not only is followed by an adjective, then but also must be followed by an adjec- tive as well. If the parts of speech are different, then the sentence construction is flawed. Also, if the expression itself appears in any altered form, such as not only . . . and, then the construction is incorrect. A typical sentence construction using the expression not only . . . but also looks like the following: Subject + verb + not only + {noun/adjective/ adverb/prepositional phrase} + but also + {noun/adjective/adverb/preposi- tional phrase). James is not only artistic but also scholarly. adjective adjective Note that scholarly looks like an adverb because it ends in –ly, but it is not. Sharon writes not only short stories but also poetry. noun noun He works not only diligently but also quietly. adverb adverb This bus stops not only in large cities but also in small towns. prepositional phrase prepositional phrase TOEFL test questions might look like this: Q. She is studying not only chemistry and botany. The answer is D, because and does not correctly complete the sentence construc- tion. And should be replaced by but also. Q. He enjoyed not only riding his bike but also the scenery. The answer is D. The phrase not only is followed by a verb, riding. Therefore, the second phrase in this construction, but also, must also be followed by a verb. The scenery is a noun phrase, so it is incorrect. It would be correct to say viewing the scenery. Count and Non-Count Nouns Some word choice questions on the TOEFL test require you to be able to distin- guish between count nouns and non-count nouns. The word count means “count- able.” If a noun is countable, you can count individual items of that noun; you can say “one _____ , two _____ , three _____” followed by the noun in the plural form (except with one). If a noun is not countable, you cannot logically put a number before it or make it plural. 130 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested A B C D A B C D For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org For example, desk is countable because you can say “one desk, two desks, three desks.” (Note that you use the singular form of the noun when you count only one, and you use the plural form of the noun when you count more than one.) However, sand is not countable because you cannot say “one sand, two sands, three sands.” You can say “some sand,” but some is not a specific number. Examples of other non-count nouns include news, food, air, meat, and money. Abstract concepts such as information, sophistication, mathematics, and geography are also non-countable, as are other words ending in -sion, -tion, -ics, or -aphy. The following determiners can be used only with count nouns: a, an, one, two, three, number of, these, those, few, fewer, and many. The following determiners can be used only with non-count nouns: little, less, amount of, and much. There is too much sugar in this coffee. (Sugar is not countable.) There are too many students in this room. (Students are countable.) Some non-count nouns are measured or contained in units that are countable. For example, coffee is a non-count noun (although in spoken English you may some- times hear people use it as though it is countable). But while coffee itself cannot be counted, containers that hold coffee can be counted. Therefore, it is correct to refer to one cup of coffee, two cups of coffee, and so on. Likewise, money is not countable but dollars are. You cannot say “one money, two moneys.” You can say “one dollar, two dollars.” Definite and Indefinite Articles An article or determiner often precedes a noun. If there is an adjective describing the noun, the article precedes the adjective as well. Word choice questions on the TOEFL test sometimes require you to distinguish when a definite article (the) should be used and when an indefinite article (a or an) should be used. The is used to designate specific or known items, as opposed to general items. Edwin has to go to the class this morning. This means that Edwin has to go to a specific class this morning and the speaker and the listener know which one. The woman in the corner will be the speaker. This sentence refers to a specific woman by describing her. 131 Structure For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org A and an are used to designate a general item as opposed to a specific item, or to designate that the item has not been mentioned previously. Note: A and an appear only before singular count nouns, while the can appear be- fore both singular and plural count nouns. A teacher must be dedicated to his students. The sentence refers to teachers in general, not one specific teacher. Edwin has to go to a class this morning. This sentence does not indicate which specific class Edwin must attend. TOEFL test questions might appear like the following: Q. This building is an oldest building in town. The answer is B, because an is not correct. The use of the superlative oldest indi- cates that the article the would make sense instead. Q. One of a most difficult problems we confront is determining how to present a new topic to an unreceptive audience. The answer is A. The determiner the must be used with one of. Q. Although not widely sold, that book is considered to be best book on the subject. The answer is C. The sentence should read the best. Use the specific determiner, the, with superlatives. The superlative means it is the ultimate one, so it is specific. Q. Everybody should consider pursuing the hobby, whether it is a thought- intensive one like collecting coins or a physical exercise like working in a garden. The answer is A. The should be a because it is obviously an indefinite concept. We do not know which hobby is being considered. 