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Metaphor, based on the association of similarity, is one of the two basic types of semantic transference that have been an interest for many linguistic researchers
1 Part I: Introduction Rationale Metaphor, based on the association of similarity, is one of the two basic types of semantic transference that have been an interest for many linguistic researchers Galperin ( 1981: 139-40) states that the term ‘metaphor’ can be understood as the transference of some quality from one object to another Metaphor is widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning In theory, there are at least three communicative functions that metaphor might serve (Ortony 1975) First, they might allow one to express that which is difficult or impossible to express if one is restricted to literal uses of language Evidence for this "inexpressibility" claim would constitute encouraging support for the necessity-of-metaphors view A second possible function of metaphors is that they may constitute a particularly compact means of communication Although conscious experience is continuous in form, the linguistic system we use to talk about it is comprised of discrete elements (lexical items) Unlike more literal forms of language, metaphor may enable us to convey a great deal of information in a succinct manner by obviating the need to isolate the predicates to be expressed into their corresponding lexical representations Finally, metaphors may help capture the vividness of phenomenal experience If metaphors convey chunks of information rather than discrete units, they can paint a richer and more detailed picture of our subjective experience than might be expressed by literal language This we call the "'vividness" claim In this paper we are interested in the first and last of these possible functions Thus, we need to examine a discourse domain for which a prima facie case can be made for supposing that literal language will often be inadequate and which lends itself to variations in vividness There doubtless are many such domains The one that we selected was that of internal states, in particular, emotional states The literature on the linguistic expression of emotions suggests a relatively high incidence of figurative language use (Davitz 1969), providing pragmatic reasons An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse for believing that the context of (linguistic) emotional expression may be a profitable one within which to study metaphor production Emotional states seemed well-suited because they tend to have an elusive, transient quality that is difficult to describe using literal language, although, of course, they can usually be labeled using literal language Thus, while it might be easy for a person to label an emotional state as, for example, "fear," it is difficult to provide a literal description of the quality of some particular experience of fear Furthermore, because emotions vary in intensity, one might expect differential levels of vividness Our thesis is entitled “ An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotions in English poetic disscourse” and focused on William Shakespeares’ sonnets The choice is based on two reasons Firstly, recent research states that “Metaphorical modes of expression are characteristic of all adult discourse” Secondly, as stated above, the literature on the linguistic expression of emotions suggests a relatively high incidence of figurative language use (Davitz 1969) Aims of the study This study aims to investigate the characteristics of metaphor in poetry from a systemic functional perspective The objective of the study is: - To examine the characteristics of metaphor in poetry from the approach of Systemic Functional Linguistics More details on the aimed objective of the study are discussed in Part 2, chapter 2Methodology Scope of the study This study only attempts to explore metaphorical modes of expression of emotions in English poetry discourse and takes William Shakespeares’ sonnets as an illustration due to their available presence in the discourses Halliday (1994:341) states that: “ lexical selection is just one aspect of lexicogrammatical selection, or wording; and that metaphorical variation is lexicogrammatical rather than simply An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse lexical”; basing on this the study will focus on grammatical metaphor or the way ideas are expressed rather than on words used Methodology of the study As the thesis sets its main objective of investigating the characteristics of metaphor in English poetry discourse, it is descriptive research which begins with a phenomenon and seeks to describe and explain it The study was conducted in a deductive approach where data was collected from English literature to describe metaphor as a natural linguistic process The techniques involved in data analysis are both qualitative and quantitative The concepts of metaphor and emotion was discussed in systemic functional and cognitive approach respectively, and in comparison with other linguistic views in a linear line of time The emotion metaphors was retrieved from metaphor dictionaries and corpus data and analyzed with respect to the use of it to convey emotion Only metaphor that helps conceptualize emotions was studied Organization of the study The study is composed of three parts • Part 1: Introduction