Đang tải... (xem toàn văn)
(BQ) Part 2 book Criminology has contents: Violent crimes, crimes against property, white collar and corporate crime, public order crimes, international and comparative criminology, the nature and functioning of courts,... And other contents.
PART www.downloadslide.net Types of Crimes T he word “crime” conjures up many images: mugging and murder, cheating on taxes, and selling crack Penal codes define thousands of different crimes These crimes are grouped into convenient and comprehensive categories for access and understanding In this part, we examine the specific categories of crimes Violent crimes (Chapter 10) are crimes against the person, ranging from assault to homicide Many of these crimes have been well established for centuries, although modern codes have transformed them, however slightly Most of the crimes against property (Chapter 11) have also been well defined over the centuries Yet recent developments in commerce and technology have prompted legislatures to define new forms of crimes against property With a spate of corporate s candals, reports of white-collar and corporate crime (Chapter 12) fill the pages of newspapers and news magazines In this chapter, we discuss how white-collar crime and corporate crime are defined and measured The corporate criminal law is described in some detail, with a focus on corporate liability and corporate sanctions In the next chapter (Chapter 13), we address the controversial types of crimes related to drug and alcohol trafficking and consumption, as well as those violating the sexual mores of the establishment Finally, the occurrence of these various types of crime is discussed in comparison with their occurrence elsewhere in the world (Chapter 14) This chapter is concerned with comparative criminology and, inevitably, the emergence of transnational and international criminality 211 www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net Violent Crimes Homicide Murder Manslaughter The Extent of Homicide The Nature of Homicide A Cross-National Comparison of Homicide Rates Assault Family-Related Crimes Spouse Abuse Relationship Violence Child Abuse Abuse of the Elderly What Do the Studies Say? Rape and Sexual Assault Characteristics of the Rape Event Who Are the Rapists? Rape and the Legal System Community Response Kidnapping Robbery Characteristics of Robbers The Consequences of Robbery Organized Crime The History of Organized Crime The Structure and Impact of Organized Crime The New Ethnic Diversity in Organized Crime Emerging Problems Terrorism Hate Crimes Militias Violence in Schools: Remembering Newtown Violence and Gun Control The Extent of Firearm-Related Offenses Youths and Guns Controlling Handgun Use The Gun-Control Debate Review Criminology & Public Policy You Be the Criminologist Key Terms T o millions of Americans, few things are more pervasive, more frightening, more real today than violent crime and the fear of being assaulted, mugged, robbed, or raped The fear of being victimized by criminal attack has touched us all in some way People are fleeing their residences in cities to the expected safety of suburban living Residents of many 10 ■ Law enforcement officers examine evidence adjacent to the remains of a SUV driven by husband and wife terrorists in San Bernardino, California, December 3, 2015 areas will not go out on the street at night Others have added bars and extra locks to windows and doors in their homes Bus drivers in major cities not carry cash because incidents of robbery have been so frequent In some areas, local citizens patrol the streets at night to attain the safety they feel has not been provided 213 www.downloadslide.net And not all violent crimes happen between strangers, on street corners, or in neighborhoods perceived to be dangerous The prevalence of “relationship violence” in high school and college is very significant and, unfortunately, receives scant attention In one study, representative of others, researchers concluded that relationship violence of all kinds is commonly experienced by college students (both male and female) and that nearly 50 percent of all college students report having experience relationship violence at some point in time There are numerous conflicting definitions of criminal violence as a class of behavior Police, prosecutors, jurists, federal agents, local detention officials, and behavioral scientists all hold somewhat different viewpoints as to what constitutes acts of violence All would probably agree, however—as the police reports make abundantly clear—that criminal violence involves the use of or the threat of force on a victim by an offender.1 The penal law defines types of violent crime, and each is distinguished by a particular set of elements We concentrate on criminological characteristics: the frequency with which each type of violent crime is committed, the methods used in its commission, and its distribution through time and place We also examine the people who commit the offense and those who are its victims If we can determine when, where, and how a specific type of crime is likely to be committed, we will be in a better position to reduce the incidence of that crime by devising appropriate strategies to prevent it We begin with homicide, since the taking of life is the most serious harm one human being can inflict on another Serious attacks that fall short of homicide are assaults of various kinds, including sexual assault (rape) and the forceful taking of property from another person (robbery) Other patterns of violence are not defined as such in the penal codes but are so important in practice as to require separate discussion Family-related violence and terrorism, both of which encompass a variety of crimes, fall into this category 214 PART 3 Types of Crimes ■ Yolanda Manuel, mother of seven-year-old sexual assault and murder victim Sherrice Iverson, speaks at a rally on the U.C Berkeley campus, 1998 The rally was staged to protest the presence on the Berkeley campus of sophomore David Cash, who watched and did virtually nothing as a friend, Jeremy Strohmeyer, dragged Sherrice into a Las Vegas casino bathroom stall where he killed her HOMICIDE Homicide is the killing of one human being by another Some homicides are sanctioned by law In this category of justifiable homicide, we find homicides committed by law enforcement officers in the course of carrying out their duties, homicides committed by soldiers in combat, and homicides committed by a home owner who has no recourse other than to kill an intruder who threatens the lives of family members Criminologists are most interested in criminal homicides—unlawful killings, without justification or excuse Criminal homicides are subdivided into three separate categories: murder, manslaughter, and negligent homicide Murder At common law, murder was defined as the intentional killing of another person with malice aforethought Courts have struggled with an exact definition of “malice.” To describe it, they have used terms such as “evil mind” and “abandoned www.downloadslide.net and malignant heart.” Actually, malice is a very simple concept It is the defendant’s awareness that he or she had no right to kill but intended to kill anyway.2 Originally the malice had to be “aforethought”: The person had to have killed after some contemplation, rather than on the spur of the moment The concept eventually became meaningless because some courts considered even a few seconds sufficient to establish forethought The dividing line between planned and spur-of-the-moment killings disappeared But many legislators believed contemplation was an appropriate concept, because it allowed us to distinguish the various types of murder They reintroduced it, calling it “premeditation and deliberation.” A premeditated, deliberate, intentional killing became murder in the first degree; an intentional killing without premeditation and deliberation became murder in the second degree States that had the death penalty reserved it for murder in the first degree Some state statutes listed particular means of committing murder as indicative of premeditation and deliberation, such as killing by poison or by lying in wait More recently, the charge of murder in the first degree has been reserved for the killing of a law enforcement officer or of a corrections officer and for the killing of any person by a prisoner serving a life sentence Among the most serious forms of murder is assassination, the killing of a head of state or government or of an otherwise highly visible figure A special form of murder, felony murder, requires no intention to kill It requires, instead, the intention to commit some other felony, such as robbery or rape, and the death of a person during the commission of or flight from that felony Even accomplices are guilty of felony murder when one of their associates has caused a death For example, while A and B are holding up a gas station attendant, A fires a warning shot, and the bullet ricochets and kills a passerby Both A and B are guilty of felony murder The rule originated in England centuries ago, when death sentences were imposed for all felonies, so it made no difference whether a perpetrator actually intended to kill or merely to rob Most states today apply the felony murder rule only when the underlying felony is a life-endangering one, such as arson, rape, or robbery the heat of passion or in response to strong provocation Persons who kill under extreme provocation cannot make rational decisions about whether they have a right to kill They therefore act without the necessary malice.3 Just as passion, fright, fear, or consternation may affect a person’s capacity to act rationally, so may drugs or alcohol In some states, a charge of murder may be reduced to voluntary manslaughter when the defendant was so grossly intoxicated as not to be fully aware of the implications of his or her actions All voluntary- manslaughter cases have one thing in common: The defendant’s awareness of the unlawfulness of the act was dulled or grossly reduced by shock, fright, consternation, or intoxication Involuntary Manslaughter A crime is designated as involuntary manslaughter when a person has caused the death of another unintentionally but recklessly by consciously disregarding a substantial and unjustifiable risk that endangered another person’s life Many states have created an additional category, negligent homicide, to establish criminal liability for grossly negligent killing in situations where the offender assumed a lesser risk Manslaughter plays an increasingly prominent role in our society, with its high concentrations of population, high-tech risks, and chemical and even nuclear