logical conecters

Concessive conjuncts signal the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before.. An inference from what is explicit in the preceding sentence or sen[r]

Group8: H.Linh_Quyen_Van

Logical connectors

1,AND

- “ AND” can link its sentence with a unit comprising several sentences - Eg:

2 ENUMERATION:

- Enumerative conjuncts indicate a listing of what is being said - Eg: First(ly), second(ly)……… Furthermore……

3 ADDITION:

- The addition relationship is often conveyed by the subclasses of additive conjuncts, reinforcing and equative conjuncts

*Eg: also, equally,………

- Additive adjuncts specify that part of the sentence is an addition to what has been previously mentioned or implied

* Eg: Too, neither/nor………

4 TRANSITION:

- “ Now” introduces a new stage in the sequence of thought

*Eg: We have settled that at last Now, what was the other thing we wanted to discuss

- “ As for” introduces a related topic

* Eg: Mary has several close friends As for John, he is always surrounded by friends

- certain other expressions mark a transition, but they can also begin discussion: with reference to, with respect to, with regard to

5 SUMMATION:

- summative conjuncts and style disjunct such as in brief can be used to indicate this

* Eg: In all, I will sum up by saying, I shall conclude by saying

- Indicators of an apposition can be used to refer back to previous sentences: for example, another way of putting it is…

7 RESULT:

- Several result conjuncts indicate that a sentence expresses the consequence or result of what was said before

*Eg: As a result, the consequence (of that)………

8.INTERFENCE:

- An interference from what is implicit in the preceding sentence or sentences can be indicated by an inferential conjunct

* Eg: In other words, In that case, If so, If not…

9 OR:

- “ Or” introduces a reformulation or replacement It can be followed by conjuncts that have the same function,or they alone can be used

*Eg:+ Reformulatory conjuncts: ( Or) rather, (Or) in other words + Replacive conjucts: Or again, (Or) on the other hand

10.BUT:

- The relationships between sentences linked by “ but” are the same as those between clauses linked by “but”, though the contrast may be with a preceding unit consisting of more than one sentence

11 CONTRAST:

- A contrast can be indicated by antithetic conjuncts * Eg: On the contrary, by comparison, instead,…

12 CONCESSION:

- Concessive conjucts signal the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before

* Eg: however, still, besides…

- Most of the concessive conjuncts can be paraphrased by a concessive subordinate clause introduced by “ though” or “ although”

is true” They include the attitudinal disjuncts “ actually, admittedly,certainly…”

- Several attitudinal disjuncts suggest that the context of the sentence to which they are related may not be true in reality: nominally,

officially,technically,……

13 FOR

- The conjunct “ for” indicates that what is said the reason for mentioning what has been said previously

*Eg:

II.Substitution:

1 Definition:

- Like ellipsis, substitution is a device for abbreviating and for avoiding repetition

2 Classification:

a-Pro-forms for noun phrases and their constituents

* Def: The most obvious pro-form for noun phrases are the 3th person pronouns

* Eg: John and Mary stole a toy from my son Their mother told them to return the toy, but they said it was theirs

b- Pro-forms for adverbials:

*Def: Sometimes relater can be pro-forms for time adjuncts, principally them, but also that when it functions as subject and when the verb is intensive

* Eg: We saw John at eight on Monday evening. We told him then that we would be coming to the party

c- Pro-forms for predicate and predication:

* Auxiliaries as pro-forms:

B: I think Bob does too( = drives a car) *Complex pro-form:

- The substitute may be a complex pro-form a combination of one or more auxiliaries with the pro-form: so, that

* Classification:

-So type: so + auxiliary +(S) - Eg: A: John drives a car

B: So does Bob

- So…do type: so + S + auxiliary -Eg: A: Look! That man seems lost B: So he does

- Do so type: S + Auxiliary+do+so - Eg: A: Have you sent your donation B: I did so yesterday

- Do that type: S+ Auxiliary+do+that

-Eg: A: Do you know who broke the television? B: I heard John did that

-Do it type: S+ auxiliary+do+it

-Eg: A: Your brother said he was going to send a letter of protest to the president

B: He did it last week

3 Relation:

a Relation to verb clauses:

- All lexical verbs allow substitution by “ do” or other auxiliaries and by the complex pro-form types “ so do…” so do” But several of the verb classes don’t allow the full range of substitutions For example: verb of bodily sensation such as feel admit only the auxiliaries and the types “So do” and “ so…do”

B:-I know he does ( = I know he feel much better) - Yes and so I

- Yes, so he does

b- Relation to adverbials:

-Def: the pro-forms needn’t cover a time or place adjunct in the antecedent predicate

-Eg: A: John paid for the ticket tonight B: Yes, he did so last week too

c- Co-referenentiality of subjects

- Def: The so type is used only if the student of the clause is not co-referential with that of the antecedent clause

-Eg: A: John buys his drinks at the local supermarket B: So we

d- Operator in pro-forms:

 The do so, do that and do it pro-forms require an additional

as operator

-Eg: A: Do they buy their drink at the local supermarket B: yes, but we don’t so

e- Exclusive of pro-form types from certain clauses

- there are severe restrictions on the occurrence of auxiliaries as pro-form in non-finite clauses

- Eg:A: Peter hunts rabbits

B: - Yes, I have noticed him doing - Yes, I have watched him - I know, he wanted me to too

f- The pro-form not and so

- Not can be a negative pro-form for the predicate * Eg: A: Bill would have taken the book

Exercises

Logical connectors Questions:

1 List the name of logical connecter? give an example about Enumeration? T/F:

a A contrast can not be indicated by antithetic conjuncts

b Concessive conjuncts signal the unexpected, surprising nature of what is being said in view of what was said before

c An inference from what is explicit in the preceding sentence or sentences can be indicated by an inferential conjunct

d The addition relationship is often conveyed by the two subclasses of additive conjuncts, reinforcing and equative conjuncts

Substitution

Part 1: Review theory:

1 Fill in the blank:

Like ellipsis, substitution is a device for……(1)………….and avoiding ……(2) ……

Substitution are normally………(3)……

The most obvious pro-form for noun phrases are……(4)…… pronoun

2 answer the questions:

a Lists all kind of pro-form? b What is the complex pro-form? Part 2: Practical exercises:

Exercise 1: Reply in the affirmative to each of these questions below, using a pro-form for the part of sentence underlined.

Eg:

B: Yes, I have one

1 Do you have any stamps?

2 Have you seen both of those plays? Is it true that each man had a gun? Are there enough seats for everyone? I have your ticket Do you have my ticket? Are these gloves your gloves?

7 Did other people hear what he said? Is that the waiter who served us?

Exercise 2: Reply in the affirmative questions below, using a pro-form for the phrase underlined:

1 Will you be in your room tomorrow morning? Will you be in your room tomorrow morning?

3 If we meet tomorrow morning, will tomorrow morning be convenient for you?

4 If we meet in your room, will your room be all right? Can I get to Boston by taking this side rood?

Exercise 3: Give a detailed analysis, in terms used in the Grammar, of the pro-form used by B in the exchanges below:

Eg:

A: Are you ready? B: Yes, I am

 am: is used as a pro-form for the first person singular, present tense

1 A: Is Tom still waiting? B: Yes, he is

2 A: Have you got any matches? B: Yes, I have

B: I think he has A: Robert has a car

B: I think he does

5 A: You drive well yourself B: I did

Exercise 4: explain the grammatical function of so in the following examples:

1 A: Is there going to be a general election? B: I believe so

2 A: There’s going to be a general election B: So I believe

C: So I

3 A: You told her the secret B: That isn’t so