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1 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIVERSITY OF DANANG TRƯƠNG LÊ HỒNG NGỌC A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENTS Field: THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Code: 60.22.15 M.A. THESIS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (A SUMMARY) Danang - 2012 2 The thesis has been completed at the College of Foreign Languages, University of Danang. Supervisor: NGŨ THIỆN HÙNG, Ph. D. Examiner 1: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phan Van Hoa Examiner 2: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ngo Dinh Phuong The thesis will be orall defended at the Examining Committee Time : June 26 th , 2012 Venue: University of Danang The original of thesis is accessible for the purpose of reference at the College of Foreign Languages Library, and the Information Resources Center, Danang University. 3 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. RATIONALE When learners study English, four skills they must master are speaking, listening, reading and writing. And there are a lot of topics in academic writing such as letters, descriptions of societies, cultures, food and drink, jobs, etc… and announcements. Writing announcement is very essential for any researchers and learners. Announcements are used to inform public statements containing information about events that have happened or are going to happen. They maintain contact with the members in an organization is now a much easier task with announcements which are considered to be one of advanced communications systems and services. And announcements are one of the fast ways to get the information in an organization. From the above reasons, I have decided to choose "A discourse analysis of school announcements in English" as the topic of my M.A thesis with the hope that it will help Vietnamese learners of English, especially English-majored students with some useful information about the linguistic features of English school announcements. 1.2. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY As usual, School Announcements are used as an internal document of an organization. School Announcements are used to inform readers of specific information. People might also write memo to persuade others to take action, give feedback on an issue, or to react a situation. And most School Announcements communicate basic information, such as meeting times or due dates. School 4 Announcements have the same roles. Therefore, an investigation into School Announcements at the discourse level is necessary and shows great potentials for teaching and learning the English language. 1.3. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1.3.1. Aims The study is aimed at examining and finding the typical discourse features of school announcements in English to help Vietnamese learners of English understand and grasp the distinctive characteristics of this kind of discourse. 1.3.2. Objectives The study is intended to achieve the following objectives: - To examine the discourse features of school announcements in English in terms of their layout, lexical features, syntactic structures and cohesion. - To suggest some implications for preparing an announcement to Vietnamese learners, especially English-majored students concerning the production of memos in school announcement. 1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study attempts to answer the following questions. 1) What are the typical discourse characteristics of English school announcements in terms of their layout, lexical features, syntactic structures and cohesive devices? 2) What are the distinctive features of speech acts used in English school announcement? 5 1.5. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study is mainly about the investigation of some discourse features of school announcements. And the kind of school announcements I would like to do the research on the memos which appears in TOEFL iBT books, the announcements for students who study abroad and the memos in English universities. The focus of this thesis just puts on the layout, lexical features, syntactic features and the cohesion of English school announcements. 1.6. OROGANIZATION OF THE STUDY The thesis consists of five chapters as follows: Chapter 1 : Introduction Chapter 2 : Literature Review Chapter 3 : Methodology and Procedure Chapter 4 : Findings and Discussions Chapter 5 : The conclusion of the study CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORICAL BACKGROUND 2.1. LITERATURE REVIEW According to Nunan (17), an announcement must have a target audience of undeclared undergraduate students or have a clear connection to students' academic development Then it requires a coherent structure of discourse; whereas coherence is a necessary element for comprehension, it may not be sufficient, especially when confronted with a larger text or listening exercise. Cohesion as such can be considered as a guide to coherence, a means to ensure, or simplify, coherence and comprehension. 6 Certain words, or phrases, and their location within the discourse will activate a set of assumptions as to the meaning of what has gone beforehand or will generate a set of expectations as to what may follow. A cohesive device can be defined as a word, phrase or clause, which organises and manages a stretch of discourse The previous studies set some light to help us understand the process of writing an announcement. However, the question of syntactic and semantic features of English School Announcement has not been dealt with so far. 2.2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.2.1. Discourse 2.2.1.1. Concepts of discourse Discourse is one of those elastic terms which one sometimes encounters in linguistics. It is used in somewhat different ways by different scholars. Discourse is used beyond the boundary of isolated sentences. It means that any sequence of language in written or spoken form is concerned with the use of language in stretches larger than a sentence Briefly, all concepts of discourse stress the communicative dynamics of language. Therefore, there is a strong tendency for discourse analysts to rely more heavily on observation of language use during interactions in natural sequences of sentences. 