dangers The reach of the crime of involuntary manslaughter was clearly demonstrated in the 1942 Coconut Grove disaster in Boston, in which 491 people perished because of a nightclub owner’s negligence in creating fire hazards The nightclub was overcrowded, it was furnished and decorated with highly flammable materials, and exits were blocked The court ruled that a reasonable person would have recognized the risk If the defendant is so “stupid” as not to have recognized the risk, he is nevertheless guilty of manslaughter.4 The Extent of Homicide Social scientists who look at homicide have a different perspective from that of the legislators who define such crimes Social scientists are concerned with rates and patterns of criminal activities Manslaughter Homicide Rates in the United States Today Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of another person without malice Manslaughter may be either voluntary or involuntary The murder rate in the United States is high, but steadily declining Voluntary Manslaughter Voluntary manslaughter is a killing committed intentionally but without malice—for example, in • An estimated 14,249 persons were murdered nationwide in 2014 This was a 0.5 percent decrease from the 2013 estimate, a 3.2 percent decrease from the 2010 figure, and a 14.9 percent drop from the number in 2005 Chapter 10 Violent Crimes 215 www.downloadslide.net TABLE 10.1 Violent Crimes1 Per 100,000 Population—2007 Rank3 (X) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 State Rate2 District of Columbia South Carolina Tennessee Nevada Louisiana Florida Delaware New Mexico Alaska Maryland Michigan Illinois Arkansas California Texas Missouri Oklahoma Georgia Arizona North Carolina Kansas Alabama Massachusetts Pennsylvania New York Colorado Ohio Indiana Washington New Jersey Nebraska Kentucky Iowa Mississippi Wisconsin Minnesota Oregon Montana West Virginia Hawaii Virginia Connecticut Idaho Wyoming Utah Rhode Island South Dakota North Dakota New Hampshire Vermont Maine 1,414 788 753 751 730 723 689 664 661 642 536 533 529 523 511 505 500 493 483 466 453 448 432 417 414 348 343 334 333 329 302 295 295 291 291 289 288 288 275 273 270 256 239 239 235 227 169 142 137 124 118 Symbol X Not applicable Notes: 1Estimated number of violent crimes, which includes murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault Based on Census Bureau estimates as of July For quality of ranking data see Crime in the United States, 2007, “Caution against Ranking.” An estimated 1,165,383 violent crimes occurred nationwide in 2014, a decrease of 0.2 percent from the 2013 estimate SOURCE: U.S Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, annual https://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/cius2007/data/ table_05.html 216 PART 3 Types of Crimes • In 2014, there were 4.5 murders per 100,000 people The murder rate fell 1.2 percent in 2014 compared with the 2013 rate The murder rate was down from the rates in 2010 (6.1 percent) and 2005 (20.8 percent) • Approximately 46.0 percent of all murders were reported in the South, 20.5 percent were reported in the Midwest, 20.5 percent were reported in the West, and 13.1 percent were reported in the Northeast Homicide Rates over Time Researchers have asked what happens to homicide rates over time when the composition of the population changes Some scholars have found that changes in age and race structure play a modest role in explaining crime trends during the last several decades According to James Fox, the age-race-sex structure accounted for about 10 percent of the 1990s decline in homicide rates, and Steven Levitt found that changes in the age distribution explain between 15 and 20 percent of variance in crime rates between 1960 and 1980 and between 1980 and 1995 Roland Chilton, using data on offenses committed in Chicago between 1960 and 1980 and census data for those years, found that about 20 percent of the total increase in homicide rates could be explained by increases in the nonwhite male population The same correlation is found in most major cities in the United States Chilton argues that the problem will remain because of the poverty and demoralization of the groups involved.5 In a 1996 article, “Work,” sociologist William Julius Wilson explains why America’s ghettos have descended into “ever-deeper poverty and misery.” According to him, for the first time in the 20th century, a significant majority of adults in many inner-city neighborhoods are not working in a typical week Inner cities have always featured high levels of poverty, but the current levels of joblessness in some neighborhoods are unprecedented For example, in the famous black-belt neighborhood of Washington Park on Chicago’s South Side, a majority of adults had jobs in 1950; by 1990, only in worked in a typical week High neighborhood joblessness has a far more devastating effect than high neighborhood poverty A neighborhood in which people are poor but employed is different from a neighborhood in which people are poor and jobless Many of today’s problems in the inner-city neighborhoods—crime, family dissolution, welfare—are fundamentally a consequence of the disappearance of work.6 Until conditions change, what has been poignantly referred to as “the subculture of exasperation” will continue to produce a high homicide rate www.downloadslide.net among nonwhite inner-city males.7 Coramae Mann has found that although black women make up about 11 percent of the female population in the United States, they are arrested for three-fourths of all homicides committed by females She argues that given such a disproportionate involvement in violent crime, one has to question whether the subculture of exasperation alone is entirely responsible.8 But so few studies have been done on the subject that we cannot reach any definitive conclusion Other investigators agree that homicide rates cannot be explained solely by factors such as poverty; the rates are also significantly associated with cultural approval of a resort to violence The Nature of Homicide Let us take a closer look at killers and their victims and see how they are related to each other In the 1950s, Marvin Wolfgang studied homicide situations, perpetrators, and victims in the Philadelphia area Victims and offenders were predominantly young black adults of low socioeconomic status The offenses were committed in the inner city; they occurred primarily in the home of the victim or offender, on weekends, in the evening hours, and among friends or acquaintances Building on the pioneering work of Hans von Hentig,9 Wolfgang found that many of the victims had actually initiated the social interaction that led to the homicidal response, in either a direct or subliminal way He coined the term victim precipitation for such instances, which may account for as many as a quarter to a half of all intentional homicides In such cases, it is the victim who, by insinuation, bodily movement, verbal incitement, or the actual use of physical force, initiates a series of events that results in his or her own death For example: During an argument in which a male called a female many vile names, she tried to telephone the police He grabbed the phone from her hands, knocked her down, kicked her, and hit her with a tire gauge She ran to the kitchen, grabbed a butcher knife, and stabbed him in the stomach.10 A study by Richard Felson and Steven Messner found that victim precipitation is more often seen in cases where women kill their husbands as opposed to incidents in which men kill their wives However, males tend to be more violent than females in their killing methods.11 Other studies have provided additional insight into the patterns of homicide Robert Silverman and Leslie Kennedy demonstrated that gender relationships, age, means of commission of the act, and location vary with relational distance, ranging from closest relatives (lovers, spouses) to total strangers.12 Margaret Zahn and Philip Sagi have developed a model that distinguishes among homicides on the basis of characteristics of victims, offenders, location, method of attack, and presence of witnesses They conclude that all these characteristics and variables serve to differentiate four categories of homicides: (1) those within the family, (2) those among friends and acquaintances, (3) stranger homicides associated with felonies, and (4) stranger homicides not associated with felonies.13 Stranger Homicides The rate of stranger homicide—a killing in which killer and victim have had no known previous contact—was 14 percent in 2010.14 Marc Riedel, however, found these stranger homicide rates average to be considerably understated The true figures, according to Riedel, ranged from 14 to 29 percent.15 Furthermore, the impact of stranger homicides on the quality of urban life—especially the fear of crime they engender—is far greater than their relatively small numbers would suggest.16 Relatives and Acquaintances A significant percentage of all homicides occurs among relatives and acquaintances (Table 10.2).17 One study found that 44 percent of the victims were in intimate relationships with their killers, 26 percent were friends and acquaintances, 11 percent were the offenders’ own children, and only 7.5 percent were strangers Of these homicides, those in which women killed their mates have received particular attention Criminologists take special interest in the factors behind such crimes.18 Researchers have found a high incidence of long-term abuse suffered by women who subsequently kill their mates.19 They also suggest that mate homicides are the result of a husband’s efforts to control his wife and the wife’s efforts to retain her independence.20 Other recent trends are also noteworthy: One study found an increase in the number of women who kill in domestic encounters, more planned killings, and less acceptance of self-defense as a motive in such cases.21 Children are also at risk of death at the hands of family members Research suggests that as the age of the child victim increases, so does the level of violence used to fatally injure the child.22 Also, the closer the family relationship to the victim (e.g., mother and child), the more passive the form of homicide (e.g., asphyxiation or abandonment), whereas the more distant a relative is from the victim, the more violent the method used (e.g., stabbing).23 In most murders of a child under age 15, a family member killed the child, while murder victims ages 15 to 17 are more likely to be killed by an acquaintance of the victim or by someone unknown to the law enforcement authorities.24 Whether killed by a family member or an acquaintance, boys are more often the victims of violent deaths than are girls.25 Chapter 10 Violent Crimes DID YOU KNOW? . . that between 1980 and 1997, nearly 38,000 juveniles were murdered in the United States? 