Acknowledgements The thesis could not have been completed without the help of my teachers and friends during the time of my doing it . Firstly, I would like to express my deep thank to my supervisor - the Dean of the Department of Foreign Languages - Master of Arts Ng« §×nh Ph- ¬ng for his great support and constant and helpful advices on my study. Secondly, I am grateful to Master of Arts TrÇn Ngäc Tëng and Mr chrisstaples for their useful advices from the early stages of the study. Thirdly, I would also like to thank my teachers in the Department of Foreign Languages and friends who helped me a lot throughout my study. Vinh, May 2004 1 Table of contents Page Acknowledgements 1 Table of contents 2 Part A. Introduction 4 1. Reasons for choosing the subject 4 2. Aims of the study 5 3. Objectives of the study 5 4. Methods of the study 6 5. Design of the study 6 Part B. contents 7 Chapter 1. Theoretical preLiminaries 7 1.1. Contrastive analysis on languages 7 1.2. The rule of semantic transference 8 1.3. Names of part of the human body with the transference of meaning and cultural symbolism. 12 Chapter 2. The contrastive analysis of class of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese on semantic transference. 14 2.1. The origin of names referring to parts of the human body. 14 2.2. The features of semantic transference 16 2.2.1 Quantitative features 16 2.2.2 Qualitative features 28 2 Chapter 3. Suggested exercises 35 3.1 The basic of exercises 35 3.2 The user of exercises 36 3.3 Suggested exercises 36 Part C. Conclusion 42 References 43 Appendix 44 3 Part A. Introduction 1. Reasons for choosing the subject Polysemantic words are a general and specific phenomenon of many languages in the world. In both daily spoken language and literary language in English and Vietnamese, we often meet the use of polysemy. For example: "Use your head ! "; " Report to the Head immediately "; " The arm of my jacket", " The arm of a chair ", etc. We are really interested in studying them, specially the meanings of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese. Choosing two languages, English and Vietnamese to make a contrastive analysis has scientific base on linguistics and culture. England and Vietnam have their own culture, human race, geography and history. We can also see that, the class of words denoting parts of the human body is very familiar to us and has rich development of meaning in each language. These words are realized early by the native speakers. They belong to the original stock of the lexical system in each language. Studying the transference of meaning through this class of words attracts us much. Furthermore, because of the importance and necessity of substratum knowledge in teaching and learning English and Vietnamese, we would like to examine and find out some relationships between two languages. When teaching English or Vietnamese to a foreigner, it is not enough to only teach the meanings of words and the rules of grammar. Because of not understanding deeply the thoughts of Vietnamese people, an English man can say “ T«i rÊt vui tim ” instead of “ T«i rÊt vui lßng ”. Teaching a language as a foreign language, first of all, needs to teach the way of speaking and thinking as the native speakers of that language. As a result, the situation the thoughts are of the learners but the means of language is a foreign language can be avoided. Finally, no one has studied this subject, to my knowledge. 4 2. Aims of the study This study aims at finding out the similarities and differences on aspects of semantic transference through class of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese. This study to some extent, describes national cultural features reflected in the semantic transference of class of words denoting parts of the human body. It provides materials - a big part of basic knowledge on semantic transference of English and Vietnamese words to help teaching and learning English and Vietnamese as well. We hope the results of the study will help the readers have deep understanding about the mechanism of semantic transference. We also hope that suggested exercises provided will contribute in teaching and learning semantics in general and the transference of meaning in particular in two languages. 3. Objectives of the study We pay attention to words denoting part of the human body in English and Vietnamese. This investigation is limited to the class of words denoting parts of the human body in English and Vietnamese that has the semantic transference reflected in two dictionaries " Advanced learner's dictionary-Oxford University Press, 1995 " and " Hoµng Phª(chñ biªn)- Tõ ®iÓn tiÕng ViÖt - Nhµ xuÊt b¶n khoa häc x· héi, Trung t©m tõ ®iÓn häc, 1994 " We only study the polysemantic words having primary meaning denoting parts of the human body. We do not pay attention to words having derived meaning denoting parts of the human body and to the phenomenon of conversion. 4. Methods of the study - Systematic method - Contrastive method - Analytical method 5 5. Design of the study Part A. Introduction 1. Reasons for choosing the subject 2. Aims of the study 3. Objectives of the study 4. Methods of the study 5. Design of the study Part B. Contents Chapter 1. Theoretical preliminaries Chapter 2. The contrastive analysis of class of words denoting parts of human body in English and VietNamese on semantic transference Chapter 3. SuggesTed exercises Part C. Conclusion References Appendix 6 Part b. contents Chapter 1. theoretical preliminaries 1.1. Contrastive analysis on languages whether languages belong to a linguistic typology or not, whether they are of family relation, they all develop and change according to the general rule of linguistics and have similar basic functions. Language reflects socio-historical experiences of human beings. We can find common features in languages. However, each nation has its own socio-historical experience, its language reflects and preserves its own specific characteristics. Because of the specific characteristics of each language on its structure, on