132 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Another, Other, and Others The same rules that apply to determiners (articles) apply to the word other. Another is used when the indefinite article a would make sense. In other words, it is used with a singular noun not previously mentioned or not known by the lis- tener. It can be used only with a count noun, because it means one. The other is used when the definite article the would make sense, that is with a specific singular or plural count noun or a non-count noun already mentioned or known to the listener. Other is used for plural count nouns or non-count nouns. Others or the others actually act as pronouns, replacing plural nouns. Jane was tired of working for the same company, so she started looking for another job. Jane had been offered two jobs, one from her former employer, and the other from a new company. Jane has been offered a job, but she still wishes to pursue other choices. The other and another can serve as either adjectives or pronouns, depending on whether they modify a noun or replace a noun. I do not want these books. I need the other books. adjective I do not want these books. I need the others. pronoun Comparisons and Comparatives Another word choice type of question requires you to know how comparative sen- tences are generally structured. A comparison indicates the degree of difference or similarity between two things. Equal Comparisons An equal comparison indicates that two nouns or noun phrases are (or are not) exactly the same. A sentence that creates a positive comparison will contain the structure as + {adjective/adverb} + as + remainder of sentence. 133 Structure For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org This picture is as old as that. adjective Grisham writes as well as any modern writer. adverb To make the phrase negative, add not before the construction. Sometimes so is substituted for as before the adjective or adverb in negative comparisons. A sentence that creates a negative comparison will contain the structure not {as/so} + {adjective/adverb} + as + remainder of sentence. Jeff is not as athletic as James. Jeff is not so athletic as James. When a comparison is made between two people and a pronoun is used to repre- sent one of them, the subject form of the pronoun should be used after the final as. (Keep in mind that in conversational English, many people use the object form of the pronoun after as, which is incorrect.) Peter is as tall as I. You are as old as she. Unequal Comparisons Some sentences compare things that are not equal. In these sentences, the compar- isons may be created by adding -er to an adjective or adverb and following that word with than. Another way to create the comparison is to use more or less be- fore the adjective or adverb, which is still followed by than. In general, it is more common to use more and less when creating a comparative form from an adverb; this is also the most common form when an adjective is more than one or two syl- lables. The TOEFL test will probably not test the difference between these two choices. John’s grades are higher than his sister’s. adjective He studies more frequently than she does. adverb This year’s exhibit is less impressive than last year’s. adjective Unequal comparisons can be further intensified by adding much or far before the comparative form. This house is far more expensive than the others we have seen. This book is much less interesting than the one I read last month. 134 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Double Comparatives Double comparative sentences contain two comparative constructions, one at the beginning of the sentence and one at the beginning of the second clause. The sooner we finish the project, the sooner we can start the next one. The more he ate, the hungrier he became. Superlatives Most descriptive adjectives and adverbs have three forms: the positive, the com- parative, and the superlative. Positive Comparative Superlative smart smarter smartest interesting {more/less} interesting {most/least} interesting cautiously {more/less} cautiously {most/least} cautiously The positive is the basic adjective or adverb. It simply describes a noun or verb. The comparative describes a greater or lesser degree of difference between two subjects. If there are only two items being compared, technically the compara- tive, not the superlative, should be used, although the TOEFL test will probably not require you to make the distinction. This game is more dangerous than that one. Robert worked more diligently than Bob. That child behaves the most carelessly of all. The superlative compares three or more items, one of which is superior or inferior to the others. This is the most powerful car of the three. This house is the least expensive of all. Adverbs are generally formed with more or less, rather than with -er. Problem Items No Sooner If the expression no sooner appears at the beginning of a sentence, an auxiliary appears immediately after it, and the word than introduces the second clause. No sooner had the rain started than it stopped. This means the rain stopped as soon as it started. 