217 www.downloadslide.net TABLE 10.2 Murder by Relationship,* 2010 Relationship Number of Murders Husband 99 Wife 539 Mother 133 Father 142 Son 204 Daughter 198 Brother 94 Sister 21 Other family Acquaintance 281 2,416 Friend 331 Boyfriend 151 Girlfriend 414 Neighbor 105 Employee Employer Stranger 1,381 Unknown 5,440 Total Murder Victims 11,961 *Relationship is that of victim to offender Note: The relationship categories of husband and wife include both common-law and ex-spouses The categories of mother, father, sister, brother, son, and daughter include stepparents, stepchildren, and stepsiblings The category of acquaintance includes homosexual relationships and the composite category of other known to victim SOURCE: U.S Department of Justice—Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2014; available at https:// www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2014/crime-in -the-u.s.-2014/tables/expanded-homicide-data/expanded _homicide_data_table_10_murder_circumstances_by _relationship_2014.xls Young and Old Perpetrators Not surprisingly, the very young and the elderly have low homicide rates In 2010, 802 murder charges were placed against youngsters under 18, but this figure does not include the number of homicides in which the young killers were dealt with by juvenile courts or welfare agencies The elderly, too, are underrepresented People age 55 and older accounted for under five percent of all murders in 2010.26 218 PART 3 Types of Crimes Homicide without Apparent Motive In most homicides, the killer has a motive or a reason for killing the victim Popular fiction tells us that detectives tend to consider a case solved if they can establish the motive But research shows that in a substantial number of murders, the motive remains unclear The “unmotivated” murderers are a puzzle—and they constitute 25 percent of all homicide offenders Though in most respects the killers without motive are similar to those who kill for a reason, they are more likely to have “(1) no history of alcohol abuse; (2) a recent release from prison; (3) claims of amnesia for the crime; (4) denial of the crime; and (5) a tendency to exhibit psychotic behavior following the crime and to be assessed not guilty of the crime due to mental illness.”27 Serial and Mass Murders Criminological researchers have paid special attention to two types of murder that are particularly disturbing to the community: serial murder, the killing of several victims over a period of time, and mass murder, the killing of multiple victims in one event or in very quick succession Between 1970 and 1993, U.S police knew of approximately 125 cases of multiple homicides The literature on the subject is enormous.28 Some serial murderers have become infamous Theodore “Ted” Bundy, law student and former crime commission staff member, killed between 19 and 36 young women in the northwestern states and Florida David Berkowitz, the “Son of Sam,” killed young women in New York Douglas Clark, the “Sunset Strip killer,” killed between and 50 prostitutes in Hollywood The “Green River killer” of Seattle may have killed more than 45 victims In the Midwest, Jeffrey Dahmer preserved, and took Polaroid photographs of, the mutilated body parts of his 11 to 17 victims (Chapter 4); and on Long Island, Joel Rifkin collected souvenirs—a shoe, an earring, a driver’s license—from the more than 13 streetwalkers he claimed as his victims In just one week in June 1996, two men, both suspected of being serial killers, were captured in New York City Heriberto Seda, 28, lived a largely solitary life, except for those moments when he would emerge from the apartment he shared with his mother and sister The self-proclaimed New York Zodiac Killer allegedly shot eight people, killing three, in two separate crime waves (in 1990, then again during 1992 and 1993) Larry Stevens, 31, who also lived with his mother, would allegedly trick elderly people into letting him into their homes He would beat them or throw them down stairs, and then rob them He is suspected of killing at least two elderly persons.29 Pedro Alonso Lopez, however, is considered the deadliest serial killer of all time, having killed over 300 people in Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador Lopez www.downloadslide.net ■ Serial killer Richard Kuklinski, known as the Iceman, shown here in his arrest mug shot has been dubbed the “Monster of the Andes.”30 In 1999, suspected serial killer Angel Leonicio Reyes Maturino Resendez was finally captured Resendez was referred to as the “railroad killer” because all his slayings occurred near railroad tracks.31 Although the most notorious serial killers are men, female serial killers exist They are considered to be more difficult to apprehend and to have more complex motivations than their male counterparts.32 Throughout the 1990s, an unusual number of mass murders occurred In 1991, an unemployed young man drove his pickup through the glass window of a Texas café and opened fire with a semiautomatic pistol, leaving 22 dead James Huberty walked into a McDonald’s in California and killed 20 people Colin Ferguson boarded a train where he killed and wounded 17 in the Long Island massacre of 1993 In 1996, Thomas Hamilton entered a school in Dunblane, Scotland, shot and killed 16 kindergarten students and their teacher, and wounded 12 others.33 In 1998, of the 16 persons shot at a Jonesboro, Arkansas, middle school died In 1999, there were 15 victims of a massacre at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, and 7 victims of a mass shooting at a Baptist church in Fort Worth, Texas Other 1999 incidents included dead in Pelham, Alabama; 12 dead in Atlanta, Georgia; and dead in Salt Lake City, Utah In 2000, masked gunmen entered a Philadelphia crack house and shot 10 people, killing In 2001, ■ A victim of the infamous Washington, D.C., area snipers This scene of the 2002 murder rampage is the Silver Spring post office, located next to the Leisure World retirement community Chapter 10 Violent Crimes 219 www.downloadslide.net unprecedented terror attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City killed thousands and sent shock waves throughout the world In 2002, a New Jersey policeman went on a shooting rampage, killing people before killing himself Other incidents in 2002 included 18 killed in a school shooting in Erfurt, Germany; children drowned in Texas; 5 killed in Los Angeles; killed in San Bruno, California; and killed in Long Beach, California The two “Beltway” snipers, John Muhammad and John Lee Malvo, have been linked to 19 shootings and 13 deaths—in Washington, D.C., Maryland, Virginia, Louisiana, Georgia, and Alabama Dennis Rader (aka the BTK Killer) has been linked to 10 murders committed between 1974 and 1991 Killing rampages seem to be on the rise Over the past 50 years, there has been a nearly tenfold increase in the number of massacres, to between seven and eight annually Mass murders in the workplace are also far from rare (Table 10.3) From 1992 to 1996, more than 1,000 workplace homicides occurred annually The number of workplace homicides has declined in recent years, however, from 860 in 1997 to 609 in 2002.34 As of 2010, the number of workplace homicides declined to 526 San Franciscan failed businessman Gian Luigi Ferri, who blamed lawyers for his problems, burst into the 34th-floor law office where he had been a client and, with two pistols, killed persons working in the firm Disgruntled employee Paul Calder returned eight months after being fired to kill and wound at a Tampa insurance company In 1999, day trader Mark O Barton, after losing over $100,000 in the stock market in almost two months, bludgeoned his wife and two children to death He then drove to an office complex in the Buckhead district of Atlanta There he opened fire inside two brokerage firms where he had been employed Barton ■ A mural made in honor of the memory of more than 140 children killed between 1995 and 2000 by a mass murderer in Pereira, Colombia 220 PART 3 Types of Crimes killed a total of 13 people before committing suicide as police were closing in on him.35 The U.S Postal Service, where 38 employees died violently between 1986 and 1993, continues to look into ways to reduce employer-employee tension, especially when layoffs are imminent.36 It is popularly believed that multiple murderers are mentally ill; their offenses, after all, are often quite bizarre In many such cases, psychiatrists have found severe pathology.37 Yet juries are reluctant to find these offenders not guilty by reason of insanity Albert Fish, who cooked and ate the children he murdered, died in the electric chair.38 Edmund Kemper, who killed hitchhikers as well as his own mother (he used her head as a dartboard), received a life term.39 Criminologists Jack Levin and James Fox not agree with the hypothesis that all mass and serial murderers are mentally diseased (for example, psychotic) and therefore legally insane or incompetent On the contrary, they say, serial killers are sociopaths, persons who lack internal controls, disregard common values, and have an intense desire to dominate others But psychological characteristics alone cannot explain the actions of these people They are also influenced by the social environment in which they function: the openness of our society, the ease of travel, the availability of firearms, the lack of external controls and supervision, and the general friendliness and trust of Americans in dealing with each other and with strangers.40 The American public is fascinated with the phenomena of mass and serial murder.41 Levin and Fox suggest that the recent increase in mass and serial murders, despite a general decline in the murder rate, is to some extent attributable to the publicity given to mass murders and the resulting copycat phenomenon—the repetition of a crime as a result of the publicity it receives.42 When one person www.downloadslide.net Sosa, Sammy, 104 Souryal, Sam S., N–40, N–41 South, Steve J., N–12 Southwick, L., N–37 Sparks, R F., 35n Sparks, Richard F., 35n, 188, N–19, N–34 Spear, Robert, N–1 Speck, Richard Franklin, 74 Speckart, George, N–36 Spelman, William, N–21 Spencer, J., N–40 Spergel, Irving A., N–14, N–15, N–23 Spiegel, Ulrich, N–12 Spohn, Cassia C., N–25 Spunt, Barry, N–36 Spurzheim, Johann Kaspar, 59, 68 Squitieri, Tom, N–3 Sroufe, L., N–8 Stack, Susan A., N–6 Stalin, Joseph, 26 Stamatel, Janet, 169, 169n Stan, Adele M., N–38 Starkman, Dean, N–34 Staten, Clark, N–25 Stattin, Hakan, N–6 Steele, B F., N–24 Steele, C M., N–37 Steffens, Lincoln, 