hindu)kingdomwasestablishedintheareaofBharatpurandDholpur(Rajasthan)innorthernIndia;itwastheoutcomeofmanycenturiesofrebellionagainsttheMogulEmpire,anditlastedtill1826,whenitwasdefeatedbytheforcesoftheBritishEastIndiaCompany.Farthernorth,inthePunjab,intheearlyyearsoftheeight-eenthcentury,Jat(mainlySikh)organizedpeasantuprisingsagainstthepredominantlyMuslimlandedgentry;subse-quently,withtheinvasionofthearea-firstbythePersianKingNadirShahandthenbytheAfghanAhmadShahAbdali-theycontrolledamajorpartoftheareathroughclose-knitbandsofarmedmaraudersoperatingundertheleadershipofthelandowningchiefsofwell-definedterritor-ies.Becauseoftheirmartialtraditions,theJat,togetherwithcertainothercommunities,wereclassifiedbyBritishadminis-tratorsofimperialIndiaasa'martialrace,"andthistermhadcertainlong-lastingeffects.Onewastheirlarge-scalerecruit-mentintotheBritish-Indianarmy,andtothisdayaverylargenumberofJataresoldiersintheIndianarmy.ManySikhJatintheIndianpartofPunjabareinvolvedinthecurrentmove-mentforthecreationofanautonomousKhalistan.SettlementsTheJatasawholearepredominantlyrural.Dependingonwhethertheyaresedentaryornomadic,theJatofvariousre-gionsliveinpermanentvillagesortemporarycamps.Overthelast200yearstherehasbeenincreasingsedentarizationofno-madicJat;thistrendbeganinthelastdecadesoftheeight-eenthcenturywhenmanypastoralistssettledinthecentralPunjabundertheauspicesofSikhrulethere,anditcontin-uedoveraverylargeareawiththeexpansionofirrigationinBritishimperialtimes.Withtheconsequentexpansionofcul-tivationallthesepastoralistsarefacingincreasingdifficultiesinfindinggrazinglandsfortheirherds.Thebuffalobreedersfacethemaximumdifficultiesinthisrespect,sincetheirani-malsneedtobegrazedin...

... Crooke.1920.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Numerousreprints.PAULHOCKINGSTyler,StephenA.(1972)."FieldsAreforPlanting:NotesonKoyaAgriculture."InProceedingsoftheSeminaronTribalStudies,editedbyD.P.Sinha.NewDelhi:GovernmentofIndiaPress.STEPHENA.TYLERKurumbasKshatriyaETHNONYMS:Alu-Kurumbas,Betta-Kurumbas,Jenu-Ku-rumbas,Kurubas,Mudugas,Mulla-Kurumbas,Palu-Kurum-bas,Urali-KurumbasETHNONYMS:noneTheKshatriyasarealargeblockofHinducastes,mainlylocatedinthenorthernhalfofIndia.TheSanskrittermKshatrimeans"warrior,ruler,"andidentifiesthesecondvarna,rankingimmediatelybelowtheBrahmans.Nodoubt,mostofthemanycastesthatclaimtobeKshatriyaaresome-howdescendedfromwarriorswhowereintheserviceofprincesandrulersorwhowereofroyalfamilies.Conversely,numerousrulershavelegitimizedtheirstatus,especiallyifusurpers,byclaimingthattheirlineagewasindeedKshatriya.MosttypicalandbestknownofthesegroupsaretheRajputs,whoonceformedthemanyprincelyhousesofRajasthan(for-merRajputana)andneighboringareas.Ofcourse,todaymostKshatriyasarelandownersorfollowurbanprofessions.Althoughtheyrankhighinthevarnasystem,Kshatriyasmayandcommonlydoeatmeat(thoughneverbeef),andmanyalsotakealcoholicdrinks;bothofthesecharacteristicssetthemapartfromtheBrahmans.PeopleidentifiedasKurumbashavebeenreportedacrossawideareainsouthIndia.Majorsettlements,however,arefoundintheNilgiriarealocatedbetween11010'and11°30'Nandbetween76°25'and77°00'E,atthejunctionoftheEasternGhatsandtheWesternGhats.TheretheKurumbasoccupythethicklyforestedslopes,glens,andfoothillsoftheNilgiriPlateau.TheNilgirigroupsareseveninnumber:theAlu-(milk),Palu-(milk),Betta-(hill),Jenu,(honey),Mulla-(net),andUrali-(village)Kurumbas,aswellastheMudugas(noetymology).Eachisadistinctethnicgroupdif-feringfromtheothersindialect,religiousbeliefs,andotherculturalattributes.The1971Indiancensuscounted12,930Kurumbas.In1981theNilgiriDistrictcensusreported4,874Kurumbas,mostofwhomareMuduga.TogethertheKurumbagroupscomposethesmallestproportionofthepla-teaupopulationthere,andthepoorest.OfthefourtribesthatoccupytheNilgiriPlateau,legendsaysthattheToda,Kurumba,andKotatribeswerebroughtintobeingsimultaneouslybyaparentcreator.Therewerethreebrotherswhoeithertransgressedagainsttheparentsorquarreledamongthemselves.Asaresulttheirfather,asuper-Kanjar121throughreceiptofbride-priceand/orthroughachievementofamoredesirablealliancewithotherfamilies.Divorcemaybeinstigatedbyeitherspouse;however,reconciliationisalwayssoughtbecauseotherwisebride-pricemustbereturned.Dis-putesaboutmaritaltensionsandbride-pricearecommonsourcesofconflict.DomesticUnit.Thesameterm(puki)isusedfortentandforthebasicsocialunitofKanjarsociety.Pukiconnotesthecommensalgroupofafemale,herspouse,andtheirunmar-riedchildren.Marriagecreatesanewtentandresidenceisei-therneolocalorwithsiblingsorparentalsiblingstravelinginothergroups.Eachtentiseconomicallyindependent.Inheritance.Allmaterialandanimalresourcesareownedcorporatelybythetentorfamilyunit.Whenamemberdies,hisorherportionofthetent'sresourcesisequallydividedamongsurvivingmembers.Individualdebtsalsobecometheresponsibilityofthebereavedtentifnotsettledbeforedeath.Socialization.ThereisnoseparateworldforchildrenandadultsandKanjarbelievethatchildrenlearnbestthroughacombinationofexampleandspecifictraining.Broadlyspeak-ing,malesareenculturatedtobecooperativeandsupportive,whereasfemalesareencouragedtobemoreaggressive,self-reliant,andindependent.Exceptionallyattractiveandtal-entedgirlsareraisedwithexpectationthattheywillbesoldintoprofessionalentertainmentestablishments.Musicallytalentedboysmaybeencouragedtoleavetheirtentsandworkindependentlyasprofessionalmusicians.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Whereeachtentisanindependenteconomicunit,familiesusuallyformtemporaryallianceswithothertentsformingad&ra.DEratypicallyconsistoftwotofourtentswithabalanceamongskilledperformersandjhula(carnivalrides).Whileeconomicconsiderationsarealwaysamediatingfactor,mostd&raincludetentsinvolvedinengage-mentormarriagenegotiations.PoliticalOrganization.Whilefemalestendtodominate,bothtentsanddEraareacephalous.Decisionsaffectingthegrouparereachedthroughconsensus,deferencewiselybeingpaidtoolderand/ormoreexperiencedindividuals.SocialControl.Kanjarrecognizethattheindependenceoftentsandfreedom(azadi)tomovearethemostimportantformsofsocialcontrol.Tentsunwillingtoabidewithd&raconsensusareencouragedtoorsimplymoveawayinordertoavoidseriousconflictorviolence.AmongKanjar,lossofmo-bilityislossofsocialcontrol.Conflict.Tensionanddisputesarisefrombickeringbe-tweenspousesorentertainersworkingtogetheraboutshareanddistributionofearnings,adulteryorexcessivesexualjok-ing,disagreementsabouttravelroutesandtenureinanarea,andbride-pricenegotiations,aswellasindividualtransgres-sionssuchasdrunkenness,excessiveabuse,theft,physicalat-tacks,seriousinjury,andmurder.Whengrouppressureandnegotiatedcompromisesfail,Kanjarhaveaformallegalsys-temforhearingandresolvingseriousdisputes.Sincetheylackinstitutionsorformalrolesforenforcinggroupsanc-tions,settlementofdisputesultimatelydevolvesonthecon-flictingparties,theirfamilies,andtheirallies.