PUNCTUATION Paratactic compound sentences punctuated with semico- lons are especially common when the second clause repeats the first: The New Deal was a new beginning; it was a new era of American government. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. Wendell Willkie was publicly and privately the same man; he was himself. All of these and under some de- gree of they were bound servants for greater or lesser terms. Oscar Handlin Using and in such sentences would be subtly misleading, im- plying a change of thought where none in fact exists. Parataxis is also effective between clauses expressing a sharp contrast of idea: Languages are not invented; they grow with our need for expression. Susanne K. Langer He [President Calvin Coolidge] knew precisely what the law was; he did not concern himself with what the law ought to be. Irving Stone Groups are capable of being as moral and intelligent as the indi- viduals who form them; a crowd is chaotic, has no purpose of its own and is capable of anything except intelligent action and real- istic thinking. Aldous Huxley Clauses like these could be joined by a comma and but. Omit- ting the conjunction and using a semicolon, however, makes a stronger statement, forcing readers to see the contrast for themselves. Occasionally even coordinated clauses are separated by a semicolon. This is done at the discretion of the writer and is more common when the clauses are relatively long and com- plicated, containing commas within themselves. In that case a semicolon more clearly signals the break between them. The For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS following sentence is an example (the Duke of Wellington is commenting with pleasant cynicism upon the capacity of young ladies to endure the absence of lovers gone to war): They contrive, in some manner, to live, and look tolerably well, notwithstanding their despair and the continued absence of their lover; and some have even been known to recover so far as to be inclined to take another lover, if the absence of the first has lasted too long. Even when the coordinated clauses are not very long, a semicolon may still replace the more conventional comma if the writer wants a pause for emphasis or rhythm: Children played about her; and she sang as she worked. Rupert Brooke So the silence appeared like Death; and now she had death in her heart. Ford Madox Ford Run-on Sentences A run-on sentence occurs when a semicolon has been omitted between uncoordinated independent clauses. Sometimes a comma is used instead (when it is, the error is often called a "comma fault"): INCORRECT It was late, we went home.1 And sometimes the clauses are simply run together with no stop of any kind: INCORRECT It was late we went home. The most frequent cause of run-on sentences is mistaking the function of conjunctive words as however, 1. Commas are sometimes effective in such cases, the so-called comma link. Comma links are discussed on pages 286-87. For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org PUNCTUATION therefore, consequently, even so, on the other hand, for example. These adverbs do not join clauses gram- matically; they only show a relationship between the ideas in the clauses. In this they differ from coordinating conjunc- tions, which traditionally designate both a grammatical and a logical connection. The difference may seem arbitrary. The coordinating con- junction but and the conjunctive adverb however, for in- stance, can be used almost interchangeably between appro- priate clauses. Even so, the first is a conjunction and needs only a comma (or maybe even no stop at all); the second is an adverb and, when it is unaccompanied by a conjunction, requires a semicolon: It was not late, but we went home. It was not late; however, we went home. It would result in a run-on sentence to punctuate it like this: INCORRECT It was late, however, we went home. Run-on sentences may be corrected in several ways, though for any given case one way will probably be best. The simplest solution is to put a semicolon in the proper place. Or the clauses may be joined by an appropriate coordinating con- junction accompanied by a comma (though this stop may be omitted if the clauses are short and simple). Or the two clauses may be recast as two sentences. Finally, the clauses may be kept as parts of the same sentence with one being subordinated to the other, in which case a comma may or may not be needed between them. Thus the run-on sentence "The search was fruitless, the men were discouraged" can be corrected: The search was fruitless; the men discouraged. The search was fruitless; and the men were discouraged. For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS 393 The search was fruitless. The men were discouraged. Because the search was fruitless the men were discouraged. Semicolon in Lists and Series Semicolons are conventionally used to separate all the items in a list or series when any of