M ECHANICS refers to the rules that govern punctuation marks, capitalization, and spelling. Like the rules that govern usage, the rules that govern sentence mechanics help us keep our sentences and their meanings clear. Since the GED Writing Test was revised in 2002, the only spelling that is tested is homonyms, possessives, and con- tractions. Correct use of punctuation will be tested, but comma questions will generally be limited to instances where a comma is necessary to eliminate or prevent confusion.  Punctuation Punctuation marks are the symbols used to separate sentences, express emotions, and show relationships between objects and ideas. Correct punctuation makes your meaning clear and adds drama and style to your sentences. Poor punctuation, on the other hand, can lead to a great deal of confusion for your readers and can send a message other than the one you intended. For example, take a look at the following two versions of the same sentence: Don’t bother Xavier. Don’t bother, Xavier. 61 CHAPTER 8 Mechanics WHEN DO you need a comma? When should you use a dash or semicolon? How do you know when something should be capitalized? These questions and more will be answered in this chapter. You will review the basic rules of mechanics so that you can answer GED questions about spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. These sentences use the same words, but have two very different meanings because of punctuation. In the first sentence, the comma indicates the speaker is telling the reader not to bother Xavier. In the second sentence, the speaker is telling Xavier not to bother. Here’s another example of how punctuation can drastically affect meaning: You should eat Zak so you can think clearly dur- ing your interview. Because this sentence is missing some essential punc- tuation, the sentence says something very different from what the author intended. The speaker isn’t telling the reader to eat Zak; rather, she’s telling Zak to eat. The sen- tence should be revised as follows: You should eat, Zak, so you can think clearly dur- ing your interview. Punctuation helps create meaning, and it also has another important function: It enables writers to express a variety of tones and emotions. For example, take a look at these two versions of the same sentence: Wait—I’m coming with you! Wait, I’m coming with you. The first sentence clearly expresses more urgency and excitement, thanks to the dash and exclamation point. The second sentence, with its comma and period, does not express emotion; the sentence is neutral. Punctuation Guidelines There are many rules for punctuation, and the better you know them, the more correctly and effectively you can punctuate your sentences. The following table lists the main punctuation marks and guidelines for when to use them. – MECHANICS – 62 YOUR PURPOSE: USE THIS PUNCTUATION: EXAMPLE: End a sentence period [.] Most sentences end in a period. Connect complete sentences semicolon [;] A semicolon can connect two (two independent clauses) sentences; it is an excellent way to show that two ideas are related. comma [,] and a conjunction Leslie is coming, but Huang is staying [and, or, nor, for, so, but, yet] home. dash [—] (less common, but Hurry up—we’re late! more dramatic) Connect items in a list comma [,] but if one or more His odd shopping list included items in that list already have a batteries, a box of envelopes, and a comma, use a semicolon [;] can of spam. The castaways included a professor, who was the group’s leader; an actress; and a millionaire and his wife. Introduce a list of three or colon [:] There are three things I want to do more items before I die: go on a cruise, go sky- diving, and surf. Colons have three functions: intro- ducing long lists, introducing quota- tions, and introducing explanations. Introduce an explanation colon [:] You know what they say about real (what follows “explains” or estate: Location is everything. “answers” what precedes) Introduce a quotation colon [:] or comma [,] She yelled, “Let’s get out of here!” (words directly spoken) He said only one word: “Shame.” Indicate a quotation quotation marks [“ ”] “To be or not to be?” is one of the most famous lines from Hamlet. Indicate a question question mark [?] What time is it? “How much longer?” he asked. Connect two words that work hyphen [-] mother-in-law, turn-of-the-century together as one object or modifier poet, French-fried potatoes Separate a word or phrase dash [—] I never lie—never. for emphasis We’re late—very late! Separate a word or phrase that commas [,] Elaine, my roommate, is from is relevant but not essential Chicago. information Her nickname as a child, her mother told me, was “Boo-boo.” Separate a word or phrase that parentheses [( )] There is an exception to every rule is relevant but secondary (including this one). information Show possession or contraction apostrophe [’] Why is Lisa’s wallet in Ben’s backpack? – MECHANICS – 63 Comma Rules Many mechanics questions will deal with commas, the most common punctuation mark within sentences. The presence and placement of commas can dramatically affect meaning and can make the difference between clarity and confusion. The previous chart lists four comma uses, but there are several others. The following is a complete list of comma rules. If you know them, then you can be sure your sentences are clear. You will also be able to tell whether a comma is needed to correct a sentence. Use a comma: 1. with a coordinating conjunction to separate two complete sentences. Note that a comma is not required if both parts of the sentence are 4 words or less. Let’s eat first, and then we will go to a movie. I’m definitely older, but I don’t think I’m much wiser. I love him and he loves me. 2. to set off introductory words, phrases, or clauses. Next year, I will stick to my New Year’s resolutions. Wow, that sure looks good! Because the game was cancelled, Jane took the kids bowling. 