the history of development and the culture of the user, etc, every language may have its individuality. As languages have both general and individual features so that the basic to compare and make contrastive analysis them is the similar and different features of the objectives of the study. When comparing languages, it needs to determine the basic language to compare. Depending on the aims of the study, the level of contrastive analysis can be different. The study can be done on the level of linguistic system on different aspects as phonetics, semantics, grammar, etc. It can also be done on the specific levels as tense, aspect, gender, number, kind of word, polysemy, synonymy, type of sentence, etc. This subject belongs to the specific level of contrastive study. When making contrastive analysis on languages, the different and similar features drawn not only convey linguistic traits but also show many problems such as the mind and the national culture reflected through languages. This matter is specially important to the task of translation, teaching and learning a foreign language. Therefore, making contrastive analysis on languages at any level beside has to find out the general and individual characteristics of the linguistic 7 rule between them but also has to draw specific ones of culture of each language. Comments on thoughts, culture and the habit of using language of a nation are reflected strongly and clearly in linguistics at different levels, specially lexical semantics. Therefore, linguistic datum are needed defining scientifically when making contrastive analysis on languages. For example, on the level of lexical-semantics, it is necessary to choose groups of basic words as word denoting parts of the human body, family relation, natural phenomena, animals, plants, etc. They are original stock of the vocabulary; they are recognized and named early by human beings. They have meaty meanings and diversified development of meaning. They consist of few borrowed words and so they reflect strongly specific characteristics of each language. 1.2. The rule of semantic transference It should be noted that the wealth of expressive resources of a language largely depends on the degree to which polysemy has developed in the language. The number of sound combinations that human speech organs can produce is limited. Therefore, at a certain stage of language development of the production of new words by morphological means become limited, and the transference of meaning becomes a great advantage in providing the means for enriching the vocabulary. Polysematic words are those having several meanings. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word is treated as a system of meaning. They are related to each other. For example, the semantic structure of the noun " eye " could be presented by this scheme. Eye 8 I I Each of the two organs on the face that are used for seeing The meaning I ( called the first meaning ) presents the centre of the semantic structure of the word holding it together. It dominates over the other meanings. The meaning II, III ( called the second meanings ) are associated directly with the meaning I. In some cases the second meanings are associated indirectly with the first meaning as for instance, the meaning III of the below word relates to the meaning I through meaning II. Lash : I. eyelash; II. The flexible leather part of a whip used for hitting people and animal; III. A stroke from the whip or rope given as form of punishment ( Oxford advanced learner's dictionary, page 663 ). Polysemy is the result of the semantic transference of word. There are basically two types of semantic transference for most languages: metaphor and metonymy. Metaphor is the transference of name based on the association of similarity. For example: The meaning of the noun " leg " realized in the context " the leg of a table or a chair " originates from the main meaning of this noun " the leg of a man or an animal ". The association that lies behind this development of meaning is the similar function: a piece of furniture is supported by its legs just as living beings are supported by theirs. The foot of a mountain is its lowest part, the original meaning being " the foot of a man ". It is developed due to the association of the similar position: the foot of a man is also his lowest part. There are various types of similarity: 9 The ability to see A thing like an eye III II - The similarity of shape E.g: The teeth of a saw, the head of a cabbage - The similarity of position E.g: The tail of procession - The similarity of movement E.g: To worm - The similarity of colour E.g: Orange, rose - The similarity of size E.g: Elephantine - The similarity of quality E.g: Emotional scars Metonymy is the transference of name based on the association of contiguity. The name of one thing is changed for that of another to which it is related. For example: the noun " hand " has one of its meaning " worker on a farm or a factory " which originates from the main meaning of this noun " part of the human body ". It is developed due to the contiguous relation: strong, skillful hands are the most important feature that is required of a person engaged in physical labour. Or the word " china " in the sense of " dishes made of porcelain " originated from the name of the country which was believed to be the birthplace of porcelain. There are various types of metonymical relations: - Names of containers are used instead of the thing contained E.g: He drank twenty glasses - Names of material are used instead of the things made of them E.g: I've bought a new iron - A separate part is used instead of a whole E.g: They all live under the same proof - A whole is used instead of a part E.g: His bike needs repairing 10 . words denoting part of the human body in English and Vietnamese. This investigation is limited to the class of words denoting parts of the human body in. having primary meaning denoting parts of the human body. We do not pay attention to words having derived meaning denoting parts of the human body and to the