This part introduces the relevance, the aims, the scope and the methodology of the study • Part : Development This part consists of two chapters: - Chapter 1: Literature review: provided the theoretical background of the study Its focus was on introducing important concepts relevant to the topic of the thesis This chapter gave a general picture of metaphor The notion of emotion and how it is expressed in poetry via metaphor was also taken into consideration - Chapter 2: The study: In this chapter, the research design applied in the study was reported and the results of the study were presented An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse • Part is the conclusion of the study which summarized the issues addressed in the main part and offered implications for teaching and further study An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse PART II: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW I THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Introduction Language is a systematic resource for expressing meaning in context and linguistics, according to Halliday (1985), is the study of how people exchange meanings through the use of language This view of language as a system for meaning potential implies that language is not a well defined system, nor a "the set of all grammatical sentences." It also implies that language exists and therefore must be studied in contexts such as professional settings, classrooms, and language tests This is the key concept expressed in the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics developed by Halliday (1985) and basing on it this chapter is concerned with some of the concepts which set the theoretical background for the study of metaphor Since a great deal has already been written about the systemic function model, both from practical and theoretical perspective ( Halliday 1994; Halliday & Hasan 1989; Martin 1985, 1992; Matthiessen 1995, Hoang Van Van 1997, Do Tuan Minh 2001 amongst many others) this section will be restricted to a number of key points in the theories that are closely related to the topic of the study- metaphor Our overview on the systemic functional linguistics is organized around the headings: Language and Social Context, Levels of Context, Levels of Language, Metafunction, Instantiation, Rank and Nominal Group Language and Social Context Systemic Functional Grammar was established as a linguistic theory by M.A.K Halliday It is a theory of language centred around the notion of language function Halliday argues that it is the social context for communication that regulates the way the semantics of language are employed He believes that social settings shape the development of language The form of An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse human language is as it is since it co-evolves with the meanings which co-evolve with the community’s contexts of social interaction Then, language and social is treated as complementary levels of semiosis related by the concept of realization We can illustrate the relationship between them by the image of co- tangential circles as in figure 2.1 Lang uage Socia l Con text Extralinguistic levels Linguistic levels Figure : Language as the Realization of Social Context ( Source: Halliday& Martin 1993:25) Levels of Context The interpretation of social context includes two levels of communication: genre (context of culture) and register (context of situation) (Martin 1992: 495) An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse Figure ( Source: http//:wwww.uefap.com/courses/beacc/fsl/intro/htm) The context of culture can be thought of as deriving from a combination of all of the genres which make up a particular culture Genres are the culturally evolved ways of achieving goals that involve language They are "staged, goal- oriented social processes" (Martin 1992: 505) in which people engage as members of their culture They are “social” because we participate in genres with other people; goal-oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach our goals" (Martin & Rose 2003: 7-8) Each genre is therefore characterized by a distinctive schematic structure with a clear beginning, middle and end through which the function of the genre is realized These genres include all of those routines from everyday experience such as purchase of goods (food, clothing etc), to the genres of particular forms of social life including TV interviews, getting arrested etc They also include genres which are valued in education and business Lectures are genres, as are seminars and tutorials etc and written genres such as narratives, reports, explanations, procedures, and expositions These genres have their own distinctive structures (or well-established stages) because of the social purposes they fulfill in the culture in which they are used They occur in particular situation types and it is the characteristics of this situation type that influence the forms of language that realize the genre So the context of situation (register) is the second aspect of social context that influences the linguistic realization of the genre This context of An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse situation of a text has been described by Halliday (Halliday and Hasan 1985: 12) in terms of the variables of Field, Tenor and Mode + The FIELD OF DISCOURSE concerns what is happening, to the nature of