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AsnomadsKanjararefamiliarwithabroadspectrumofreligiousbeliefsandpracticesamongthecommunitiestheyservice,andtheydonanysacredmantlethatmomentarilymeetstheirpracticalneeds.Whiletheyareessentiallyagnostic,theydoprotectthemselvesfromspirits(jinn)bywearingamulets(tabiz)purchasedfromholymen(fakirs).Arts.Asprofessionalartisansandhighlyskilledentertain-ers,theireverydaysubsistenceactivitiesareaformofexpres-siveandcreativeart.Medicine.Kanjarseektreatmentfromhomeopathicprac-titioners,druggistsorpharmacists,andfakirs(holymen)forseriousillness.Chronicmalariaisendemicandmostsufferfromseasonalboutswithtyphoidandcholera.Greaterenergyandresourcesarespentonsickfemalesthanonsickmales,especiallyasinfantsandyoungchildren.Malesareconstantlyremindedthat'roti(bread)foryourstomach"comeslargelyfromthefemalesintheirlives.DeathandAfterlife.Kanjararestoicaboutdeathandac-ceptitasfateandanormalaspectoflife.Individualsprefertodieinthecompanyoffamilyandsiblings;however,theyreal-izethattheirperipateticlife-styleoftenprohibitsdispersedkinfrombeingpresent.Ideally,parentsand/orsiblingswashthebody,wrapitinanewwhitecloth,sprinkleitwithscentedwater,andburyitonitssidefacingeasttowardwarmthandtherisingsun.Burialtakesplaceassoonaspossible-thenextdayduringthehotseason,andaftertwoorthreedaysinwinter,thusincoolerweatherallowinganysiblingswhomightbeinthesameareatimetotravelandbeinvolvedintheburialprocess.Thebodyisconsideredpollutingtofe-malesandthereforemalesprepareitforburial.Kanjargener-allyfearincapacitatingdiseasesorlongfinalillnessesmorethantheactualdeathitself.Whileafamilywillcarryasickin-dividualontheircartsand/orstoptravelingwhenanindivid-ualbecomesextremelyillorcrippled,Kanjarfearlossofmo-bilitymorethandeath.AmongKanjar,freedomandmobilityrepresentlife.SeealsoPeripatetics;QalandarBibliographyBerland,JosephC.(1982).NoFiveFingersAreAlike:Cogni-tiveAmplifiersinSocialContext.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.Berland,JosephC.(1987)."KanjarSocialOrganization."InTheOtherNomads:PeripateticMinoritiesinCrossCulturalPerspective,editedbyAparnaRao,247-265.Cologne:BohlauVerlag.Berland,JosephC.,andMatt.T.Salo,eds.(1986).'Peripa-teticPeoples."NomadicPeoples(Toronto)21/22(specialissue).Hayden,Robert(1979)."TheCulturalEcologyofServiceNomads."EasternAnthropologist32:297-309.Misra,P.K,andRajalakshmiMisra(1982)."NomadismintheLandoftheTamilsbetween1A.D.and600A.D."InNo-Khasi125theinheritanceoftheirmother,butthelargestsharegoestotheyoungestdaughter.Whenthemotherhasnodaughters,theinheritancegoestohersister'syoungestdaughter.Ifthesisterhasnodaughters,thenthemother'ssistersandtheirfe-malekinreceivetheinheritance.Menareprohibitedfromin-heritingrealproperty.Allpropertyacquiredbyamanbeforemarriagebelongstohismother.Propertyacquiredbyhimaftermarriagebelongstohiswifeandchildren.Ofthesechil-dren,theyoungestdaughterwillreceivethelargestshareoftheinheritanceuponthedeathoftheman'swife.Ifthemanhasnodaughters,thenhissonsreceivehispropertyuponthedeathoftheirmother.Christianconversion ... recentyearscharihasgivenplacetodowry(dahej),whichcomprises50rupeesincashandutensils.Givingdahejisastatussymbol;nowadayseducatedboysgetcash,abicycle,etc.WiththepoorerKols,chariisstillinvogue.Wearingthecolorvermil-ionandbanglesarethesymbolsofmarriageforwomen.Therakhelualsousethesesymbols.Marriagebyelopementfor-merlywasinvogue;thispracticeisnowrare.Incompatibility,adultery,andbarrennessareprimaryreasonsforseekingadi-vorce.Inthecaseofadivorce,olderchildrenstaywiththefa-ther,butthebabiesmaygowiththemother.Adivorcedwomandoesnotgetanycompensationnorcansheclaimanyportionofthehusband'sproperty.Thedahejorchariisneverreturned.Adoption(godnama)doesnotrequireanyformalpermissionfromthecommunitynorisafeasttobegiventoseekapprovalofit.Onlythevillagemessenger(kotwar)hastobeinformedverballyandheinturninformstheleader(sar-panch).Achild,maleorfemale,takenongodnamagetsashareoftheinheritance(ifthereareothersonsofthede-ceased)orelseallofit(ifthedeceasedhasnoson).Therak-heluandherchildrenformanappendageofthefamily.DomesticUnit.Residenceispatrilocalingeneral.Never-theless,thereareinstanceswhenamanstayswithhiswifeaftermarriage,tolookafterherinheritedproperty.Inheritance.Bothmovableandimmovablepropertyisin-heritedbysonsequallyandnoextrashareisgiventotheeld-estortheyoungestson.Aftermarriage,thedaughterscannotclaimanyshareofthedeceasedfather'sproperty;however,ifthedeceasedleftnoson,thenthedaughterscanclaimhisproperty.Achildlesswidowownsherhusband'sproperty.Thepropertyofadeadbachelorgoestooneofhissiblings.Adivorcedwomancannotclaimanyshareinpropertywhilestayingathernatalhousebutcaninsistonmaintenanceforlife.SociopoliticalOrganization.SocialOrganization.Asdescribedabove,theKolaredi-videdintotwenty-threeendogamoussubunitscalledbaenk.Inaddition,statusandwealthdistinctionsarebasedonoccu-pationasdescribedabove.PoliticalOrganization.TheKolhaveacouncilcompris-ingthreeelderlypersonages(mukhobar)includingamalik(headman)selectedbythevillagers.InKolsocietyamalikisahighlyreveredman.Hissonmaybecomemalikifthevillag-erssodecide.Onthedeathofamalik,hiswifemayperformthedutiesofherhusband(asmalik)tillthevillagerschooseanewone.ConflictandSocialControl.ThemalikandmukhobarsarecompetenttohandlecasesinvolvingtheKols.WheneveradisputearisesbetweenaKolandanon-Kol,thevillagecouncil(panchayat)isapproached.Iftheconflictreferstotwovillagesithastobedecidedbyalargerbody(nyaypanch)thatcoversfiveormorevillages.Thepradhanwhoisthechiefofthenyaypanchisassistedbyanupopradhanandafewpanches,oneofwhommaybeaKol.Themukhobarswithinavillagearecontactedwheneverthereisadisputeinvolvingin-fringementofcommunitynorms.