2.2.1.2. Features of discourse (i). Every discourse has a specific target. (ii). Every discourse must be completed both in form and in content. (iii). Every discourse has its unity. 7 (iv). Language use may be categorized according to register (the type of activity engaged in through language), level of formality, attitudes to the other participants or to the communication, relationships between participants and the situational context. 2.2.2. Discourse and text Text may be defined as “any sequence of sentences having certain coherence” (T.G. Paven, 18). On the other hand, text may be defined more rigorously as “any unchangeable sequence of sentences which has a strong cohesion and the unchangeable character of which is related to a value system of some sort.” “Text” and discourse analysis are really close- knit. Our study will use “text as a technical term, to refer the verbal record or representation of a communicative act” (Brown and Yule, 5) and discourse to refer to “the whole communicative process in which many situational factors are involved” (5). Discourse brings language and the context within which the language is used. Therefore, context is a key concept in discourse analysis, which will be mentioned in the following section. 2.2.3. Discourse and Context Context plays a very important role in discourse analysis. A discourse and its context are in close relationship: the discourse elaborates its context and the context helps interpret the meaning of utterances in the discourse. The knowledge of context is a premise of the analysis of a discourse. When we study and analyze a discourse, we should bear in mind that no context, no discourse and we should not neglect the related context of a discourse. 8 2.2.4. Discourse and Cohesion and Coherence According to Halliday and Hasan (15), Cohesion is linguistically and signals underlying semantic relationships between text elements. And Coherence underlying organiser which makes the words and sentences into a unified discourse that conforms to a world picture. A coherence text is meaningful, unified, and give the impression of “hanging together”. The cohesive devices I would like to utilize are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion. And the following summaries are about these cohesive devices. 2.2.5. Speech act Speech act is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language. According to Austin's theory, what we say has three kinds of meaning: 1) Propositional meaning - the literal meaning of what is said 2) Illocutionary meaning - the social function 3) Perlocutionary meaning - the effect of what is said 2.2.6. Imperative Mood The imperative mood's appropriateness depends on such factors as psychological and social relationships, as well as the speaker’s basic communicative intention (illocutionary force. For example, the speaker may have the simple intention to offer something, to wish or permit something. 2.2.7. School Announcements 2.2.7.1. Definition of School Announcements 9 A public statement contains information about an event that has happened or is going to happen (Macmillan dictionary). There are many kinds of announcement, but they are public and meant to inform. In school, the announcements might announce a meeting or give information about courses of study. 2.2.7.2. Lay-out of an Announcement The following is the sample of an announcement FORMAT KEY OF SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENTS All of the activities have been written in the format of an invitation. We are ‘inviting’ parents to get involved! This party is given by: Name of the school counselor and school You’re Invited to: Name of the activity WHO: One of the six keys to parent involvement and category of Epstein’s model / “who’s hosting the party” WHAT: describe the activity WHERE: where the activity takes place WHEN: time of year / time of day / etc. WHY: purpose / objective (www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/ket-schools/index.html) 2.2.7.3. Samples of Announcements The following are typical samples of Announcements taken from some Building skills for the TOEFL IBT SELWIDGE HALL LECTURE SERIES - JAMES BRENTWORTH The Business and Information Technology faculties are proud to present this week’s guest speaker, James Brentworth. James 10 was only seventeen when he inaugurated his website, which has now grown into a multi-million dollar enterprise. James will speak on the topics of internet business and the future of telecommerce from 7 pm to 8 pm, Thursday night in Selwidge Hall. Students from all disciplines are welcome to attend, and the speech will be followed by a brief question-and-answer period. Based on the above theoretical background, I will carry out the analysis of English School Announcement and make a comparison with the Vietnamese School Announcement to find out the similarities and differences between them, and suggest some ways of making a standard for an announcement in Vietnamese. CHAPTER 3 METHOD AND PROCEDURE 3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN The study was conducted with both qualitative and quantitative methods. Also, statistical, descriptive and contrastive approaches are resorted to find out the features of English School Announcement. 3.2. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 3.2.1. Data Collection To serve the research, samples of school announcements are collected from TOEIC books, and websites from various English- speaking universities. Besides, works of Nunan, Widdowson, Halliday and Hasan, etc… are considered and applied in carrying out the research. 