317 Steffensmeier, Darrell J., 283, N–4, N–17, N–30, N–32 Steffy, Richard A., N–38 Steinbeck, John, 139 Steinberg, Jacques, 205n Stenning, Phillip C., N–22 Stephens, Richard C., N–36 Stephenson, Philip, N–36 Stevens, Larry, 218 Stewart, Martha, 49, 288 Stewart, Potter, N–38 Stiglitz, Joseph, N–1 Stillwell, Gary, N–36 Stoddard, Jackie, N–7 Stolberg, Mary M., N–26 Stone, William E., N–21 Straus, Murray A., 226, N–24, N–37 Strodtbeck, Fred L., N–12, N–16 Strohmeyer, Jeremy, 214 Stuntz, William J., 23 Sullivan, Christopher J., N–17 Sullivan, John P., N–14 Sullivan, Mark, 272 Summers, Lawrence, 309 Sumner, Maggie, N–37 I-12 Name Index Sundberg, Jacob W F., 55n Supancic, Michael, N–11 Sutherland, Edwin H., 12, 17–19, 34, 66, 119, 128, 262, 263, 310, 317, N–1, N–2, N–6, N–12, N–20, N–31, N–32, N–33 Sutherland, Edwin H., 22, 23 Sutherland, Kiefer, 12, 18–19 Swanson, James W., N–7 Swazzi, Vincent, 283 Swift, Carolyn F., N–24 Swiss, Shana, N–42 Sykes, Alan O., N–33 Sykes, Gresham M., N–22 T Takagi, Paul, 184 Takahashi, Yoshiko, 190, N–20 Talic, Momir, 355 Tannenbaum, Frank, 174, N–17 Tarde, Gabriel, 66, 68, 183, N–6 Tata, Ratan, 14, 15 Tavares, Cynthia, 137n Taylor, Ian, 184, N–11, N–19, N–33 Taylor, Jim, 303 Taylor, Kathy, 303 Taylor, Max, N–20 Taylor, Ralph B., 117, N–11 Taylor, Robert W., N–30 Teague, Jeffrey Allen, 271 Tedeschi, James T., 200, 225, N–6, N–21, N–24 Tennenbaum, Daniel J., 94, N–9 Tennyson, Ray, N–13 Terlouw, Gert-Jan, N–3, N–40 Terrill, Richard J., N–39, N–40 Tesoriero, James M., N–14, N–28 Tewksbury, R., 163n Thomas, Charles W., N–18 Thomas, Jim, N–19 Thomas, William I., 115, 174, N–17 Thompson, Bill, N–39 Thompson, Carol Y., N–3 Thompson, Dick, N–6 Thompson, Kevin M., 107, N–13 Thompson, Marilyn W., N–32 Thornberry, Terence P., 47, 107, 166, N–3, N–10, N–13, N–14, N–16, N–17, N–25, N–28 Thrasher, Frederick M., N–11 Thurman, Tracey, 227 Tillman, Robert, N–34 Tittle, Charles R., 49, 107, N–4, N–10, N–12, N–17, N–18 Titus, Richard M., N–22, N–32 Tobias, Andrew, N–32 Toby, Jackson, 155, 160, 170, N–15, N–19 Toch, Hans, N–6 Tompkins, John S., N–32 Tonry, Michael, N–12, N–19, N–20, N–21, N–22, N–23, N–30, N–32, N–34 Topinard, Paul, 11, N–1 Torrio, Johnny, 235 Toufexis, Anastasia, N–10 Tracy, Paul E., 46, 300, N–3, N–32 Trafficante, Santo, Jr., 237 Travis, Gail, N–40 Treaster, Joseph B., N–14 Trebach, Arnold S., N–37 Tremblay, Richard E., N–9 Trice, Dawn Turner, N–34 Trickett, Alan, N–21 Triplett, Ruth A., N–4, N–18 Tromanhauser, Edward D., N–13 Tulloch, M I., N–9 Tunis, Sandra L., N–36 Turk, Austin T., 181, 182, N–18, N–19 Turnbull, Paul J., N–36 Turner, J W Cecil, N–29 Tzolov, Julian, 287 V van Bemmelen, J M., N–19 Van der Poel, Sari, N–37, N–38 van Dijk, Jan J M., N–39 Van Loh, Timothy D., N–17 Vaughn, Michael S., N–41 Vazsonyi, Alexander T., N–17 Verhovek, Sam Howe, N–24, N–28 Verrett, Mary Nell, 247 Verri, Pietro, 53 Victor, Hope R., N–35 Vieraitis, Lynne M., 189, N–10 Vieraitisand, L M., N–19 Villemez, Wayne J., 49, N–4, N–10 Virgil, 183 Virkkunen, Matti, 82, N–7 Visher, Christy A., N–3, N–36 Volavka, Jan, 84, N–7 Vold, George B., 180, N–5, N–18 www.downloadslide.net Volkman, Ernest, N–27 Voltaire, 53, 56 Voss, Harwin L., 129, N–5, N–13 Voss, Natalie D., N–30 W Wa, Kwai Ming, N–14 Waksal, Samuel, 292 Waksler, Frances Chaput, 13, 13n, N–1 Walder, Patrice, N–29 Waldo, G P., N–9 Waldorf, Dan, N–14, N–36 Walker, Lenore E., N–24 Walker, Samuel, N–28 Wallace, Marjorie, N–33 Waller, John B., Jr., N–28 Wallerstein, James S., 38, N–2 Wallis, Lynne, 106n Walsh, Anthony, N–18 Walston, James, N–27 Walt, Steven, N–33 Walton, Paul, 184, N–11, N–19, N–33 Waples, S J., N–2 Ward, David, N–18 Waring, Elin J., 317n, N–21, N–31 Warner, John, N–36 Warr, Mark, 120, N–12, N–13 Warren, Carol, N–18 Warren, Earl, 173 Washburn, S L., N–5 Wasik, John F., 230n Wasilchick, John, 197, 198n, N–20 Watanavanich, Prathan, N–34 Watkins, Sherron, 316 Watson, Sylvia M., N–8 Watters, Ricky, 162 Watts, W A., N–30 Weaver, Frances, N–29 Webster, Russell, N–36 Weekart, David P., N–11 Weeks, Susan L., N–31 Wegner, Norma, N–36 Weihofen, Henry, N–30 Weikart, David P., N–2 Weinberg, Bo, 235 Weinberg, George, 235 Weinberg, Richard, 79–80, N–7 Weiner, Neil Alan, N–13, N–24, N–25, N–36 Weis, Joseph G., 39, 167, N–3, N–17, N–35, N–36 Weisburd, David L., 31, 195, 317n, N–2, N–15, N–17, N–20, N–21, N–22, N–31, N–33, N–34 Weisel, Deborah, N–14 Weitzer, R., N–19 Wellford, Charles F., 178, N–17, N–18 Wells, L Edward, N–16 Wernz, Gerald W., N–32 Wertham, Frederic, 199, N–21 Weston, William, N–32, N–41 Wexler, Henry K., N–2 Whatley, Mark, N–25 Wheeler, Stanton, N–31, N–34 White, Dan, 80–81 White, Helene Raskin, N–11 Whittaker, David, N–12 Wiatrowski, Michael D., N–15 Widlake, Brian, N–34 Widom, Cathy Spatz, N–6, N–25 Wiegand, R Bruce, N–39 Wiegman, O., N–8 Wiersema, Brian, N–23, N–28 Wikström, Per-Olof H., N–21, N–41 Wild, Jonathan, 283 Wilkins, Leslie T., 35, N–2, N–41 Will, George F., 57n Williams, Daniel, N–1 Williams, Frank P., III, N–10, N–39 Williams, J Sherwood, N–13 Williams, Phil, N–26, N–42 Williams, Timothy L., N–32 Wilson, Colin, N–26 Wilson, Edward O., 76, N–6 Wilson, James Q., 43–45, 64, 64n., 79, 98, 255, 310, N–3, N–7, N–17, N–33 Wilson, Margo I., N–23, N–41 Wilson, Nanci Koser, N–4, N–23 Wilson, William Julius, 104, 216, N–10, N–23 Winerip, Michael, N–28 Winslow, Robert W., N–38 Winslow, Virginia, N–38 Wintemute, Garen, 255 Wise, Edward M., N–42 Wish, Eric, N–36 Wisniewski N., N–25 Witkin, Herman A., N–6 Wittekind, Janice E Clifford, N–17 Woessnar, Paul H., N–42 Wolf, Jim, N–1 Wolfe, Nancy T., N–4 Wolfgang, Marvin E., 42, 42n, 45, 61, 79, 128, 133, 200, 217, 310, 330, N–2, N–3, N–5, N–7, N–9, N–13, N–21, N–23, N–24, N–25, N–36 Wood, Peter B., N–37 Woodall, Ruth, N–29 Woodbury, Richard, N–28 Wooden, Wayne S., N–31 Woodiwiss, Michael, N–42 Wormith, J Stephen, N–9 Wortley, Richard, N–22 Wren, Christopher S., N–36 Wright, Bradley R Entner, 195, N–4, N–10, N–20 Wright, James D., N–28 Wright, John Paul, N–11 Wright, Richard T., 198, N–20, N–30 Wyle, Clement J., 38, N–2 Y Yang, Y., 83n, N–7 Yates, Andrea, 82 Yates, Michael, 137n Yeager, Peter Cleary, 310, N–31, N–33 Yeisley, Mark R., N–10 Yeudall, Lorne T., N–8 Yochelson, Samuel, 94, N–9 Young, Jock, 189, 190n, N–11, N–19, N–20, N–33 Young, Timothy R., N–34 Young, Vernetta D., N–4 Z Zahn, Margaret A., 217, N–23 Zawitz, Marianne W., N–28 Zellman, Goul, N–12 Zerilli, Joe, 237 Zillman, Dolf, N–38 Zimring, Franklin E., N–38 Zinberg, Norman E., N–35 Zineb, El Khazouni, N–24 Zion, Sidney, N–27 Znaniecki, Florian, 115, N–11 Zorza, Joan, N–25 Zuckerman, Laurence, N–41 Name Index I-13 www.downloadslide.net Subject Index Note: Italicized page numbers indicate material in captions, tables, and figures Page numbers followed by “n” indicate source notes A abolitionist criminology, 190 Academy of Experimental Criminology (AEC), 31 accommodate, 111 act requirement for crime, 26 act vs status, 26 failure to act, 26 actus reus, 28 addict robber, 234 adoption studies, 77–78 advance-fee loan See credit schemes Afghanistan opium trade, 5 African Americans culture conflict theory, 128 female gangs, 143–147, 151 gangs, 142–143 gangsta rap, 110 labeling theory, 173–179 race and crime, 49–50 After School Matters (ASM), 156 after-school programs, 156 age and crime, 43–47 aggravated assault, 220 aggression hormones, 82 instigators, 91 television violence, 90 aging-out phenomenon, 43 aircraft hijacking, 351–353 airplane hijacking, 5 alcohol and crime, 329–331 age and crime, 43–47 crime-related activities, 330–331 domestic violence, 25 driving under the influence (DUI), 18 fame, 18 legalization history, 329–330 victimization risks, 200 alcoholic robber, 234 Alcoholics Anonymous, 18 Algeria, crime rates, 169 allergies, food, 80 Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation (ALKQN), 140 I-14 Subject Index al Qaeda September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 5, 187 amateur thief, 277 America, law enforcement, 318 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 78 American Bar Association (ABA), 35 American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 177 American International Group (AIG), 10 American Law Institute, 92 American Society of Criminology (ASC), 67 Amish, 114 anarchist criminology, 190 Anglo-American law, 332 animal research, maternal deprivation studies, 88 anomie, 66, 102–103 Durkheim, 103 Durkheim on, 66 Merton, 103–104, 163 Messner and Rosenfeld, 111 Anonymous group, 326 Anti-Defamation League, 147 Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988, 320 anti-drunk-driving measures, 331 anti-personality disorder (APD), 83 anxious attachment, 89 armed robbery, 198 Armenians, 186 arms trafficking, 7–8 arrest, statistics, 35–37 arson, 283–284 art and cultural objects, 350–351 Arthur Andersen, LLP, 316 art theft, 263–264 Asian Boyz, 140 assassinations, 183 assault, 224–225 aggravated, 220 simple, 225 atavistic stigmata, 60, 61 attachment, as social bonds, 155 attachment theory, 88–89 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 84 Aum Shinrikyo, 123 Authority and social-ordermaintaining morality, 87 auto insurance, 272 aversive instigators, 91 B Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, 14 bait-and-switch advertising, 298 balkanization, 356 banking, dirty money/money laundering, 6–7 bankruptcy fraud, 293 battered child syndrome, 225 battery, 224 behavioral effects, 117 behavioral modeling, 89 belief, as social bonds, 156 Bernard L Madoff Investment Securities, 286 Big Brother/Big Sister programs, 119 Binet scale, 79 biochemical factors, 76, 80–82 biocriminologists, 76 biocriminology criticisms of, 84–85 defined, 76 evolution of modern, 76 biological determinism, 58–64 return to, 62–64 biology and criminality, 76–84 biochemical factors, 76, 80–82 biocriminology, 84–85 genetic factors, 76–78, 99 human nature role, 84–85 neurocriminology, 82–84 birth cohort, 44 Black P Stone Nation, 140 blaming victim, 200 Bloodline, 140 Bloods, 140 boat theft, 266–268 www.downloadslide.net boiler rooms, 293 boot camps, evidence-based policy on, 33 bootlegging, 330 born criminals, 60, 62, 76 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 186 bourgeoisie, 183, 185 brain studies EEG abnormalities, 83–84 neurocriminology, 67, 82–84 bribery, 300 British Crime Survey, 200–201 British Petroleum Deepwater Horizon explosion (2010), 11 BTK killer, 74 Buck v Bell, 56 Buddhism, destruction of cultural property, 8–9 Bulgaria, crime rates, 169 bullying, diet and, 80 Bureau of Justice Statistics, 37 burglars and burglary, 197–198 repeat victimization, 200–201 situational theories of crime, 197–198 burglary, 281–283 business infiltration, 7 business opportunity fraud, 298 C California, gangs, 139 California Department of