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.TheKolmainlyprofessHinduism.The1961censusrecorded100percentofthemasfollowersofHinduism.Inthe1971census99.67percentoftheKolswerelistedasHindusand0.32percentasof"indefinitebelief"(anothernameforthetraditionaltribalreligion);0.01per-centdidnotstatetheirreligion.The1981censusrecorded99.7percentoftheKolsasfollowersofHinduism,0.28per-centasprofessing"otherreligions"(thetribalreligion),andtheremaining0.01percentasChristians,Muslims,orJains.Thustherehasbeennosignificantchangeduringtheperiod1961-1981.ReligiousPractitioners.TheKols'ownpriest(panda)isanimportantfunctionaryinKolsociety.HeofficiatesattheritualscenteringontheworshipofDesaiDurinAprilandSorokhiDeviatanyappropriatetime,forthewelfareoftheKolvillagesandKolhouseholds.Thepandaalsoservesastheexorcist(ojha)whodrivesawayevilspiritsthatcausesick-ness.Bothofficesareoftenheldbyoneandthesameperson.Ceremonies.TheKolscontinuetoworshiptheirfamilydeities,BabadeoBabaandMarhi,andvillagedeitiessuchasShankarji,Kherdai,HardolaBaba,Hanuman,andBhain-Kota135tionallypracticedintheNilgiris.Fortheneighboringcom-munitiestheKotasprovidedmusic,ironarticlesandsilveror-naments,baskets,pottery,andavarietyofotherspecializedgoodsandservices.Withthechangetoamonetaryandmar-keteconomytheseservicesarenolongerrequired,andthevastincreaseintheBadagapopulationhasmadecloserecip-rocalrelationshipsimpossible.TheknowledgeofmanyofthesetraditionalpracticesamongtheKotasisgraduallybeinglost,andasyetnointernalmotivationhassurfacedtoreplacelostcontextsorencouragethemaintenanceoftheseartsandcrafts.SettlementsSixvillagesoftheKotashost100-300peopleinroughlytwenty-fivetosixty-fivehouses;whileonlyafewfamiliesstillinhabittheseventhvillage,Kala-c(orGudalurKokal).Thehousesarearrangedinrows,calledke-rs,whichcorrespondtoexogamoussocialunits.Kotavillagesarecalledkokal,liter-ally"Kotaleg,"ortheplacewhereKotasplantedtheirfeet.Thepatternofsettlementisbelievedtohavebeendeter-minedbyacowwholedtheKotasthroughtheNilgirisandstoppedinvariousplacestoindicatevarioussitesforthevil-lages.ThefollowingarethesevenKotavillageslistedintheordersomeKotasbelievetheycameintoexistence(Anglo-Badaganamesascommonlyrenderedaregiveninparenthe-ses):Me-na-r(KundaKotagiri),Kolme-l(Kollimalai),Kur-goj(SholurKokal),Ticga.r(Trichigadi),Porga-r.(Kotagiri),Kina-r(KilKotagiri),andKala-c(GudalurKokal).InearliertimesKotahouseswerewattleand ... Kol129Leitner,GotliebWilliam(1877).TheLanguagesandRacesofDardistan.Lahore:GovernmentCentralBookDepot.PAULHOCKINGSKolETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.Theword"Kol"appearstohavebeende-rivedfromtheMundariwordko,meaning"they,"orfromhoro,hara,har,ho,orkoro-"themen"-bywhichtheKolsidentifythemselves.TheKollenttheirnametothelanguagegroupformerlyknownastheKolarian,andnowbetterknownastheMundariorAustroasiaticLanguageFamily.TheKolbelongedtotheProto-Australoidethnicstratum.TheSantal,Munda,Ho,Bhumij,Kharia,Khairwar,andKorwawhoareakintotheKolweretermedKolariantribes.TheKolsarementionedasagenericcategoryofpeopleineasternIndiainmedievaltexts.Intheimperialperiod,theword"Kol"acquiredapejorativemeaningasitbecameasynonymforthesavage,thelowly,thoseperformingmenialjobs,themilitant,andtheaggressive.The"Larka"(fighting)KolwasanappellationgivenbytheBritishadministrationtotheHoandtheMunda-botharerelatedgroups-wholedtheinsurrectionof1831-1832inChotaNagpur.Afterthisuprising,theword'Kol"appearstohavefadedoutoftheearlyethnographyofChotaNagpurandwasreplacedbythenamesoftheconstituenttribes,suchasHo,Munda,etc.TheHoinOrissastillcarrythename'Kolha,"withalargepopulation(326,522in1981