3.2.1.1. Sampling 11 200 English samples of school announcements are collected from TOEFL IBT books, universities in Great Britain, the U.S and Australia. 3.2.1.2. Instrumentation Google search, books and websites. 3.2.2. Data Analysis Data collected will be mainly analyzed on the basic of the following points: layout, lexical features, syntactic features, cohesive device 3.3. RESEARCH PROCEDURES The thesis aims to analyze the syntactic and semantic features of English School Announcement in the light of functional grammar and modern syntax, the procedures are identifying the research topic by reviewing previous studies, choosing the approach to the research, collecting data related to the research, analyzing data based on syntactic and semantic features of English School Announcement, finding and discussing the result of analysis above, suggesting some implications of teaching and learning language as well as using school announcements, suggesting further research. 3.4. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY The study strictly follows the research design, research methodology and research procedures. The data collection plays an important part in finding the result of the research to produce a qualified study, helping Vietnamese learners of English to have a good way to comfort others as well as to achieve better communicative aim. 12 CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. THE LAYOUT OF ENGLISH SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENT 4.1.1. An Overview An ESA consists of 2 parts: the Title of the Event/Plan and the Content of the Event/Plan in which the Content of the Event/Plan is the main part; meanwhile the Title of the Event/Plan plays the role of catching attention from the addressee. 4.1.2. The Title of the Event/Plan The Title of the Event/Plan is the first part of the ESAs. It must draw the most attention of the addressee. Therefore, its language use must be simple. Mostly, the Titles of the Event/Plan of the ESAs are Noun Table 4.1. Phrasal and Clausal structures in Titles of the Event/Plan (data from 150 samples) Type Occurrence Rate Noun phrase 79 53% Simple sentence 71 47% Total 150 100% 4.1.3. The Content of the Event/Plan There are various ways to present the content of the ESAs. However, they often follow the principle of meeting the demand of the questions of WHO, WHAT, WHERE, WHEN and HOW. The followings are some examples: 13 [4.20] SELWIDGE HALL LECTURE SERIES - JAMES BRENTWORTH The Business and Information Technology faculties are proud to present this week’s guest speaker, James Brentworth. James was only seventeen when he Who inaugurated his website, which has now grown into a multi-million dollar enterprise. James will speak on the topics of internet business and the future What of telecommerce from 7 pm to 8 pm, Thursday night in Selwidge Hall. When Where Students from all disciplines are welcome to attend, and the speech will be followed by a brief question-and-answer period. 4.2. LEXICAL FEATURES IN ENGLISH SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENTS 4.2.1. Modal verbs Modal verbs express a series of modal meanings like: ability, obligation, prohibition, necessity, advice, possibility, certainty. It is difficult to define modal verbs in any language because of the wide range of pragmatic uses of modal verbs by native speakers. Some of common meanings of the modal verbs in English are: 1) Can : ability, permission, possibility, request 2) Could : ability, permission, possibility, request, suggestion 3) May : permission, probability, request 4) Might : possibility, probability, suggestion 5) Must : deduction, necessity, obligation, prohibition 14 6) Shall : decision, future, offer, question, suggestionShould: advice, necessity, prediction, recommendation 7) Will : decision, future, intention, offer, prediction, promise, suggestion 8) Would : conditional, habit, invitation, permission, preference, request, question, suggestion Table 4.2. Modal verbs in ESAs Modal verb Occurrence Rate Will 120 32,4% Must 75 20,2% Shall 27 7,3% Should 22 6% May 43 11,6% Would 30 8,1% Can 28 7,6% Could 25 6,8% Might 0 0% Total 370 100% 4.2.2. Verbs of Speech Act Speech Acts : Some common verbs of speech acts appear in school announcements include announce, offer, inform, ask . Besides, some speech act verbs can be shared by many verbs which are not speech act verbs such as the expressions “I am delighted to inform you that ”, “ Anglia Learning and Teaching is delighted to announce that…” and “ We are proud to announce 15 that…” which are considered hedges expressing a polite way to announce something. In brief, ESAs contain many typical parts of lexical such as: modal verbs, verbs of speech act. Modal verbs have the highest frequency in ESAs, next the verbs of speech act. 4.3. SYNTACTIC FEATURES IN ENGLISH SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENT In this part, I present the result of the investigation into some syntactic devices to see how they were used in the ESAs, commencing with the passive voice, then the conditional sentences, and ending with imperative sentences. 4.3.1. Passive voice The passive sentences are used with the high frequency in the ESA. Common passive voice structures Example Expression Subject + Verb passive (be/get+ PP) + by + Actor/Agent Meet in covered play area when walkers are dismissed Subject + modal verb + Vpassive (be+PP) Yearbooks will be distributed in the gym to seniors emphasize the process rather than who is performing the action 4.3.2. Conditional sentences 4.3.2.1. Types of Conditionals Conditional clause: The conditional sentences help the writers to explain things that the addressees should do or should not do. Conditional sentences also play an important role in catching attention from the addressees. 