Dashes These are generally less formal than other kinds of punctuation and more conversational. Lynne Truss suggests that they are more friendly, as though they are welcoming the extra thought inside as opposed to brackets which imply intrusion. Dashes are used singly, as a comment added to the end of a sentence, or double for one included within. For example: On went the pilgrims through the years – some on foot and some on horseback. They went overseas – to Mexico we think – and were never heard of again. One dash can lead to a dramatic effect. For example: Something floated past the dinghy – it was a human hand! Ellipsis Definition: The word is via Latin from the Greek, ellipsis, meaning ‘coming short’ – hence an omission, and it is indicated by three dots … The omissions are mainly for two purposes. • Leaving out something not relevant to the rest of the statement, often in a quotation. For example: In Africa, while staying near the swamp, we contracted malaria. In Africa …. we contracted malaria. • For dramatic effect. For example: The glass shattered on the floor and a form appeared in the window … ‘It’s … It’s … a g…ghost,’ she whispered. 137 M or e p u n c t u At i o n C A 20.2 Activities: punctuation 1. The best way to learn about the use of punctuation is by reading good literature of various kinds. Students need to read aloud to appreciate fully what the punctuation is telling them. This can be done in turns around the class or by reading parts in plays and should be accepted as a regular classroom activity. In this way, students become familiar with punctuation use and appreciate its functions. Choose passages from set texts, selected drama, political speeches or Shakespeare’s plays. Allow students sometimes to choose texts themselves. 2. Students write a paragraph on a subject of their choice, in which they demonstrate the use of one or more given punctuation mark. 3. Students are given sentences to punctuate, either with specified marks or with those they themselves deem to be most suitable. The following examples are taken from Victorian Readers IV Edition 1989. Each one is a single sentence. a. Mrs Cratchits made the gravy ready beforehand in a little saucepan hissing hot. b. His parents called him Robert Lewis Balfour Stevenson but when he was older he preferred to spell his name the French way Louis. c. Upon this my savage for so I call him now made a motion to me to lend him my sword. d. And Hereward was drenched says The Chronicle with wine and beer and sorely baited and badgered. e. I’m called William that’s the name you’ll have to call if you want any- thing, just you say William and I’ll be round in a second my names William and I’ve been here a matter of seven and thirty years. Checklist: punctuation Students should now be able to • explain the usage for all forms of punctuation • punctuate a sentence of average length and moderate complexity • demonstrate the use of a variety of punctuation marks in their own composition 138 G r A M M A r f o r e V e rY o n e More pronouns Before further study of pronouns, students should be sure of: • the meaning of the term pronoun • the fact that a pronoun takes the place of a noun and cannot be used with it • recognising and naming personal and demonstrative pronouns There are some pronouns that are less easily categorised with- out some explanation. It is important that students recognise that they are pronouns and understand why that is so. While the names of the subclasses do explain their functions this understanding is more important than memorising their names. Interrogative pronouns Definition: ‘Interrogative’, from Latin interrogativus means, simply, ‘questioning’. So interrogative pronouns not only take the place of nouns, but also ask questions. In other words, the ques- tioner wants to know something about a person or thing. These pronouns, like others, take different forms according to the part they play in the sentence. For example: As the subject: Who – Who are you? As the object: (For a person) whom – Whom did you see? (For a thing) what – What did you see? Or object of a preposition – whom – At whom was it thrown? 21 139 Possessive pronouns Whose was she holding? Is it yours or mine? Indefinite and distributive pronouns Refer to the section ‘Subjects matching verbs’ on page 109. To students whose knowledge of pronouns is limited to per- sonal pronouns, indefinite pronouns do not, at once, seem to be connected. The term indefinite pronoun is self-explanatory. Its indefiniteness is shown by its referral to no one or no thing in particular. Indefinite pronouns The following are most of the indefinite pronouns in common use: Persons things one everyone everything nobody no one nothing anybody anyone anything somebody someone something For example: Nobody could do anything. Can’t somebody do something? Distributive pronouns These refer to one person or thing from two. For example: Either go now or stay at home. Neither wants to go. 140 G r A M M A r f o r e V e rY o n e A Or to a group of two or more. For example: Each has a banana. I gave each an apple too. 21.1 Activities: pronouns 1. Students write down the definition of a pronoun. After checking the answers, a correct definition is written on the board. Individual mistakes are corrected. 2. Students are asked to say when the words ‘those’ and ‘his’ are not pronouns. 3. Sentences are read out and students raise their hands when they hear a pronoun. Some can also be written, for example: a. They went to a wedding. b. Tom wore his best outfit. c. That is my favourite, said Lucy. d. Who was the best man? 141 M o r e p r o n o u n s Each has a banana. C A e. That tall fellow you saw at the party. f. He might be his brother. g. Did anyone wear a hat? h. Some did but others just had flowers in their hair. i. Someone played the clarinet. Everyone said how well she played . j. Did you take them a present? Mine will be late but they are still on their honeymoon. 4. Orally or in writing, students use the following words as pronouns and/or adjectives. a. each f. hers b. neither g. whose c. theirs h. one d. those i. that e. yours j. which 5. Students complete their flowchart for pronouns. Categories may be added to the chart as each is learnt. They then add an example below each one. Checklist: pronouns Students should now be able to: • explain how a demonstrative pronoun such as ‘this’, could be used as an adjective instead • correctly use the pronouns who, whom and whose • follow indefinite and distributive pronouns with verbs in the correct number • correct errors in the use of all of the above pronouns • use all kinds of pronoun correctly in their own composition PRONOUNS Personal Possessive Reflexive Distributive Indefinite Interrogative Demonstrative 142 G r A M M A r f o r e V e rY o n e Emphasis Definition: The word emphasis comes via Latin from the Greek verb emphainein meaning ‘to show’, and in rhetoric ‘to stress or lay significance’. Using emphasis is, again, something which native English speakers do naturally; but understanding how we do this is an integral part of language education. Languages convey meaning in different ways. English has dev- eloped a variety of techniques in the ways that we use our voices. Oral practice in using these techniques in vocal expression helps to develop listening and speech skills and to build self-confidence. In English we convey emphasis by: 1. Changing the tone, pitch, stress and even rhythm in our voices. We often speak the word or words that we wish to emphasise more loudly or deliberately than the rest. For example: He actually shot the man! Most of us have been subject to a parental command – Come here – right now! 2. Another way we emphasise is by stressing an added part of the auxiliary verb ‘to do’. For example: They did have a good time. I do like your dress. 3. We can also convey emphasis in the future tense by reversing the auxiliary forms ‘will’ and ‘shall’. This emphasises the 22 143 . others, take different forms according to the part they play in the sentence. For example: As the subject: Who – Who are you? As the object: (For a person) whom. malaria. In Africa …. we contracted malaria. • For dramatic effect. For example: The glass shattered on the floor and a form appeared in the window … ‘It’s … It’s