),becausetheycamefromKolhaninSingbhumDistrict.TherearealsoKolhaLoharwhopracticeblacksmithinginOrissa.Location.ThetribethattodaybearsthenameKolisre-strictedtoapartofMadhyaPradeshandUttarPradesh.Ear-liertheKolsweredescribedasoneofthemostwidelyspreadandwell-knowntribesofthecentraluplands,extendingfromKolhantowestoftheChittorHillsinRajasthan.ButnowtheyareidentifiedwiththeKoltribeonly,distributedintwenty-threedistrictsofMadhyaPradeshandnineadjoiningdistrictsofUttarPradesh.InMaharashtratheKolarefoundinNagpurDistrict,insmallnumbers,wheretheyhavesettleddownasmigrantlaborers.ThehabitatoftheKolisaverywarmorquitecoldclimatewithlowhumidityandmediumrainfall.Demography.In1971therewere489,875Kolslistedinthecensus(probablyanundercount).linguisticAffiliation.TheKolnolongerusetheirancientlanguageandhaveadoptedHindiandtheDevanagariscript.TheKolLoharinOrissaspeakOriyabutarebilingualinKolaswell.Thespeakersofthislanguage(asof1961)numberonly64,465persons,ofwhom10,267(15.93percent)arebi-lingual.Amongthebilinguals7,937persons(77.31percent)knowtheOriyalanguageand2,330persons(22.69percent)speakotherlanguages.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheKolsconsiderthemselvestobethedescendantsofSaharaMata,amemberoftheSavarasofepicfame;sheisknownasthe"motheroftheKol."TheKolsoftheJabalpur-Katniarea(ofMadhyaPradesh)believethattheywereearlierinMewar(Rajasthan)andoccupieditshills.Theyhavein-heritedamartialcharacterandbelievethatonlywiththehelpoftheKolandtheBhilpeoplescouldRanaPratapfighttheMoguls.Nevertheless,whilehistoryhasrecordedtheroleoftheBhils,theKolsarenotmentioned.TheKolsareanexampleofatribethathaschangedcon-siderablyovertime.Theearliestreferencesrelatetolarger,ge-nericconglomeratesonthefringeofaSanskriticcultureandcivilization.TheirmentionintheethnographyoftheBritishimperialperiodwasnotveryspecific.TodaythegreatKolshavedisappeared,buttheirnameclingstoasmalltribalpop-ulation,whichin1946wasdescribedasbeingveryclosetobecomingacasteandtobeingHinduized.Neitherpossibilityhasentirelymaterialized.TheKolshavesurvivedasacommu-nity,withanidentityoftheirownandanadaptabilitythatwasunderestimatedbyearlyethnographers.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.TheKolswereonceadeptatunirrigatedhillcultivation.Later,whentheymovedintothevalleys,theycouldnoteasilyadapttowetricecultivation.ThereforetheKolarenotknowntodayasagricul-turists.Theyworkmoreoftenasdailywagelaborers,collec-torsofforestproduce,andgatherersofwoodfuel.Theysellbundlesofwoodtotheirneighborsandatmarkets.Themostimportantforestproducecollectedbythemisthewood-apple,whichisusedforpreparationofdyesandherbalmedi-cine;itisdriedandsoldatagoodprice.In1946,W.G.GriffithsidentifiedthreestrataamongtheKol:thefactoryworkerswhowerefairlywell-off;theforestpeopleandagricul-turistswhohadenoughtoeatbutnocash;andthewoodandgrasscutterswhowerethepoorestofthelot.Theirconditionhasnotmarkedlychangedsince.LandTenure.AfewKolsownland,butmostarelandless.Thosewhohavelandenjoyfreeownershiprightsoverapatchoflandforthreeyears,andafterthelapseofthisperiodtheybecomebhumiswami(lordofthepatchofland).Asaresulttheycannotselltheirlandwithouttheexpresspermissionofthedistrictcollector.Theforestwheretheycollectwoodfuelorwood-applesbelongstothegovernmentbuttheydonotpayanytaxes.Theyalsograzetheircattleongovernmentlandforwhichnotaxispaid.