16 Common types of conditional clauses in ESAs are: If + S + V (simple present) + S + V (simple present) Ex: If you connect to the McGill Wireless Network using the unencrypted SSID (network name): “mcgill.ca”, your laptops, smartphones and other devices to connect using the WPA (Wi-Fi protected Access) protocol are configured. If + S + V (simple present) + S + will/can/may/must + V (infinitive) Ex :If you work on the Medford/Somerville campus, you can enter a drawing to win one of three Nook Colors, just by participating in a campus mobility survey online: http://projects.sasaki.com/Tufts/ If + S + V (simple present) + Command form (imperative) Ex: GAP will reimburse travel, provide an ethical free lunch and even a £5 Amazon voucher if you bring a friend! 4.3.2.2. Imperative conditional sentences Imperative conditionals are commands to the effect that an indicative conditional be true; two versions of the answer that imperative conditionals express irreducibly conditional commands Here are some examples conforming to the formula (3): If + S + V(simple present) + Command form (imperative) [4.77] - If you do not have a user ID, please contact ISMS. 17 [4.78] - If you would like to propose an idea, please contact me with details (event title, event description, proposed date/time and venue) by 25 May. [56] Conditional sentences also play an important role in catching attention from the addressee. 4.3.3. Imperative sentences Imperative sentence is also a mean to order, request, or require someone to do something. When using imperative sentence, the addressor/speaker expects that the addressee/hearer will obey. E.g. Read the instructions carefully! (order, request or require) In ESAs, imperative sentences are employed with high frequency because they perform the function of direct persuasion and exhortation. According to Quirk et al [33] and Alexander [1], one of the most common structures of the imperative is the subjectless 2 nd person imperative. Dixon (2005, p. 29) characterizes an English prototypical imperative clause: (a) The subject is 2nd person and is generally omitted. (b) The verb is in base form. (c) In the negative, do must be included with not, giving clause-initial Don’t; e.g. Don’t (you) do that! Putting imperative sentences in ESAs is very necessary for guiding the users to perform specific actions when using the software. Together with passive and conditional sentences, imperative sentences contribute a lot of the accurate and complete presentation of information. In the collected ESAs, 72 instances of passive, 135 instances of conditional and 36 instances of imperative sentences were found. 18 Among these, conditional sentences are used most with 55,56%, next passive sentences take up 29,59%, and then imperative sentences were used with 14,85%,. 4.4. SPEECH ACTS USED IN ENGLISH SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENT During investigating data set, I found four categories of speech act in ESAs. 4.4.1. Representatives and their Syntactic realizations Representative is a speech act that commits a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. These types of speech acts are less common in my data set of collection. - Presenting the addressor/a frequent event The functions and syntactic realizations of Representatives in this case can be presented in Table 4.4 below: 19 Table 4.4. The syntactic form and function of Representative in presenting a frequent action Sentence element Subject Verb Object/Complement E.g. International Student Services holds weekly information sessions about visa options, including visitor and student visas, occupational trainee and employer sponsored visas, and General Skilled Migration visas Function Presenting the a frequent action 4.4.2. Directives and their Syntactic realizations Directive is a speech act that is to cause the addressee to take a particular action. According to Searle [36], the illocutionary point of directive speech acts consists in the fact that they are attempts by the addresser to get the hearer to do something, expressed by the propositional content. Directives can be realized by a variety of sentence types such as: conditional, imperative… 4.4.2.1. Directives in form of Conditional Structure In ESAs, the conditional sentence is one of the most common structures used by the addressor. With 297 instances, the conditional sentences take up 62,9% in ESAs. 20 Table 4.5. Syntactic form and function of directive in Requiring no download If clause Main clause Sentence element Subject Verb Object Bare inf. V Object/Adjunct If your college does not accept Docufide transcripts bring an envelope addressed to your college and a stamp to the guidance office E.g. If you Want it, please come by before May 23 rd . Function Suggesting the addressee to do something 4.4.2.2. Directives in form of Imperative Structure a. Directives in form of Positive Imperative Structure Table 4.6. Syntactic form and function of directive in Requesting the addressee to perform something Sentence element Directive marker Bare infinitive verb Object Please start bringing to Mrs. Busick’s room by Thursday this week. Please Have all your application materials put together in a large envelope when you turn them in. Please report to the PAC no later than 11:15 a.m. Function Requesting the addressee to perform something b. Directives in form of Negative Imperative Structure . MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING UNIVERSITY OF DANANG TRƯƠNG LÊ HỒNG NGỌC A DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH SCHOOL ANNOUNCEMENTS Field: THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY As usual, School Announcements are used as an internal document of an organization. School Announcements are used to inform readers