the items contains a comma. This is done because the presence of a comma within one or more items requires a stronger stop to signal the distinction between one unit in the series and another. Look at this sen- tence about the rise of the Ku in the 1920s: There were other factors too: the deadly tedium of small-town life, where any change was a relief; the nature of current Protestant theology, rooted in Fundamentalism and hot with bigotry; and, not least, a native American moralistic blood lust that is half historical determinism, and half Freud. Robert Coughlan Even when a comma occurs in only one item, consistency requires that semicolons be used between all the elements of the series: He [Huey Long] damned and insulted Bigness in all its Louisiana manifestations: Standard Oil, the state's dominant and frequently domineering industry; the big corporations; the corporation lawyers. Hodding Carter Semicolon with Subordinate Clause Now and then a semicolon separates a main clause and a sub- ordinate one, a job conventionally assigned to the comma. The stronger semicolon is helpful when the clauses contain internal commas; it more clearly signals the break between the clauses and helps the reader to follow the grammar: He [the white policeman) moves through Harlem, therefore, like an occupying soldier in a bitterly hostile country; which is precisely For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org 394 PUNCTUATION what, and where, he is, and is the reason he walks in twos and threes. James Baldwin SEMICOLON Between independent clauses A. Paratactic: semicolon is the conventional stop B. Coordinated: comma is conventional semicolon is optional for clarity or emphasis II. In lists and series Semicolon between all items when any item contains a comma The Comma The comma is the most frequent and the most complicated of all marks of punctuation. It is least reducible to rule and most subject to variation, depending on the need to be clear or emphatic, the preferences of individual writers, and even fashion. Coordinated Independent Clauses Coordinated elements are grammatically identical construc- tions in the same sentence joined by a coordinating conjunc- tion (and, but, for, or, nor, and the correlatives or, nor, both . and, not but). Any part of a sentence may be coordinated: two subjects, two verbs, two objects, two adjectivals, two adverbials, two independent clauses. As a very general rule, two coordinated independent clauses are punctuated with a comma; lesser elements, such as words, phrases, and dependent clauses, are not so punctuated. But exceptions occur, depending on the length and complex- ity of the constructions. Let's look at several examples. Two coordinated independent clauses are usually separated by a comma, placed immediately before the conjunction: For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS 395 It [history] is a story that cannot be told in dry lines, and its meaning cannot be conveyed in a species of geometry. Herbert When such coordinated clauses are complicated and contain internal commas, the stronger semicolon may be used to sep- arate them, as we saw on page 282. On the other hand when they are short, obviously related, and contain no internal commas, the comma between them may be omitted: They tried to hold him up against the wall but he sat down in a puddle of water. Ernest Hemingway The Comma Link A comma link is a comma used between independent clauses that are is, not joined by one of the coordi- nating conjunctions but simply run together. The semicolon is the conventional mark in such a construction (see pages 282-83), and employing a comma is generally regarded as a fault. Under certain circumstances, however, a comma may be used between paratactic clauses (though it is never oblig- atory). The clauses must be short and simple and contain no internal stops; the relationship of ideas should be immediately clear; and the sentences should move rapidly with only light pauses: A memoir is history, it is based on evidence. E. M. Forster The crisis was past, the prospects were favorable. Samuel Hopkins Adams When three or more such short, obviously related inde- pendent clauses are joined paratactically, comma links are even more frequent: Some of the people said that the elephant had gone in one direc- tion, some said that he had gone in another, some professed not even to have heard of any elephant. George Orwell For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org PUNCTUATION Sheep in the pasture do not seem to fear phantom sheep beyond the fence, mice don't look for mouse goblins in the clock, birds do not worship a divine thunderbird. K. Langer He becomes more callous, the population becomes more hostile, the situation grows more tense, and the police force is increased. James Baldwin The last sentence (about racial tensions in Harlem between white policemen and black residents) illustrates the particular advantage of comma links. By