3. to set off a direct address, interjection, or transi- tional phrase. Well, Jeb, it looks like we will be stuck here for a while. His hair color is a little, um, unusual. My heavens, this is spicy chili! Sea horses, for example, are unusual in that the males carry the embryos. 4. between two modifiers that and could replace. He is a mean, contemptible person. (Both mean and contemptible modify person.) I ncorrect: Denny’s old, stamp collection is priceless. C orrect: Denny’s old stamp collection is priceless. (You cannot put “and” between old and stamp; old describes stamp and stamp modi- fies collection. They do not modify the same noun.) 5. to set off information that is relevant but not essential (nonrestrictive). Essential, not set off: The woman w ho wrote Happy Moon is com- ing to our local bookstore. (We need this information to know which woman we’re talking about.) Nonessential, set off by commas: The dog, lost and confused, wandered into the street. (The fact that the dog was lost and confused is not essential to the sentence.) Essential, not set off: Witnesses w ho lie under oath will be prosecuted. Nonessential, set off by commas: Leeland, who at first refused to testify, later admitted to lying under oath. 6. to separate items in a series. The price for the cruise includes breakfast, lunch, dinner, and entertainment. The recipe calls for fresh cilantro, chopped onions, diced tomatoes, and lemon juice. 7. to set off most quotations. As a general rule, short quotations are introduced by commas while long quotations (several sentences or more) are introduced by colons. All speech in dialogue should be set off by commas. “Let’s get going,” he said impatiently. Rene Descartes is famous for the words, “I think, therefore I am.” Joseph said, “Please forgive me for jumping to conclusions.” 8. to set off parts of dates, numbers, titles, and addresses. She was born on April 30, 2002. Please print 3,000 copies. Tiberio Mendola, MD, is my new doctor. Please deliver the package to me at 30 Willow Road, Trenton, NJ. 9. to prevent confusion, as in cases when a word is repeated. What it is, is a big mistake. After I, comes J. – MECHANICS – 64  Capitalization Capitalization is an important tool to help us identify (1) the beginning of a new sentence and (2) proper nouns and adjectives. Here are six rules for correct capitalization: 1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence. Please close the door. What are you trying to say? If you are quoting a full sentence within your own sentence, use a capital letter, unless you introduce the quote with that. The author notes, “A shocking three out of four students admitted to cheating.” The author notes that “a shocking three out of four students admitted to cheating.” If you have a full sentence within parentheses, that sentence should be capitalized as well (and the end punctuation mark should be within the parentheses). He was expelled for repeatedly violating the school’s code of conduct. (He was caught stealing and cheating several times.) 2. Capitalize proper nouns. A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing (as opposed to a general person, place, or thing). See the table at the bottom of this page. 3. Capitalize the days of the weeks and months of the year, but not the seasons. It was a warm spring day in May. Wednesday is the first official day of autumn. 4. Capitalize the names of countries, nationalities, geographical regions, languages, and religions. He has traveled to Brazil and Tunisia. She is half Chinese, half French. She is from the South. (But, Drive south for five miles.) We speak Spanish at home. He is a devout Catholic. – MECHANICS – 65 CAPITALIZE (SPECIFIC) DON’T CAPITALIZE (GENERAL) Jennifer Johnson (specific person) the lady Algebra 101 (specific class) my math class Main Street (specific street) on the street Frosted Flakes (specific brand) good cereal Caspian Sea (specific sea) deep sea/ocean Lincoln Memorial (specific monument) impressive memorial/monument S.S. Cole (specific ship) naval carrier Dade High School (specific school) our high school Precambrian Age (specific time period) long ago Microsoft Corporation (specific company) that company 5. Capitalize titles that come before proper names. Judge Lydia Ng Lydia Ng, judge in the Fifth District Professor Lee Chang Lee Chang, professor of physical science Vice President Tilda Stanton Tilda Stanton, vice president 6. Capitalize titles of publications, including books, stories, poems, plays, articles, speeches, essays, and other documents, and works of art, including films, paintings, and musical composi- tions. Pablo Picasso’s painting Guernica captures the agony of the Spanish Civil War. Read Susan Sontag’s essay “On Photography” for class tomorrow. The Declaration of Independence is a sacred document.  Spelling As noted earlier, spelling questions on the GED are limited to homonyms, contractions, and possessives. The spelling of these words is reviewed below. Contractions and Possessives Confusion between contractions and possessives results in some of the most common spelling mistakes. Contractions are words that use an apostrophe to show that a letter or letters have been omitted from the word(s). Possessive pronouns indicate ownership of objects and ideas. They do NOT take an apostrophe. – MECHANICS – 66 POSSESSIVE PRONOUN MEANING EXAMPLE its belonging to it The dog chased its tail. your belonging to you Your time is up. their belonging to them Their words were comforting. whose belonging to who Whose tickets are these? CONTRACTION MEANING EXAMPLE it’s it is It’s time to eat. you’re you are You’re not going to believe your eyes. they’re they are They’re getting their tickets now. who’s who is Who’s going to dinner? who has Who’s got my