Corrections (CDC), 141 California Psychological Inventory (CPI), 93, 94 Cambridge Study of Delinquent Development, 89, 166 capitalism, 183, 184, 188 capital punishment classical school and, 55 conflict theory, 180 execution methods, 69 pleasure/pain principle, 55 public punishment, 52, 53 carjacking, 265–266 case study, 34 causation requirement for crime, 27 Causes of Delinquency (Hirschi), 155 Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 20 changing boundaries, criminology business infiltration, 7 computer crime, 7 destruction of cultural property, 8–9 human trafficking, 8 illicit arms trafficking, 7–8 illicit drug trafficking, 5–6 money laundering, 6–7 terrorism, 5 check forging, 269 Chicago after-school programs, 156 establishment of juvenile courts, 177 Chicago Area Project (CAP), 118 Chicago School, 118 child abuse, 228–229 See also spouse abuse child pornography, 336 prevention of, 336 child prostitution, 342 child sex tourism, 342–343 child trafficking, 342–343 China crime rates, 136 dogs, 12–13 choice structuring properties, 195 chop shops, 265, 265 chromosomes defined, 76 XYY syndrome, 76–77 churning, 292 Cinderella fairy tale, 16 civil penalties, reliance on, 309–310 class and crime radical criminology, 184 strain theory, 102–113 classical school of criminology, 51–58 classic, textbook sociopath, 75 Class, State, and Crime (Quinney), 184 Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy, 32 cocaine, 133, 139–141, 142, 318 trafficking, 325 Code of Hammurabi (Babylon), 14 Code of the Street, 133 cognitive domain, Head Start, 112 Cohen v Miller, 136–137 college boys, 128–129 college campus crime, situational theories of crime, 198–199 Colombia, drug trafficking, 139 Colorado, Denver Youth Survey, 132 Commission on Obscenity and Pornography (1970), 337 commitment, as social bonds, 155–156 common scold, 26 Communist Manifesto (Marx), 183 community-based treatment programs evidence-based crime and justice policy, 32–33 just-community intervention approach in schools, 88 Community Tolerance Study, 108 comparative crime rates, 284 comparative criminology definition of, 344 goals of, 345 history of, 344–345 transnational crime, 5, 9, 21 violent crime, 349 comparative research culture-specific phenomena, 346 interdependent phenomena, 346 tools and resources, 346–347 Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act, 320 computer crime, 353 computer network break-ins, 277 concurrence requirement for crime, 28 condition, act vs., 26 conditioned free will, 84 conditioning theory, 94–95 Condition of the Working Class, The (Engels), 183 conduct norms, 121, 133 confidence games, 268 conflict model of law and crime, 15, 180 conflict theory, 179–182 comparison with other criminological perspectives, 173 conflict model of, 15 consensus model, 15, 180 criminology, 180–182 empirical evidence, 182 conformity defined, 161 stake, 160–161 Subject Index I-15 www.downloadslide.net consensus model of law and crime, 15, 180 constructive corporate culpability (CCC), 308, 309 consumer fraud, 298, 298 containment theory, 161 evaluation of, 164–165 “in your face” attitudes in football, 162 probability of deviance and, 161 tests of, 164 control theory, level of criminality, 167 convenience stores, situational theories of crime, 207 conventional morality (Kohlberg), 87 corn-based diet, 81 corner boys, 128–129 corporate compliance programs, 313 corporate crime, 286–316 addressing sensitive issues, 312 corporate fraud, 314–315 criminal law, 301–307 criminal liability, 310 culpability, 308–309 curbing, 313 effective legislation, 312–313 enforcing legislation, 312 environmental crimes, 311–313 frequency and problems, 301 future of, 313–316 investigation of, 310–311 liability, 307–308 reliance on civil penalties, 309–310 corporate criminal law, 301–307 corporate culpability, 308–309 corporate ethos (CE), 308, 308 corporate liability, 307–308 corporate policy (CP), 308, 308 corruption, 178, 300 and bribery, 354–355 and crime rule, drugproducing countries, 325 Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), 178 cortical arousal, 94 Costa Rica, crime rates, 169 counteraggression, 91 Cours de philosophie positive (Course in Positive Philosophy), 58 I-16 Subject Index Course in Positive Philosophy (Comte), 58 crack cocaine, 140, 141 crank, 324 credit card crimes, 269 credit card fraud, 269 credit schemes, 299 Credit Suisse, 287 crime committed by individuals, 289–291 computer, 353 concept of, 13–14 consensus and conflict views of, 14–17 corporate, 301–316 dark figure of, 37 defenses for, 28–29 elements of, 190 fame, 18 measuring, 29–35 measuring characteristics of, 39–50 natural disasters, 4 nature and extent of, 35–39 occupational, 291 physique for, 64 situational theories of, 193–199 Stone age, 54–55 subcultural theories in, 128–130 transnational, 5, 9, 21 typologies of, 29 white-collar, 288–300 Crime and the American Dream (Messner and Rosenfeld), 110 crimen innominatum See deviate sexual intercourse crime prevention family, 89, 170 situational theories of, 203–209 social control theory, 170–171 crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), 203 crimes credit card, 269 family-related, 225–230 property, 259–284 public order, 318–340 violent, 213–257 crimes against humanity, 186, 187 crimes against property, 36 See also property crimes crimes against the person, 36 See also violent crimes crime trends, 39–41 crime waves, 22–23 Criminal and His Victim, The (von Hentig), 199 criminal careers, 30, 44, 45, 165 criminal codes, 29 criminal complexity, 276 Criminal Element in German Folk Tales, 16 criminal event, components of, 196 criminal homicides, 214 Criminality and Economic Conditions (Bonger), 183 criminal justice movement, 184 criminal justice problem, 281 criminal justice specialists, 20 criminal justice system, 19 See also law and legal system; U.S Supreme Court criminology, 20 establishment of juvenile courts, 177 criminal liability, 310 Criminal Man, The (Darwin), 59 criminals measuring characteristics of, 42–50 psychological studies of, 65 psychology, pioneers in, 65, 68 responsibility, legal judgments of, 93 criminal traits, 58–64 Criminological Significance of the Grimms’ Fairy Tales, 16 criminologists, 12 criminology breaking of laws, 17–18 changing boundaries of, 4–11 comparison of perspectives, 173 conflict theory, 180–182 criminal justice system, 19, 20 defined, 12 historical and contemporary, 66–67 ingredients of crime, 25–28 making of laws, 12–17 measuring characteristics of, 42–50 measuring crime, 29–35 missing victim, 199 www.downloadslide.net nature and extent of crime, 35–39 reach of, 9–11 reactions to breaking of laws, 18–21 research informing policy, 21–22 search for causes of crime, 12 subcultural theories in, 128–130 typologies of, 29 crimping See kidnapping Crips, 140–141 cruel and unusual punishment, 153, 154 cult of domesticity, 48 cults, 147 cultural deviance theories, 102, 113–124, 130, 139 cults, 122–123, 147 culture conflict theory, 114, 121–123, 128 defined, 102 differential association theory, 114, 128, 130 nature of cultural deviance, 114–115 social disorganization theory, 114, 128, 130 cultural transmission, 117 culture conflict theory, 114, 121–123, 128 culture of poverty (Lewis), 104 culture-specific phenomena, 346 cyberporn, 336 cybersmut, 340 cyber vandals, 277 D Dan White’s defense, 81 Darfur, 186, 187 dark figure of crime, 37 data collection methods case studies, 34 experiment, 31–33 nonparticipant observation, 30, 33–34 participant observation, 30, 33–34 survey, 30–34 using available data in research, 34 data, defined, 30 death penalty See capital punishment deceptive advertising, 298 defense mechanisms, 158 defenses, insanity, 28 delayed gratification, 138 delinquency See also gangs Cohen’s theory, 129–130 control mechanisms, failure of, 158–160 differential opportunity theory, 130, 133 opportunity theory, tests of, 132–133 stake conformity, 160–161 subcultural theories in, 128–130 delinquent, 24 See also Scared Straight boys, 128–129 subculture, 143–147 delusional instigators, 92 Democratic Republic, crime rates, 168 Denmark brain studies, 84 genetic studies, 77–78 Denver Youth Survey, 132 depression, in biocriminology, 76 developmental/life course theory, 165–167 deviance, 12–13, 115 deviant behavior, 108 funnel of, 13 labeling theory, 174 making of laws, 12 probability of, in containment theory, 161 deviant behavior, modes of, 107 deviate sexual intercourse, 332 diet, in biocriminology, 76–77 differential associationreinforcement, 92 differential association theory, 114, 119–120, 128, 130 evaluation of, 120–121 Sutherland’s, 119 tests of, 120 differential opportunity theory, 130, 133 evaluation of, 133 tests of, 132–133 direct control, 164 direct experience, in social learning theory, 91–92 dirty money See money laundering disaster fraud, 275 disasters ecocide, 11 natural, 4 Disney World, phantom crime prevention, 203 displacement, in situational crime prevention, 209 Division of Labor (Durkheim), 66 dizygotic (DZ) twins, 77 domestic violence, 25 Dominican Republic, drugtrafficking organizations (DTOs), 139 Draft Code of Crimes, 355–356 dramatization of evil (Tannenbaum), 174 drift, 158 drive-by shootings, 140, 142–143, 146, 147 driving under the influence (DUI), 18 dropout-delinquency relationship, 129 drug abuse and crime, 319–329 age and crime, 43–47 crime-related activities, 324–325, 325 domestic violence, 25 drug control, 325–329, 327 drug trafficking, 126, 139, 142, 145 extent of, 321, 322 fame, 18 history of, 319–321 nature and extent of crime, 35–39 patterns of, 321–324 drug control education, 329 legalization, 329 treatment, 326–329 drug-crime relationship, 324 Drug-Free School Zone, 19 drug-free society, 329 drug mule, 319 drug smuggling, 320 Drug Use Forecasting, 324 drunk driving, 330–331 due process, 173 E East Jersey State Prison (New Jersey), Juvenile Awareness Program/Scared Straight, 32 ecocide, 11 ecology, 115 Subject Index I-17 www.downloadslide.net economic effects, 116–117 economic globalization, 345 economic issues collapse of economic order under Marxist theory, 188–189 economic choice theory, 194 social disorganization theory, 114 ectomorph, 62 EEG (electroencephalogram) studies, 83–84 ego, 85 18th Street National, 140 Eight Trey Gangster Crips, 139 elder abuse, 230 embezzlement, 300 emotional deficits, 93 empirical research comparable problems, 347 compatible research methods, 347–348 sources of information, 347 employee-related thefts, 300 endomorph, 62, 64 enforcing legislation, 312 environmental crime, 311–313, 353 addressing sensitive issues, 312 effective legislation, 312–313 enforcing legislation, 312 environmental criminology, 193–194 environmental disasters, 11 