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyKinGroupsandDescent.TheKolsaredividedintoanumberofsubdivisionssuchastheRautia,Rautel,Dassao,Dahait,Kathotia,Birtiya,andThakuria.InJabalpurtheKolmainlybelongtotheRautiaandThakuriasubdivisions,whereasinNagpurtheyaremainlyRautia.Thesesubdivi-sionsareendogamousunits(baenk)thatregulatemarriage.Griffiths(1946)listedabouttwenty-twokulhi(baenk);WilliamCrooke(1896)gavealistofninesepts,butnowonly18KanbiSettlementsCastesareassignedrespectivelivingareaswithinatypicalKanbivillage,eachofwhichhasindividualaccesstoagricul-turalfields.Villagesdonotadheretoanestablishedurbanplan.Avillagesquare(containingtemples,shrines,andof-ficesforgovernmentofficials)islocatednearthevillageen.trance.Atalav(tank)containingthewatersupplyislocatednearthesquare.Atypicalhouseisconstructedofmud,wood,andthatch.Thehomeofamoreaffluentlandownerissimi-larlyconstructed,butasuperiorgradeofwoodisused.BrickandironarealsousedintheconstructionofhomesforwealthyKanbi.EconomySomeKanbiownlandasshareholderswhileothersworkastenantfarmers.Agricultureisthemajorsubsistenceactivity.Cropsgrownincludeseveralvarietiesofmillet(includingspikedmillet),pigeonpeas,rice,clusterbeans,sesame,cas-tor,chilies,andspices.Othervegetablesarepurchasedfromvendorslocallyandbeyondthevillageconfines.Cottonandtobaccoarealsocultivated.ThemorewealthyKanbisupple-menttheirincomethroughinvestment,trade,industry,andcommercialactivities.TheKanbihaveacasheconomyandproducefewimplements.WealthyKanbifamiliesengageinavarietyofprofessional,industrial,andtrade-relatedactivities(foreignanddomestic).Inexchangeforservicesrenderedbyseveralservantandspecializedcastes,theKanbisettletheiraccountsincashorbymeansofbarter(e.g.,withgrain).Oc-cupationalspecializationobtainsinKanbivillages.Special-izedcastes(e.g.,Brahmans,barbers,washers,potters,carpen-ters,tailors,andshopkeepers)provideimportantservices.Menworkagriculturalfieldsandwomenpreparemeals,han-dlehouseholdchores,andcarefordomesticanimals.KinshipThevillage,villagedivision,andnatalgrouparethemostbasicsocialunitsinKanbisociety.InleadingKanbivillages,theKanbiaredescendantsofoneman(afoundingancestor);insomevillages,aminoritylineagethatpredatesthefound-ingancestormayalsoexist.Inlargevillages,thedescendantsofacommonancestorbuildacompound(chokorkhadaki)together.Inwealthyvillages,allmembersofthecompoundareagnaticallyrelated.Atonetime,thesecompoundsmayhaveservedashometoseveralgenerations.By1972,theyhousedlittlemorethanjointfamiliesoftwogenerations'depth.Secession(andlinealsegmentation)maytakeplace;however,thisisarareoccurrence.CompoundsofthissortarenotusuallyfoundinsmallerKanbivillages.Thebhayat(smalldivisionconsistingoffourorfivegenerations)alsofiguresprominentlyinKanbisocialstructure.Itistheclosestgroupofmutualcooperationoutsidethefamily.PatrilinealdescentistheKanbinorm.ablesocialstanding.Postmaritalresidenceispatrilocal.Thejointfamily,consistingofeitheracoupletogetherwiththeirchildrenoralargegroupextendingfiveormoregenerations,isthebasicdomesticunit.Malechildreninherittheparentalestate.Duringhislifetime,afatheristhemanagerofthe...