the social action that is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language is an essential component? + The TENOR OF DISCOURSE concerns who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles: what kinds of role relationships obtain among the participants, including permanent and temporary relationships of one kind or another, both the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in which they are involved? + The MODE OF DISCOURSE concerns what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants are expecting the language to for them in that situation, the symbolic organisation of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context, including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?) and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic and the like Figure Source: http//:wwww.uefap.com/courses/beacc/fsl/intro/htm on An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse Levels of Language While SFL accounts for the syntactic structure of language, it places the function of language as central (what language does, and how it does it), in preference to more structural approaches, which place the elements of language and their combinations as central SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context Systemic Functional Grammar divides the language system into four strata: context, semantics, lexico-grammar, and phonology/graphology As shown in Fig 2.4, each stratum can be further divided into functional components or functions Ideational, interpersonal and textual functions of language are considered in the semantic stratum Here, ideational meaning refers to the way one uses representational tools to compose the idea In the context stratum for example, functional components are concerned with field (what is going on in the communication), tenor (the social roles and relationships involved) and mode (the medium for communication) Lexico-Grammar is a resource for putting meanings into words, i.e realizing them as configurations of lexical and grammatical items It concerns the syntactic organization of words into utterances, involving analysis of the utterance in terms of roles such as Actor, Agent, Medium, Theme, Mood, etc This gives Martin (1992:496): Figure Source: http//:wwww.uefap.com/courses/beacc/fsl/intro/htm on Metafunctions, rank and the nominal group An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 10 5.1 Metafunctions Central to SFL is the use of systems, used to represent the choices present in making an utterance The three systems related to the three metafunctions are: Transitivity, Theme/Rheme and Mood & Modality Ideational (experiential and logical) meanings construing Field are realized Lexico-Grammatically by the system of Transitivity This system interprets and represents our experience of phenomena in the world by describing experiential meanings in terms of participants, processes and circumstances Interpersonal meanings are realized Lexico-Grammatically by systems of Mood & Modality The Mood system is the central resource establishing an exchange between interactants by assuming and assigning speech roles such as giving or demanding goods and services or information Thus the giving of information or goods and services is grammaticalized as declaratives, questions are grammaticalized as interrogatives and commands as imperatives Textual meanings are concerned with the interaction of interpersonal and ideational information as text in context Lexico-Grammatically textual meanings are realized by systems of Theme/Rheme Theme/Rheme selections establish the orientation or angle on the interpersonal and ideational concerns of the clause Figure Source http//:www.uefap.com/cources/baecc/sfl/intro.htm Rank An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 39 It is clear that between the two there is a highly complex relation of grammatical metaphor because a number of transformations have taken place simultaneously: he/his, kissed/ kissing, she/her, completely/complete, blushed/blushing, so/ resulted in We here adopted the table of class shift by Halliday ( 1999: 247) which is used for scientific language We used it as a guideline to examine figurative language used in verses Table Types of grammatical metaphor in scientific discourse ( From Halliday and Matthiessen 1999: 247) No congruent Semantic type Metaphor Class shift example Adjective-noun Lovely- loveliness Verb-noun Determine- ical Quality 2i Process Thing Event of process determination 2ii Aspect of phase of Tense/phase process verb Going to – try (adverb)-noun Can,could– Modality of process 2iii possibility/ potential Modality verb (adverb)-noun Circumsta Thing Preposition-noun With - accompaniment Thing Conjunction-noun So- cause, proof nce Relator If- conditions 5i Process Event of process Quality Verb-noun Aspect of phase of Tense/phase process is increasing – increasing verb begin – initial (adverb)-noun An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 40 Modality of process Modality verb [always]- constant (adverb)-noun 6i Circumsta Manner Quality Adverb-adjective Brilliantly - brilliant Prepositional For a long time – lengthy nce 6ii Time, place, ect phrase- adjective 6iii Time, place, etc Relator Class Quality Pre Phrase – noun premodifier Conjunction- Love at the first sight - fisrt sight love Before - previous adjective Circumsta Time, place, etc Process