allowing rapid movement from clause to clause, the punctuation reinforces our sense of the inevitability of social cause and effect. Easy rules about when a comma link is effective and when it is a comma fault do not exist. Certainly long, complicated paratactic independent clauses (especially those containing commas) ought to be punctuated by semicolons, not commas. And even when the clauses are not particularly long and con- tain no commas within themselves, the relationships among ideas may not be sufficiently close and obvious to allow a comma link. In this sentence, for instance, a semicolon would be clearer: INCORRECT We are overloaded with garbage, in fact we have so much excess garbage that it is being used to make hills to ski on. For the inexperienced writer the safest course is to use a semi- colon between uncoordinated independent clauses unless he or she is very sure that a comma will help the rhythm of the sentence and will not confuse the reader. As the foregoing discussion suggests, the punctuation of independent clauses is not easily explained in a simple rule. Current practice is summed up in the following table: PUNCTUATION OF INDEPENDENT CLAUSES When coordinated: A. Conventional punctuation: comma For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS 397 B. Optional punctuation Semicolon a. If the clauses are long and internally punctuated b. with short long pause is effective 2. No stop at all If the clauses are short, unpunctuated, clearly related, and a pause is not desirable II. When paratactic: A. Conventional punctuation: semicolon B. Optional punctuation: comma If the clauses are short, clearly related, contain no commas, and fast movement is desirable The Comma with Coordinated Elements Other Than Independent Clauses Two coordinated subjects, verbs, objects, or modifiers are not usually punctuated: Jack and Jill went up the hill. NOT Jack, and Jill went up the hill. We saw them and were surprised. NOT We saw them, and were surprised. He picked up his hat and books. NOT He picked up his hat, and books. The men were tired and discouraged. NOT The men were tired, and discouraged. However, commas may be between the members of such coordinated pairs when the first is long or when the writer wants a pause for emphasis. Thus in the following sen- tence the comma helps the reader to distinguish the two long predicates that follow the subject ("the twentieth century"): The twentieth century finds this explanation too vapidly place, and demands something more mystic. George Bernard For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org PUNCTUATION In the next examples the comma separating two coordi- nated verbs (while not necessary because of their length) gives the idea more emphasis: We turned to them, and paused. At night we were stained by dew, and shamed into pettiness by the innumerable silences of stars. T. E. Lawrence The Comma with Lists and Series A list or series consists of three or more grammatically parallel words or constructions such as three of four subjects of the same verb, say, or three verbs of the same subject, or four or five adjectives modifying the same noun. The items in a list, or series, may be joined by coordinating conjunctions ("She bought bread and eggs and cheese") or by parataxis ("She bought bread, eggs, cheese"). The most common method is to combine parataxis and coordination, linking the last two items with and, or, or but not, and joining the others paratactically: "She bought bread, eggs, and cheese." When a list or series is completely paratactic, commas are used between the items: Oriental luxury goods, jade, silk, gold, spices, vermilion, jewels, had formerly come overland by way of the Caspian Sea. . Robert Craves When it is completely coordinated, the commas are usually omitted: She was crying now because she remembered that her life had been a long succession of humiliations and mistakes and pains and ri- diculous efforts. Rhys In the combined method (the most frequent practice), a comma goes between each pair of paratactic elements and is For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS 399 optional between the final coordinated pair, the choice de- pending on the preference of the writer or the policy of an editor. The first of these examples uses the comma; the second does not: Fifty years ago, when all type was set by hand, the labor of several men was required to print, fold, and arrange in piles the signatures of a book. Carl Becker His plan was to clinch his teeth, shut his eyes, whirl the club round his head and bring it down with sickening violence in the general direction of the sphere. p. G. But whether you choose to place a comma between the final coordinated items or to leave it out, you should follow the same practice consistently in any piece of writing. Finally about lists and series, remember that semicolons are conventionally used between all items when any item contains a comma within itself. PUNCTUATING A SERIES Combined parataxis and coordination: commas and optional comma bread, eggs, and cheese II. Completely paratactic: commas bread, eggs, cheese Completely coordinated A. Conventional punctuation: no stops bread and eggs and cheese B. Optional punctuation: commas for emphasis or rhythm bread, and eggs, and cheeses IV. Series with a comma in one or more items: semicolons bread, which she found too moldy; eggs; and cheese The Comma with Adjectivals An adjectival is a word, phrase, or clause functioning as an adjective. For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org [...]