135 Structure For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org Despite/In Spite of The word despite and the expression in spite of mean the same thing, but the for- mer cannot be used with of and the latter must appear with all three words. Despite his lack of training, he is very knowledgeable. In spite of his lack of training, he is very knowledgeable. The words although, even though and though mean the same as despite and in spite of, but they are used differently because they cannot be followed by a noun or noun phrase alone. Each must be followed by a clause. Although he lac ks training, he is very knowledgeable. clause Rise/Raise Rise and raise have similar meanings but are frequently confused with each other. Rise is an intransitive verb (meaning it cannot have a complement), and raise is a transitive verb (meaning it requires a complement). Rise means “get up,” “move upwards (without outside assistance),” or “increase.” The tenses of this verb are rise, rose, risen, and rising. The tide rises at the inlet several hours before it rises further inland. As the ambassador entered the room, the delegates rose. When interest rates rise, stock values frequently fall. Raise means “lift” or “elevate” an object or “increase” something. The tenses of this verb are raise, raised, raised, and raising. You must raise y our grades if you hope to be awarded the scholarship. complement This company has entered into a contract to attempt to raise the remains of complement the sunken ship. Lie/Lay Much like rise and raise, lie and lay are often confused. The first source of confusion is that there are two completely different verbs spelled lie in the English language. One verb means to say something that is not true. That is not the verb I refer to in this section. The verb lie that is often confused with lay means to “rest,” “repose,” or “be situ- ated in a place.” It is often followed by the preposition down. Lie does not take a complement (because it is intransitive). The tenses of this verb are lie, lay, lain, and lying. 136 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org The old dog is lying in the sun. The nurse asked the patient to lie on the table. Lay means to “place somebody or something on a surface.” This verb must have a complement (because it is transitive). The tenses of this verb are lay, laid, laid, and laying. She laid the baby in the crib. The man had laid the documents on the table before he sat down. Sit/Set Sit and set are easily confused as well. Sit means to “take a seat.” Like lie, it is also often used with the preposition down. It is intransitive, so it does not take a complement. The tenses of this verb are sit, sat, sat, and sitting. After swimming, Bob sat on the beach to dry off. They have sat in the same position for two hours. Set means to “put somebody or something on a surface or in a place.” Set is often interchangeable with lay or put except in certain idiomatic expressions like set the table. It is transitive, so it must take an object. The man set the computer on the table. Melinda is setting the forms in the trays. Prepositions The Structure section of the exam frequently tests your knowledge of preposi- tions, sometimes in terms of their general use and sometimes as part of idiomatic expressions. The following chart shows how prepositions are used. THROUGH ON TO INTO OUT OF BY OUT IN FROM ABOVE, OVER BELOW, UNDER 137 Structure For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org During This preposition sometimes gets confused with since and for. During is usually followed by a noun indicating time. It indicates duration of time. During our vacation, we visited many relatives across the country. During the summer, we do not have to study. From From is the opposite of to, as shown in the previous figure. Jorge traveled from Columbia. This means the opposite of “Jose traveled to Columbia.” From can be used to mean “beginning,” but it must be followed by an ending time as well. Maria worked on the project from 7 o’clock until midnight. The idiomatic expression from time to time means the same as “occasionally.” She works on her novel from time to time. By By means “near” or “next to.” They passed by the store. By may also be used to describe who performed an action in a passive sentence. The play was performed by the original New York cast. By followed by a specific time means “before” that time. You should arrive by seven o’clock. By can also be used to indicate a means of travel, such as a bus, plane, train, or ship. She does not like to travel by plane. Following are several idiomatic expressions that use by: ■ By then means “before (a certain time).” Do not wait until tomorrow to book your flight. By then, there may be no seats left. 138 Part III: Detailed Review of Items Tested For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org ■ By way of indicates a stop on a route. She flew to Vancouver by way of Minneapolis and Seattle. ■ By far means “considerably.” This book is by far the worst he has written. In In means the opposite of out. It indicates a constant state, as opposed to into, which shows movement from the outside to the inside. The meeting will be held in the gym. In is generally used to indicate that something is inside a room, building, town, city, country, state, or any other enclosed place or place with geographical boundaries. The coat is in the closet. She lives in Florida. In can be followed by a general time, such as a month, year, decade, or the past or the future. (Use on when indicating that something happens on a very specific date.) The next class will begin in January. I hope to learn how to speak French in the future. In can also be followed by a general time of day, such as the morning, the after- noon, or the evening. I need to see you in the afternoon. Following are several idiomatic expressions that use in: ■ In time means “occurring before a deadline.” She arrived in time to catch the plane. (This has a slightly different meaning than on time.) ■ In place of means “instead of.” Heather will sing in place of Yolanda. ■ In the way means “obstructing.” He could not drive down the narrow street because a car was in the way. ■ Once in a while means “occasionally.” Once in a while, she likes to backpack in the wilderness. 139 Structure For more material and information, please visit Tai Lieu Du Hoc at www.tailieuduhoc.org . a noun or replace a noun. I do not want these books. I need the other books. adjective I do not want these books. I need the others. pronoun Comparisons. must be used with one of. Q. Although not widely sold, that book is considered to be best book on the subject. The answer is C. The sentence should read