Relator Process Be about - concern; be verb nce Be/go+preposition- instead of - repalce Conjunction –verb and - complement; then follows; so - lead to 10 Relator relator Circumsta circumstance Conjunction-prep nce process quality when - in times of; so - as a result thing 11 Thing - noun [x] - the fact of [x] 12 Process 0-verb [x] - [x] occurs 13 Thing Modifier Noun- [various] women's pleasure, ( of thing) On studying the table we realized that: The ordering is as follows: An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 41 Relator – circumstance – process – quality - thing 13 10 Figure Direction of metaphorization ( Halliday & Matthiessen 1999:264) Data analysis procedure 4.1 Results A summary of types of metaphor used in our data is shown in the table blow: Table Types of metaphor in Shakespeare’ sonnets Types of metaphor Sonnets 2i 10 11 12 5i /5ii An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 13 42 XIII XIV 1 10 XIX XXIX XXX 10 LXXIII CXXIX CXLVII CL 10 2 CLIV 19 Number 49 Total 8.64% 23.475 % 6.17% 1.23 60.49 % The above results can be displayed in a chart as follows: An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse % 43 8.64% type1 23.47% type 6.17% type 1.23% type 60.49% type 13 Chart 5: Types of grammatical metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets By studying the results we can conclude that the major type of metaphor used in our data is type 13 ( thing →various), the second biggest is type ( process → thing) and then comes type ( quality →thing) , ( process → quality) and the least is type ( relator →quality) Type ( circumstance →thing ), ( relator →thing) , ( circumstance → quality) ,7 ( relator →quality ), ( circumstance →process), 10 ( relator →process), 11 ( → thing), 12 ( →process ) did not appear in our data When regarding to emotion described we have drawn the following table: An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 44 Table 5: Emotion metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets Emotion Love/ Sadness Anger derise Disgust/ Fear Joy/ Hate Number 41 28 Percentage 58 % happiness 0 39% 3% The results are shown in the following chart: happy 3% sadness 39% love 58% Chart 6: Emotion metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets The biggest portion is love and then comes sadness and happy We have found no grammatical metaphor in description of emotions such as anger, fear, disgust Discussion 4.2.1 Nominalization in English poetic discourse 4.2.1.1 Taking process as thing An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 45 In the congruent form of realization, a process should be realized by a verb But in the incongruent form, a process can be represented as a thing, as in: That thou among the wastes of time must go, Since sweets and beauties themselves forsake ( Sonnet number XII) 4.2.1.2 Taking quality as thing In the congruent form, quality is realized by adjectives But in the incongruent form, it can be represented by a noun That means that the speaker can take quality as thing, as in: Rough winds shake the darling buds of May, And summer's lease hath all too short a date: Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,( Sonnet number XIX) In this type of metaphor, quality can appear in the form of a circumstantial element or a participant In the meantime, the original carrier can become the epithet of a participant and its role in the clause becomes less important In short, nominalization plays a key role in generation of grammatical metaphor in Shakespeare’s sonnets 4.2.2 Syntax in poetic discourse Syntax - the organization of words, phrases and clauses, i.e the word order Finding the right syntax for a poem is like finding the right light before you take a photograph If the order of the words is "wrong," the emotional, psychological, and/or spiritual impact of the words will be lost After reading the example below you will "feel" the impact of the "right order." Syntax examples: An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 46 "wrong" order "right" order "At fourteen I married My Lord, you." "I married you, My Lord, at fourteen." "Thirty-five years I lived with my husband." "I lived with my husband for thirty-five years" (William Carlos Williams) We have found the same ‘wrong’ order in our data: - O! from what power hast thou this powerful might, With insufficiency my heart to sway? - My love is as a fever, longing still - A woman's face with nature's own hand painted, Hast thou, the master mistress of my passion; 4.2.3 Syntagmatic Complexity: Syndromes of elemental metaphor * Lower rank syndrome (figure reconstrued as if elements ( a figure, congruently construed as a clause, is instead reworded as a nominal group, which congruently construed as element) This happens in type (quality → thing) and type ( process → thing or in other words ( the nominalization of qualities and process respectively) and type 13 ( thing →various) Other kinds of metaphor may also be involved in these lower rank syndrome heaven gate gate of heaven 2i at break of day 2i when the day breaks 13 An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 47 shifting change change is shifting men’s art the art of men 13 * Higher rank syndrome: sequences reconstrued as if figures ( a sequence, congruently construed as a clause complex, is instead reworded as a clause, which congruently construed as a figure) We can find this in the