tickets? – MECHANICS – 67 Homonyms Homonyms are words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings. Here are some of the most com- mon homonyms: accept to take or receive except leave out affect (verb) to have an influence effect (noun) the result or impact of something all ready fully prepared already previously bare (adj) uncovered; (verb) to uncover bear (noun) animal; (verb) to carry or endure brake (verb) to stop; (noun) device for stopping break (verb) to fracture or rend; (noun) a pause or temporary stoppage buy (verb) to purchase by (preposition) next to or near; through desert (noun) dry area; (verb) to abandon dessert sweet course at the end of a meal every day each day everyday ordinary; daily hear (verb) to perceive with the ears here (adverb) in this place know to understand, be aware of no negative—opposite of yes loose (adj) not tight; not confined lose (verb) to misplace; to fail to win may be might be (possibility) maybe perhaps morning the first part of the day mourning grieving passed past tense of pass (to go by) past beyond; events that have already occurred patience quality of being patient; able to wait patients people under medical care personal (adj) private or pertaining to the individual personnel (noun) employees presence condition of being presents gifts principal most important; head of a school principle fundamental truth right correct; opposite of left rite ceremony write produce words on a surface scene setting or view seen past participle of see than used to compare (he is taller than I) then at that time, therefore (first this, then that; if you think it’s good, then I’ll do it) their possessive form of they there location; in that place through in one side and out the other; by means of threw past tense of throw to (preposition) in the direction of too (adverb) in addition; excessive two number waist part of the body waste (verb) to squander; (noun) trash weak feeble week seven days weather climatic conditions whether introducing a choice which what, that witch practitioner of witchcraft – MECHANICS – 68 O n the GED Language Arts, Writing Test, questions about organization are designed to measure your ability to organize ideas effectively. You may be asked to identify the best sequence of sentences or para- graphs, the best place to move a sentence or paragraph, or the best sentence or paragraph to eliminate to improve a paragraph’s unity or coherence. This section reviews three aspects of organization: 1. essay structure and organizational patterns 2. effective paragraphs 3. transitions  Essay Structure and Organizational Patterns Most nonfiction texts have the basic underlying structure of main idea → support. They begin with a main idea (some- times called the thesis or theme of the text) that controls the whole passage. It is this idea that the text will develop. The rest of the text then provides support for that idea in the form of examples, definitions, reasons, and so on. Most paragraphs function this way, too. In fact, you can think of a paragraph as a mini-essay. 69 CHAPTER 9 Organization THE LANGUAGE Arts, Writing Test includes questions about organization: how ideas are arranged in a text. This chapter reviews key strategies and patterns that writers use to effectively organize their ideas. On this basic level of main idea → support, every- thing in the passage or paragraph should support or develop that main idea. When sentences or paragraphs lose focus or stray from that controlling idea, the passage or paragraph loses its effectiveness. Writers can use several different strategies for organ- izing their support. One of these strategies often serves as the overall organizing principle for the text, while indi- vidual sections may use other techniques as well. For example, imagine an essay comparing and contrasting two film versions of Frankenstein. The support will be organized by comparison and contrast. But the writer may also use other organizational techniques within that comparison and contrast structure. For example, he or she may use order of importance when explaining what makes one version better than the other. The four most common organizational patterns are: 1. chronological order 2. order of importance 3. comparison and contrast 4. cause and effect To answer many of the questions about organization on the GED, you will need to be able to determine the writer’s purpose and to recognize organizational patterns on both the essay and paragraph levels. By identifying the organizational pattern, you can determine where to insert sentences or paragraphs and whether any sen- tences or paragraphs are misplaced, such as a sentence that is out of chronological order. Chronological Order When writers use time as their main organization prin- ciple, it is called chronological order. They describe events in the order in which they did happen, will happen, or should happen. Much of what you read is organized in this way, including historical texts, instructions and pro- cedures, and essays about personal experiences. Passages organized by chronology typically use a lot of transitional words and phrases to help us follow the pas- sage of time. The transitions help us see when things happened and in what order. They help us follow along when the passage shifts from one period of time to another. Transitional words and phrases keep events linked together in the proper order. (Transitions are cov- ered in more detail on page 72.) The following is a list of some of the most common chronological transitions: first, second, third, etc. before after next now then when as soon as immediately suddenly soon during while meanwhile later in the meantime at last eventually finally afterward The third paragraph of the Batman text from page 30 uses this organizational pattern. The transitions are underlined: Kane’s Batman was a big success