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 311 equal protection, 173 ethical review boards (ERBs), 35 ethics and researcher, 34–35 ethnic cleansing, 186 eugenics, 63 European Union Operation Atalanta, 267 evolutionism, 59 experiment, 31 experimental criminology, 25 explicit sexual material, 337–338 extroversion, 94 Exxon Valdez oil spill (1989), 11, 301, 312 F fairy tales, 16–17 false pretenses, obtaining property by, 268 I-18 Subject Index family attachment theory, 88–89 delinquency and family atmosphere, 89 maternal deprivation and attachment theory, 88–89 parent-training programs, 169–170 role in crime prevention, 170 family-related crime, 225–230 child abuse, 228–229 elder abuse, 230 relationship violence, 227–228 spouse abuse, 225–227 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 35, 264, 293 National Joint Task Force, 126 Federal Bureau of Prisons, 34 Federal drug control, 326, 327 Federal Witness Protection Program, 237 felicific calculus, 57 felonies, 28 felony murder, 215 female gangs, 143–147, 151, 157 Female Offender, The (Lombroso and Ferrero), 48 feminism, 189 fence, 283 field experiment, 31 Fifth Amendment, 23 Finland, hypoglycemia and crime, 81–82 firearm-related offenses, 252–253 Florencia, 141 food additives and dyes, 80–81 food allergies, 80 football, “in your face” attitude, 162 foreign lottrey schemes, 299 Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs), 246 Fourteenth Amendment, 173 Fourth Amendment, 23 fraud, 268–274 check forgery, 268–269 confidence games and, 268 credit card crimes, 269 false pretenses, obtaining property by, 268 against government, 293–298 insurance fraud, 269–274 medical, 272 mortgage, 270–272 fraudulent bankruptcy, 354 freedom of religion rights, 145 free will, 52, 58, 59, 61, 65, 67 French penal code, 56 French Revolution of 1789, 53–54, 56 Fresno Bulldogs, 141 Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS Church), 122 fundamental psycholegal error, 96 G gang murder, 223 gangs clothing and apparel, 149 Cohen’s theory, 129–130 differential association theory, 114, 119–120, 128, 130 differential opportunity theory, 130, 133 female, 143–147, 151, 157 focal concerns of members, 134–139 gangs and parents, 148–149 guns and gangs, 142–143 Miller’s theory, 134–139 motorcycle gangs, 114, 126 street gangs, 140–142 subculture of violence, 133–134 tattoos, 149 gangsta rap, 110, 149 Gangster Disciples, 141 gender and crime, 47–49 female gangs, 33–34, 143–147, 151, 157 juvenile offenders, 47 general strain theory, 111 general theory of crime, 167–169 General Theory of Crime, A (Hirschi and Gottfredson), 167, 168 genetics and criminality adoption studies, 77–78 controversy over violence and genes, 78–79 environment vs., 79–80 IQ debate, 79–80 twin studies, 77 XYY syndrome, 76–77 genocide, 21, 186–187 geography of crime, 201–202 www.downloadslide.net Germany crime rates, 168 fronts for terrorism, 7 genetic studies, 77 Grimm brother fairy tales, 16 Nazi, 184, 186 Girls in the Gang, The (Campbell), 151 global collaboration, 345 globalization vs ethnic fragmentation, 356 Global Report on Crime and Justice, 347 global sexual slavery, 334–335 global village, 21 advantages and disadvantages, 345 GMDC (George Mochen Detention Center), 142 “Good boy” morality, 87 Good Samaritan, 26 governmental control criminal liability, 310 reliance on civil penalties, 309–310 government-related fraud, 298 graffiti, 149 Great Britain British Crime Survey, 200–201 Cambridge Study of Delinquent Development, 89, 166 Great Depression (1930–1939), 139 Greece, ancient, 58 Greek pornographos, 337 Grimm brother fairy tales, 16 gun control controlling handgun, 253–256 firearm-related offenses, 252–253 gun-control debate, 256–257 youths and, 253 gun-control debate, 256–257 guns armed robbery, 198 crime, 253 crossfire shootings, 223 drive-by shootings, 140, 142–143, 146, 147, 223 gangs, 142–143 illicit arms trafficking, 7–8 school violence, 204 subculture of violence, 133–134 H Haiti, earthquake (2010), Hansel and Gretel fairy tale, 16 harm requirement for crime, 26–27 hate crimes, 248–249 hate gangs, 147 Hayes International Retail Theft Survey, 262 Head Start programs, 112 health domain, Head Start, 112 Heaven’s Gate, 122 hedonism, 129 Heinz dilemma, 86 Hell’s Angels, 114, 115 high-tech crimes, 274–281 characteristics of high-tech criminal, 281 computer network break-ins, 277 computers and the internet, 276–281 credit card fraud, 269 criminal complexity, 276 criminal justice problem, 281 detection, 276 industrial espionage, 277–278 international component, 276 mail bombings, 279–280 password sniffers, 280 pornography online, 279 profits of crime, 276 property type, 276 software piracy, 278–279 victims role, 276 hijacking airplane, 5, 351–353 land, 353 history of criminology biological determinism, 58–64 classical school, 52–58 positivist school, 52, 59, 61 psychological determinism, 64–65 sociological determinism, 65–66 time line, 66–67 hit clothes, 75 Holocaust, 186, 187 home-improvement fraud, 298 homicide, 214–224 apparent motive, 218 cross-national comparison, 223–224 extent of, 215–217 gang murder, 223 manslaughter, 215 murder, 214–215 nature of, 217–223 relatives and acquaintances, 217 serial murder, 81 subculture of violence, 133–134 victim-precipitated, 200 young and old perpetrators, 218 homosexual intercourse, 332 hormones, 82 hot products, situational theories of crime, 198 hot spots of crime, 201 Houston Police Department (HPD), 142 human nature biology and criminality, 76–84 in social control theory vs other theories, 163 human trafficking, 8, 343 Hurricane Katrina (2005), Sandy (2012), hypoglycemia, 81–82 Twinkie defense, 81 hypothesis, 30 I id, 85 Illegal Corporate Behavior, 303 illicit drug trafficking, 354 illicit traffic in arms, 351 imbeciles, 57 immigrants human trafficking, 8 social disorganization theory, 114 incentive instigators, 92 incivilities, 201 income inequality, 108, 136 independent ethics committees (IECs), 35 index crimes, 36, 43, 49 India, Mumbai terrorist attack (2008), 14, 15, 245 indirect control, 163 infanticide, 56, 57, 187 ingredients of crime act requirement, 26 causation requirement, 27 concurrence requirement, 28 harm requirement, 26–27 legality requirement, 26 mens rea requirement, 27–28 punishment requirement, 28 Subject Index I-19 www.downloadslide.net inherited criminality, 63–64 innovation, modes of adaptation, 104–105 insane criminals, 61 insanity defense, 28, 92, 93, 97–98 insider-related fraud, 300 insider trading, 292 Institute for Juvenile Research (Chicago), 116 Institutional review boards (IRBs), 34–35 instructional instigators, 92 insurance fraud, 265, 269–274, 298, 300, 353 insurance-related corporate fraud, 274 integrated theory, 98–99, 167 intellectual property, 351 interdependent phenomena, 346 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 21 internalized control, 163 International and Comparative Criminology comparative criminology, 344–345 engaging in, 346–348 practical goals, 348–356 theory testing, 348 International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP), 35, 36 International Corporate Fraud, 352 international crime, 355–356 International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS), 346 International Criminal Court, 186, 187, 355 International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol), 346 international criminology labeling countries “corrupt,” 178 nations with low crime rates, 168–169 transnational crime, 5, 9, 21 war crimes and genocide, 21, 186–187 internationalism, 344 internationally induced local crime problems, 349 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 179, 181 I-20 Subject Index International Self-Report Delinquency (ISRD) study, 39 international strategies international crime, 355–356 local crime problems, 349 transnational crime, 349–355 Internet, 339–340 Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3), 277 intoxicating liquor, 330 investment schemes, 299 involuntary manslaughter, 215 involvement, as social bonds, 156 IQ and criminality, 79–80 genetics vs environment, 79–80 research on crime and, 79 Iraqi weapons inspections, 8 Iraq, war, 8 Ireland, crime rates, 168 Irish Republican Army (IRA), 245 irresistible atavistic impulses, 95 ISIS, cyber crime, 7 Islam, crime rates, 169 isolationism, 344 Israeli-based telemarketing fraud, 275 Israeli Mafia, 241 J Japan Aum Shinrikyo, 123 crime rates, 168 tsunami (2011), 3, Jews, Holocaust, 186, 187 Job Corps program, 113, 114 Jukes clan, 63, 63 junk-food defense, 81 just-community intervention programs, 88 justifiable homicide See homicide juvenile justice system, Chicago juvenile courts, 177 juvenile offenders controversy over violence and genes, 78–79 family atmosphere, 89 juvenile courts, 177 juvenile violent crime, 42 labeling theory, 173–179 Scared Straight program, 32 trends in violent crime, 49 K Kent State University shootings, 175 kidnapping, 233–234 King Motherland Chicago (KMC), 140 KKK (Ku Klux Klan), 115, 248 KMC (King Motherland Chicago), 140 Ku Klux Klan (KKK), 115, 248 L labeling theory, 173–179 in action, 176 basic assumptions, 174–175 comparison with other criminological perspectives, 173 empirical evidence, 176–177 labeling countries “corrupt,” 178 in the 1960s, 175–176 origins of, 174 land fraud, 298 land hijacking, 353 larceny, 260–268 art theft, 263–264 boat theft, 266–268 elements of, 260 extent of, 260–261 motor vehicle theft, 264–266 shoplifting, 199, 203, 207, 208, 210, 262–263 thieves, 261–262 Latin Disciples, 141 Latin Kings, 119, 139, 140 Latinos/Latinas, gangs, 139–143 laundering drug profits, 324 law and legal system breaking of laws, 17–18 concept of, 13–14 consensus and conflict views, 14–17, 180 global approach to the breaking of laws, 20–21 making of laws, 12–17 society’s reactions to breaking of laws, 18–21 Law of the Twelve Tables (Rome), 14 Law, Order, and Power (Chambliss and Seidman), 185 laws of imitation, 66 LEAP (learning, earning, and parenting) programs, 121 learnfare programs, 121 www.downloadslide.net learning theory, differential association-reinforcement, 89 left realism, 189–190 legal business, infiltration of, 354 legality requirement for crime, 26 legalization of alcohol, 329 of drug, 329 on pornography, 339 Lehman Brothers, 10 lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community, 332 life course/developmental theory, 165–167 life-course perspective, 44 lifestyle theory of victimization, 199–200 Life You Can Save: Acting Now to End World Poverty, The, 57 locations of criminal acts, 41 lockdown, 117 Lombrosian theory, 62 Long Day’s Journey into Night (O’Neill), 139 longitudinal studies, 44 Lord of the Flies (Golding), 152 Los Angeles, 248 Vancouver-based telemarketing fraud, 275 M macrosociological studies, 154 