following examples: ….A woman's gentle heart, but not acquainted 13 with shifting change, as is false women's fashion… 5i 13 …Wishing me like to one more rich in hope, Featured like him, like him with friends possessed,… Summary This chapter has been an attempt to clarify the role of grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse We have begun by noticing some characteristics of poetic discourse and finished by analyzing some illustration taken from English poetic discourse in comparison with the results found by Halliday and Matthiessen (1999) in the role of metaphor in scientific discourse We have concluded that: An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 48 - The most pervasive types of grammatical metaphor listed in table 5.2 are types 1, type and type 13: quality → thing , process → thing and thing → various and the occurrence of types 13 are due to the driving force of type or type - Syntagmatically, the grammatical structure is usually incomplete: “But since she prick'd thee out for women's pleasure, Mine be thy love and thy love's use their treasure.” - Surprisingly, nominalization plays a key role in creating grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 49 PART III APPLICATION Summary of the major findings In this research paper we have been able to reach the following achievements (i) In examining the use of grammatical metaphor in English poetic discourse, the followings findings can be stated: - Nominalization plays a key role in generating a grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse - The most pervasive types of grammatical metaphor listed in table are types 1, type and type 13: quality → thing , process → thing and thing → various and the occurrence of types 13 are due to the driving force of type or type - There is the appearance of the ‘wrong order’ when considering the syntax of the verves - There is similarity in lower rank and higher rank syndromes when compared to which expressed by Halliday ( 1990) about grammatical metaphor in scientific discourse - Grammatical metaphor is used mostly to describe love and some aspects of love like happiness, sadness Emotions like fear, disgust, anger are not subjects of interest in Shakespeare’s sonnets Implications of the study To teachers and students A conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that metaphorical structures yield a denseness of meaning that more congruent structures typically dilute In many cases you may face that fact that the message conveyed cannot be encoded in any other way than metaphorical wording Metaphor , however, is not easy to use and interpret People find it difficult in facing with metaphor There is a fact that it is not an easy task to decide a wording metaphorical or not let alone to understand it Nevertheless, knowledge of metaphor helps students a great deal in An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 50 understanding and providing written task Therefore, we suggest that metaphor should be taken into account in developing writing and reading materials for students 2.2 To translators One of the most important issues in the translation of poetry concerns the nature of poetry and of the language it uses Jean Boase-Beier will argue that it makes more sense to speak of poetic LANGUAGE, rather than of poetic TEXTS Poetic language can be defined by a particular set of characteristics, and the way these are used, but not by the place of its occurrence, which may be in texts traditionally considered non-literary, as well as in poems Understanding a poem is a prerequisite for translating it, and understanding a poem involves identifying and analysing the characteristics of poetic language, which make up what we call the 'style' of a poem Stylistics, as the study of style, thus plays a major part in the translation of any text which contains poetic language Style is defined, not as form (or the "way something is said"), but as the link between form and meaning Stylistic features of texts are devices such as metaphor, repetition, iconicity and ambiguity Many people think the translation of poetry is impossible, but this is not the case A translation which takes stylistic devices into account stands a good chance of success Suggestions for further studies This study is centered on the use of metaphor in description of emotion in English poetic discourse Thus, it is limited in the field of poetic discourse Much of our effort has been made to analyze instances in Shakespeare’ sonnets Therefore, further study of the topic, if possible, should cover a broader and more temporary range of poetic discourse Beside researches on other genres such as funny stories, advertising would be of great value Furthermore, in this study we can only be able to explore the role of nominalization in creating grammatical metaphor in poetic discourse and neglected the role of verbalization which will be an interesting topic for other researches An investigation into the role of metaphor in description of emotion in poetic discourse 51 REFERENCES Arnold, Magda 1960 Emotion and Personality New York: Columbia University Press Averill, James 1982 Anger and Aggression: An Essay on Emotion New York: SpringerVerlag Broad, C D 1971 "Emotion and Sentiment." 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The answer relies on the acceptance of the notion that the congruent form is the unmarked