right from the start. The masked hero s oon moved from comic books to its own newspaper strip, and in 1943 ,Bat- man episodes were aired on the radio. In 1966,live- action Batman shows hit the TV screen. The series was wildly popular, and the syndicated show st ill airs today on channels like the Cartoon Network. Order of Importance With this organizational pattern, ideas are arranged by rank instead of time. What’s most important comes first or last, depending upon the writer’s purpose. Organizing ideas from most important to least important puts the most essential information first. Many writers do this when they are offering advice or when they want to be sure readers get the most impor- tant information right away. Newspaper articles, for example, generally use this structure. They begin with the most important information (the who, what, when, where, and why of the event) so readers don’t have to read the whole article to get those key facts. Details and background information come later in the article. When writers move from least to most important, they save their most important idea or piece of infor- mation for last. Writers often use this approach when they are presenting an argument. That’s because this kind of structure is usually more convincing than the most-to-least organizational pattern. The more contro- versial the argument, the more important this structure. – ORGANIZATION – 70 [...]... in a thesis statement On the paragraph level, this controlling idea is often expressed in a topic sentence The topic sentence is commonly found at the beginning of the paragraph, but it can also be at the end Less frequently, the topic sentence is found somewhere in the middle of the paragraph or is simply implied In the first paragraph below, the topic sentence is at the beginning; in the second example,... Many writers “save the best for last” because that’s where the best” often has the most impact Transitions are very important for this organizational pattern, too Here’s a list of the most common transitions writers use with the order of importance structure Most of these work for both the most-to-least important and least-to-most important formats: first and foremost moreover above all The fourth most... second example, the topic sentence is at the end (1)Electronic mail (e-mail) is very convenient, but it should not be used for every business occasion and must be carefully managed (2)Email messages should be concise and limited to one topic (3 )The Subject line should clearly state what the e-mail is about, and the first sentence or two of the e-mail should clearly convey the main point of the message (4)It... paragraphs They are essential to good writing Notice, for example, the difference between the two paragraphs below In the first version, the transitions have been omitted In the second version, they are underlined Why do we punish those who commit crimes? There are two main theories of punishment: retribution and deterrence Retribution argues that people who commit crimes deserve to be punished and that the. .. sentence relates to the main idea of the passage? Why do we punish those who commit crimes? There are two main theories of punishment: retribution and deterrence The first, retribution, 72 – ORGANIZATION – argues that people who commit crimes deserve to be punished and that the punishment should fit the crime In other words, it is an “eye for an eye” philosophy Deterrence theory, on the other hand, posits... consequently as a result The following words and phrases, on the other hand, show difference: on the other hand so hence both but caused (by) WORDS INDICATING EFFECT just as and created (by) since likewise like because (of) unlike A topic sentence is a sentence that states the main idea of a paragraph 71 – ORGANIZATION – For example, notice how the following paragraph loses focus: In an essay, the controlling... true, do not fit the focus of this paragraph about e-mail The paragraph would be much stronger if these sentences were omitted Transitions There are more than 2,500 different species of snakes around the world Only a small percentage of those species is poisonous, and only a few species have venom strong enough to kill a human being Furthermore, snakes bite only 1,000–2,000 people in the United States... you are contrasting them As an organizational technique, this pattern allows you to place two (or more) items side by side and see how they measure up against each other How are they similar or different? And why does it matter? For example, a writer comparing and contrasting the 1931 and 1994 film versions of Frankenstein might aim to show that the 1994 version is far truer to the book because it portrays... about cause explains why something took place You might ask, for example, “What caused the Cold War?” A passage about effect, on the other hand, explains what happened after something took place What happened as a result of the Cold War? Just as certain key words indicate whether you are comparing or contrasting, other key words indicate whether things are causes or effects Here is a partial list of words... With the appropriate transitions, the second paragraph reads much more smoothly and makes its ideas more clear Certain transitions work best for specific functions For example, for example is a great transition to use when introducing a specific example Here’s a brief list of some of the most common transitional words and phrases: IF YOU WANT TO: USE THESE TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES: introduce an example . Connect two words that work hyphen [-] mother-in-law, turn-of -the- century together as one object or modifier poet, French-fried potatoes Separate a word or. the basic underlying structure of main idea → support. They begin with a main idea (some- times called the thesis or theme of the text) that controls the