Mafia, 235–236, 238 mail bombings, 279–280 Major Fraud Act (1988), 297 malice aforethought, 214 Manchild in the Promised Land (Brown), 136 Maniac Latin Disciples, 141 manslaughter involuntary, 215 voluntary, 215 mapping crimes, 194 Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13), 141 marijuana, 140–142, 319–321, 322 Martha Stewart Omnimedia, 49 Marxist criminology class interests vs interest groups, 185–188 economic order, 188–189 mass murder, 218–220, 223 Master-Thief fairy tale, 16 maternal deprivation, 88–89 McDonald’s, 104 MDMA, 142 measuring crime, 29–35 data collection methods, 30–34 ethics and the researcher, 34–35 severity of crime, 41–42 medical fraud, 272 mens rea, 27–28 mental disorders, 95–99 civil commitment for sexual predators, 99 insanity defense, 92, 93, 97–98 psychological causation, 96–97 psychopathy, 95 psychosis, 95 mesomorph, 62–64 methamphetamine, 139–142 Mexican Transnational Criminal Organizations (MTCOs), 127, 144, 145 Mexico, gang members from, 145 Michael Jordan’s restaurants, 104 microsociological studies, 154 empirical tests of Hirschi’s theory, 155 evaluation of Hirschi’s theory, 157–158 Middle Ages, 11, 16, 18, 59, 184 middle class labeling theory, 173–179 measuring rod, 128 middle-class delinquency, 147–151 militias, 249–250 Milk (movie), 80 minimal brain dysfunction (MBD), 84 minister of cocaine, 325 Minneapolis Police Department, 25 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 93 misdemeanors, 28 Mobilization for Youth (MOBY), 149–150 modeling instigators, 91 Model Penal Code (MPC), 92, 337–338 modern biocriminology, 76 money laundering, 6–7, 324, 325, 349–350 operational principles, 350 monozygotic (MZ) twins, 77 moral anomalies, 61 moral development, 86–88 moral insanity (Pinel), 64, 95 moralized aggression, 97 moral reasoning, 87 mortgage fraud, 270–272 Motherland, 140 Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), 331 Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), 351 motorcycle gangs, 114, 126 motorcycle theft, 209 motor vehicle theft, 264–266, 265 most popular stolen autos, 207 situational prevention, 207 types of offenders, 208 Motor Vehicle Theft Prevention Act of 1994, 266 MOVE, 121 MS-13 (Mara Salvatrucha), 141 multinational corporations, 288 multiple victimization, 200 murder, 14, 214–215 felony, 215 gang, 223 mass, 218–220, 223 by relationship, 218 serial, 81, 218–220, 223 unmotivated, 218 N narcotics, 325 narco-traffickers, 319 National Academy of Science (NAS), 78 National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 50 National Alliance of Gang Investigators’ Associations (NAGIA), 144 National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC), 342 National Center for the Prevention and Control of Rape (NCPCR), 231 National Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, 338 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), 35, 37, 225–226 National Deviancy Conference (NDC), 184 Subject Index I-21 www.downloadslide.net national drug scene, 320 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 311 National Football League (NFL), 162 National Gang Report (NGR), 144–145 National Guardsmen, 175 National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), 33, 36 National Institute of Justice, 25, 226 National Insurance Crime Bureau, 207 National Sheriffs’ Association, 36 National Stolen Art File, 264 National Survey of Crime Severity, 41 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 321, 322 natural disasters, 4 negligent homicide, 215 Neighborhood Watch, 19, 41 neoclassical period, 52 Nepal, crime rates, 169 neurocriminologists, 76 neurocriminology, 67, 82–84 neuroticism, 94 New Criminology, The (Taylor and Walton), 184 New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, 307 New York City female gangs, 143–147, 151 over-the-hill gang, 43 Police Department COMPSTAT, 194 pooper-scooper regulations, 27 Rochester Youth Development Study, 146, 158 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 187 New York Police Department (NYPD), 176 New York Zodiac killer, 74 nonconformist community, 114 nonparticipant observation, 33–34 November 2015 Paris terrorist attacks, 5 O observational learning, in social learning theory, 89–92 occupational crime, 291 I-22 Subject Index Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), 149 Study Group on Serious and Violent Juvenile Offenders, 78 Office of National Drug Control Policy, 321 official crime rates, 346 omission, 26 Operation Weed and Seed, 118–119 opium, 5 opportunistic robber, 234 Opportunity makes thieves (Europeans), 284 opportunity theories, 193 ten principles of, 194 oral aggressive behavior, 176 organizational due diligence, 303 organized crime, 101, 234–242 history of, 235–236 new ethnic diversity, 240–242 structure and impact of, 236–240 Origin of Species (Darwin), 58 other offenses, 355 outlaw motorcycle gang (OMG), 126 over-the-hill gang, 43 P panel studies, 31 parenting practices domain, Head Start, 112 Parents Television Council, 91 parking facilities, situational crime prevention, 207 Parrot Middle School (Florida) after-school program, 156 participant observation, 33–34 password sniffers, 280 PCP (phencyclidine), 140 peacemaking criminology, 190 penal law, 214 penologists, 184 Pentagon, terrorist attack (2001), Perry Preschool Project, 112–113 personal and social control, 158–161 personality and criminology, 85–95 Eysenck’s conditioning theory, 94–95 personal property, 283 Peru, crime rates, 168, 169 Petters Company, INC., 287 phantom crime prevention, 203 phencyclidine (PCP), 140 Philadelphia, After-School Activities Partnerships, 156 phrenology, 59, 60, 63 physiognomy, 59 physique for crime, 64 pimp, 333 Pleas of the Crown (Hale), 232 police police statistics, 35–37 racial profiling, 177 social disorganization theory, 114 Police Foundation, 25, 36 Polish Peasant in Europe and America, The (Thomas and Znaniecki), 115 political fraud, 300 political impact drug trade, 324 minister of cocaine, 325 population, 30 pornerotic, 338 pornography, 337–340 behavior and law, 340 feminist view, victimization, 338 Hoff’s definition, 338 and Internet, 339–340 supreme court rulings, 338–339 and violence, 330 pornography online, 279 Positive Action Through Holistic Education (PATHE), 170 positivist criminology, 58 positivist school, 52, 59, 61 positron emission tomography (PET) brain imaging, 82 postconventional morality (Kohlberg), 87 potential criminals, 78 Potrero Hill Posse (PHP), 146 poverty and crime strain theory, 102–113 subculture of exasperation, 216 subculture of violence theory, 134 poverty rate, 104 preconventional morality (Kohlberg), 87 www.downloadslide.net premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 82 premium diversion, 274 President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, 20 President’s Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence, 133 primary conflict, 122 primary data, 30 primary deviations, 174 Princeton University, 56 Principles of Criminology, The (Sutherland), 119 prison just-community intervention approach, 88 Scared Straight program, 32 smoke-free rules by state, 154 social class and, 49 social disorganization theory, 117 prize promotion, 299 proactive corporate fault (PCF), 308, 308 Professional Fence, 283 professional robber, 234 Professional Thief, The (Sutherland), 34 professional thieves, 34, 261–262 Project Follow Through, 112 Project Freedom, 150 property crimes arson, 283–284 burglary, 197–198, 281–283 comparative crime rates, 284 fencing, 283 fraud, 268–274 high-tech crimes, 274–281 larceny, 260–268 thieves types, 261–262 violent crime rate, 40 property insurance fraud, 275 proprietary economic information, 277 prostitution, 332, 333, 336, 337 gangs, 126 psychoanalytic theory, 85 psychological and social effects, 117 psychological causation, 96–97 psychological determinism, 64–65 psychological disorder, 321 psychological studies, criminals, 65 psychology and criminality family-based crime prevention, 89 insanity defense, 92, 93, 97–98 integrated theory, 98–99 maternal deprivation and attachment theory, 88–89 mental disorders, 95–99 moral development, 86–88 personality factors, 85 psychological development, 85–86 social disorganization theory, 114 psychopaths immoral behavior, 93 psychopathy, 95 psychosis, 95 public attention, 331 public order crimes alcohol and crime, 329–331 drug abuse and crime, 319–329 sexual morality offenses, 331–340 public punishment, 52, 53 Puerto Rico, gang members from, 141 Punishment and the Social Structure (Rusche and Kirchheimer), 184 punishment requirement for crime, 28 punitive spirit, 97 R race and crime, 49–50 See also African Americans; Latinos/Latinas labeling theory, 173–179 racial profiling, 177 strain theory, 103–113 racial profiling, 177 racist, 78 Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act, 236–237, 309 radical criminology, 184 radical feminism, 189 radical theory criminology, 1970s, 184–185 Engels and Marx, 183 Marxist criminology, intellectual heritage of, 183 radical (Marxist) theory, 173, 189 abolitionist criminology, 190 anarchist criminology, 190 peacemaking criminology, 190 Rahway State Prison (New Jersey), Scared Straight program, 32 railroad killer, 219 railroad offenses, 347 rain forests, 106 randomized controlled trials (RCT), 31 random sample, 30 rap, 109, 110 rape and sexual assault, 230–233 characteristics of rape event, 231 characteristics of rapist, 231–232 community response to, 233 legal system, 232–233 rational-choice perspective, 194–195 reaction formation, 128, 130 reactive corporate fault (RCF), 308, 308 rebellion, modes of adaptation, 105 recidivism, 33, 88 Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), 351 recreational drug use, 318 Red Riding Hood fairy tale, 16 relationship violence, 214, 227–228 reloading and recovery room schemes, 299 Remove Intoxicated Drivers (RID), 331 repeat victimization, 200–201 Retreatism, modes of adaptation, 105–106 Revolutionary War, 63 Richmond Youth Study, 108 Rikers Island, 142 riots, 50 ritualism, modes of adaptation, 105 Subject Index I-23 www.downloadslide.net robbers and robberies armed robbery, 198 situational theories of crime, 198 robbery, 234 characteristics of robbers, 234 consequences of, 234 Robinson v California, 26 Rochester Youth Development Study (New York), 146, 158 rock houses, 146 Roman, ancient, 59 Roman law, 14, 17 Rome, ancient, 29 routine-activity approach, 195–197 Rwanda, 186, 187 S safe houses, 122 Safe Streets and Gang Unit (SSGU), 144 sample, 30 Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, 288, 289 satanic cults, 147 satanic gangs, 147–148 Saudi Arabia, crime rates, 168, 169 Scared Straight program, 25, 31 schizophrenic, 177 School Crime and Safety report, 204, 205 