... James Participial Adjectival Phrases Used restrictively, participial phrases follow the noun and are not preceded by a comma: A man leading a horse was walking inland from the sea W S Merwin Often, however, participial phrases function nonrestrictively They supply pertinent information about the noun they modify, but not information essential to understanding its meaning in the sentence Nonrestrictive participles... or be postponed to the end of the clause In any case they must be followed, set off, or preceded by commas: Born to lowly circumstances, he came up the easy way Samuel Hopkins Adams Words, being but symbols by which a man expresses his ideas, are an accurate measure of the range of his thought at any given time Albert C Baugh For years he had been blackmailing the rector, threatening to publish the... meanings Consequently their punctuation is especially variable In the discussion that follows, advice about using commas with adverbials must be understood as loose generalizations, which skillful writers frequently ignore or adapt to their particular need to be emphatic or clear or rhythmic Single-Word Adverbs When simple adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, they are not usually punctuated... course): For example, in 1913 there was produced in Great Britain seven billion yards of cotton cloth for export alone Carl Becker Less formulaic phrases are often punctuated or not, according to the writer's sense of rhythm: In a crude way, Mickey Spillane is something of an innovator Charles J Rolo Of Pushkin's shorter stories The Queen of Spades is perhaps the most entertaining Rosemary Edmonds However,... more are used together they are not usually punctuated if they are coordinated However, should emphasis require it, the second of a pair of coordinated adjectives may be set off by commas: It [England] always had a peculiar, and a fond, relationship with the papacy Paul Johnson For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS 4OI When two or more adjectives are run together without... Republican, stood the Emperor Augustus Robert Graves All images are symbols, which make us think about the things they mean Susanne K Langer Nonrestrictive clauses are sometimes used in a loose sense, to modify not a single noun but an entire idea Such clauses are introduced by which, placed at the end of the sentence or clause they modify, and always preceded by a comma: Lenin was cruel, which Gladstone was... present) and followed by a comma, or after the noun and set off by commas: Angry, the man sat down The man, angry, sat down They may even be pushed to the end of the clause and preceded by a comma: The man sat down, angry In such patterns (especially common with participles acting as adjectives), the word really functions more like an adverb It tells us something about the action (in this case, how or why... looked angry 2 This rule reflects current American practice Sometimes in older usage all adjectival clauses were punctuated without regard to whether they were restrictive or nonrestrictive in meaning For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS > 403 The Comma with Adverbials An adverbial is any word or construction used as an adverb Adverbials are more flexible in their...For more material and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org 400 PUNCTUATION Single-Word Adjectives Most single-word adjectives are restrictive—that is, essential to the meaning of the nouns they modify A restrictive adjective is placed after the noun marker, if there is one (a, an the, some, this, any, and so on), and is not punctuated (italics added in the... publish the facts about a certain youthful escapade of his dead wife Robin G Collingwood Adjectival Clauses Adjectival clauses are less flexible in their positioning than the participial phrase: they must follow their noun But they too may be either restrictive or nonrestrictive, and they are punctuated accordingly Restrictive clauses are not punctuated; nonrestrictive ones are set off by commas when . some have even been known to recover so far as to be inclined to take another lover, if the absence of the first has lasted too long. Even when the coordinated. and information, please visit www.tailieuduhoc.org STOPS 395 It [history] is a story that cannot be told in dry lines, and its meaning cannot be conveyed