schools and school systems just-community intervention approach, 88 maximum-security schools, 204–205 violence in schools, 204, 250–252 SCP (situational crime prevention), 203–209 sea piracy, 353 secondary conflict, 122 secondary data, 30 secondary deviations, 174 secure attachment, 88–89 Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 292 Securities Exchange Act, 292 securities-related crimes, 291–293 self-report surveys, 38 findings of, 38–39 limitations of, 39 sense of responsibility, 95 I-24 Subject Index September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 5, 187 serial killers, 75 serial murder, 81, 218–220, 223 severity of crime, 41–42 sexism, 48 sex trafficking, 9 sexual exploitation, 342 of children, 343 sexual intercourse, 332 sexually violent predator, 99 sexual morality offenses, 331–340 child pornography, 340 civil commitment of sexual predators, 91, 99 cyberporn, 336 deviate sexual intercourse, 332 global sexual slavery, 334 pornography, 337–340 prostitution, 332, 333, 336–337 sexual predators, civil commitment for, 91, 99 sexual violence, 99 Sheldon’s body types, 64 Sherman Antitrust Act, 309 shoplifting, 199, 203, 207, 208, 210, 262, 262–263 Silent Scorpion, 266 simple assault, 224 single-room-occupancy (SRO) programs, 190 situational theories of crime, 193–199 environmental criminology, 193–194 opportunity theories, 193 practical applications, 197–199 rational-choice perspective, 194–195 routine-activity approach, 195–197 situational crime prevention (SCP), 203–209 skinhead phenomenon, 147 slavery, 184 smoking laws, 153, 156, 167, 168 social bonds, 155–156 social class and crime, 30, 49 See also poverty and crime gang norms, 135 lower-class delinquency, 128 middle-class delinquency, 147–151 middle-class measuring rod, 128 strain theory, 130 subculture of violence theory, 133–134 social control theory containment theory, 161 crime prevention, 170–171 developmental/life course theory, 165–167 drift, 158 general theories, 167–169 Hirschi, 155–158 macrosociological studies, 154 microsociological studies, 154 social bonds, 155–156 social disorganization theory, 115, 128, 130 evaluation, 118 Park and Burgess model, 115–116 Shaw and McKay’s Work, 116–117 tests of, 117–118 social-emotional domain, Head Start, 112 social interactionists, 174 social learning theory, 89 differential associationreinforcement, 92 direct experience, 91–92 observational learning, 89–92 social norms, 12 sociocultural factors, 343 socioeconomic development perspective, 348 sociological determinism, 65–66 sociological theories, 71, 75, 102 Chicago school, 118 cultural deviance theories, 102, 113–123 interconnectedness of, 102 strain theory, 102–113 structural-functionalist perspective, 102–103 sociopaths, 75, 220 sodomy, 332 software piracy, 278–279 somatotype school, 62–63 South Africa, homicide rate, 136 South America cocaine, 320 Yanomami culture, 106 Soviet culture, 347 spatial crime patterns, 194 spouse abuse, 225–228 extent of, 226 nature of, 226–227 staged auto accidents, 275 www.downloadslide.net status deprivation, 129 statutory rape, 332 sterilization laws, 63 stock manipulation, 293 stock market crash of 1929, 103 Stone age crime, 54–55 Stone age people, 106 strain theory, 102–113, 130 anomie in, 103–104 breakdown of social system, 102 defined, 103 general strain theory, 111 institutional imbalance, 110–111 modes of adaptation, 104–107 stranger homicides, 217 street gangs, 140–142 strict liability, 28 structural-functionalist perspective, 102–103 Students Against Drunk Drivers (SADD), 331 subculture of exasperation, 216 subculture of violence, 229 subcultures, 125–151 See also cults; gangs Cohen’s theory, 129–130 defined, 127–128 differential opportunity theory, 130, 133 function of, 127–128 Miller’s theory, 134–138 subcultures of violence, 133–134 theories of delinquency, 128–130 Sudan, 178 suicide Anomie and, 103 cults, 122–123 superego, 85 Sureños and Norteños, 141–142 surveys, 30–31 self reports, 33, 35, 38–39, 47 victimization, 37–38, 42 Switzerland, crime rates, 168, 169 synnomie, 169 T Tacoma Skinhead Movement, 147 Taj Mahal Palace & Tower terrorist attack (2008), 14, 15, 245 Taliban destruction of cultural property, 8–9 drug trade, 5 Tango Blast, 142 target-hardening techniques, 203 Tata Group, 14 Tatari Design (Germany), Tatex Trading GmbH, 7 tax fraud, 300 telefunding schemes, 299 telemarketing fraud, 298, 298 television blue channels, 336 closed-circuit television monitoring (CCTM), 33 impact of violence, 90, 91 terrorism, 242–248 cyberattacks, 7 defined, 5 dirty money, 5–6 domestic violence, 25 extent of, 245 fear of, 14 Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs), 246 international efforts, 245, 247–248 November 2015 Paris terrorist attacks, 5 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 5, 187 Taj Mahal Palace & Tower terrorist attack (2008), 14 war against, 5 Texas, gangs, 139 theft See larceny theories of victimization geography of crime, 201–202 hot spots of crime, 201 interrelatedness of theories, 202–203 lifestyle theory, 199–200 repeat victimization, 200–201 victim-offender interaction, 200 theory, 29 theory testing hypothesis, 30 socioeconomic development perspective, 348 validation of, 348 thief-taker, 283 Thurman v Torrington, 227 times of criminal acts, 41 Tiny Diablas, 146 Tiny Rascal Gangsters, 142 torts, 28 trade in human body parts, 354 trafficking in persons, 353–354 transnational crime, 5, 9, 21 aircraft hijacking, 5, 351–353 art and cultural objects, 350–351 computer crime, 353 corruption and bribery, 354–355 environmental crime, 353 fraudulent bankruptcy, 354 illicit drug trafficking, 354 illicit traffic in arms, 351 insurance fraud, 353 intellectual property, 351 land hijacking, 353 legal business, infiltration of, 354 money laundering, 349–350 other offenses, 355 sea piracy, 353 terrorist activities, 350 trade in human body parts, 354 trafficking in persons, 353–354 Transparency International (TI), 178, 179 travel-related schemes, 299 trespassory taking, of property, 268 tryptophan, 81 Twelve Brothers fairy tale, 16 Twinkie defense, 81 twin studies, 77 typologies of crime, 29 U unauthorized entities, 274 Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), 34–37, 109, 332 comparison with victimization surveys, 38 crime rates, 36, 39, 40 Part I and Part II offenses, 36 United Blood Nation, 142 United Crime Report (UCR), 282 United Nations (UN) Iraqi weapons inspections, 8 Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), 43 terrorism, 5 transnational crime, 5, 9, 21 World Crime Surveys, 34, 169 Subject Index I-25 www.downloadslide.net I-26 United States (US) behavioral health trends, 322 boat theft in, 266–268 crime rates, 36 criminal justice system, 20 genetic studies, 77 homicide rates in, 215–216 Hurricane Katrina (2005), Hurricane Sandy (2012), insurance fraud, 269–274 larceny rate, 261 morphine, 319 Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations, 303, 306 September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 5, 187 speakeasies, 330 strain theory, 102–113, 130 violence in, 250 violent crime rate, 40 United States v Darling, 311 University of Chicago, 115 University of Pavia, 53 University of Pennsylvania, 45 University of Turin, 59 unmotivated murder, 218 Unraveling Juvenile Delinquency (Glueck and Glueck), 166, 348 U.S Army, labeling theory, 176 U.S attorney general’s office, 266 U.S Congress, 106 U.S Constitution Fifth Amendment, 23 First Amendment, 123 Fourteenth Amendment, 173 Fourth Amendment, 23 U.S Department of Agriculture, 81 U.S Department of Justice, 10, 150, 160, 227 U.S Department of Labor, 34 U.S Department of the Treasury, 34 U.S Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 36 U.S House of Representatives, 35 U.S legislators, 312 U.S Postal Service, 220 U.S Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 10 U.S Supreme Court, labeling theory, 173 utilitarianism, 57, 194 vandalism, 147 variables, 31 viatical settlement fraud, 274 vicarious liability, 308 Vice Lord Nation, 142 victimization surveys, 37–38, 40, 111, 117, 199 See also theories of victimization British Crime Survey, 200–201 comparison with police statistics, 38 International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS), 45 limitations of, 39 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), 35, 37 types of, 38–39 victim-offender interaction theory of victimization, 200 victimless crimes, 180 victimology, 199 victim precipitation, 200, 217 violations, 28 violence alcohol-related activities, 330 genes, 78 violent crimes, 213–257 assault, 224–225 biological and genetic research, 78 emerging problems, 242–252 family-related, 225–230 gun control, 252–257 homicide, 133, 204, 214–224 IQ and, 79–80 kidnapping, 233–234 organized crime, 101, 234–242 rape and sexual assault, 230–233 rates, 109 robbery, 234 in schools, 250–252 subculture of violence, 133–134 television, 89–91, 97 XYY syndrome, 76–77 vitamin deficiencies, 76, 80, 81 Volstead Act of 1919, 330 voluntary manslaughter, 215 vulnerable populations, 35 war on drugs, 5 War on Poverty, 113 Washington, D.C beltway snipers, 220 gang war, 139 Pentagon terrorist attack (2001), weapons of mass destruction, 5 Watergate debacle, 182 Wayne Puff, Affordable Homes Corp., 287–288 weapons of mass destruction, 5 Wedtech Corporation, 297 whistle-blower, 316 white-collar crime, 11, 42 bankruptcy fraud, 293 bribery, 300 consumer fraud, 298 corruption, 300 crimes committed by individuals, 289–291 definition of, 288, 288–289 fraud against the government, 293–298 future of, 313–316 insider-related fraud, 300 insurance fraud, 298–300 political fraud, 300 securities-related crimes, 291–293 tax fraud, 300 White Collar Crime (Sutherland), 310 workers’ compensation fraud, 274 World Bank, 179 World Trade Center terrorist, attacks (2001), V Vancouver-based telemarketing fraud (Los Angeles), 275 W war against terrorism, 5 war crimes, 21, 186, 187 Z zip guns, 74 Zodiac killer, 74 Subject Index X X chromosomes, 76–77 XYY syndrome, 76–77 Y Yale University, 64 Yanomami culture, 106 Y chromosomes, 76–77 Young Latino Organization, 141 youth gang membership, 159–160 youths and guns, 253 ... 751 730 723 689 664 661 6 42 536 533 529 523 511 505 500 493 483 466 453 448 4 32 417 414 348 343 334 333 329 3 02 295 29 5 29 1 29 1 28 9 28 8 28 8 27 5 27 3 27 0 25 6 23 9 23 9 23 5 22 7 169 1 42 137 124 118 Symbol... Crimes 21 5 www.downloadslide.net TABLE 10.1 Violent Crimes1 Per 100,000 Population 20 07 Rank3 (X) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42. .. 24 7 22 3 23 0 187 24 0 186 189 196 46 38 25 33 34 37 24 27 1 72 163 184 141 167 117 138 134 Grocery, convenience stores 67 49 62 46 62 36 51 49 Gasoline service stations 30 38 41 40 32 27 29