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(BQ) Part 1 book Warlow’s stroke has contents: Development of knowledge about cerebrovascular disease, is it a vascular e vent and where is the lesion, which arterial territory is involved, what is the role of imaging in acute stroke,... and other contents.
Warlow’s Stroke To Strong and Angela: for your unwavering support; and to Tim, Gem, Tess, and Stella: for being behind everything I Fan Z Caprio To Prof Charles Warlow who inspired me and many others to become a stroke trialist and to my wife, Vidula Verma, who has tolerated being married to one Christopher Chen To my late father, Harold L Gorelick, for his innovative spirit, common sense, life accomplishments, and love of family Philip B Gorelick To the patients, teachers and colleagues who taught me everything I know; and to Lindsay, Calum and Magnus, for their support and forebearance Malcolm Macleod To Prof Charles Warlow, who is not only a great neurologist, but also a great sailor Heinrich Mattle Warlow’s Stroke Practical Management Fourth Edition Edited by Graeme J Hankey MBBS, MD, FRACP, FRCPE, FAHA, FESO, FAAHMS Professor of Neurology, Medical School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia Consultant Neurologist, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Western Australia Malcolm Macleod BSc(Hons), MBChB, PhD, FRCP Professor of Neurology and Translational Neurosciences at the University of Edinburgh, and Honorary Consultant Neurologist and Head of Neurology, NHS Forth Valley, UK Philip B Gorelick MD, MPH, FACP, FAHA, FAAN, FANA Professor Translational Science and Molecular Medicine at Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA Adjunct Professor, Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA International Fellow, Population Health Research Institute affiliated with McMaster University Faculty of Health Sciences and Hamilton Health Sciences, Hamilton, ON, Canada Professor Emeritus, Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA Christopher Chen BA, BMBCh, FRCP Director, Memory Aging & Cognition Centre, National University Health System, Singapore Associate Professor, Department of Pharmacology, National University of Singapore, Singapore Senior Consultant Neurologist, Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore Fan Z Caprio MD Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA Heinrich Mattle MD, FRCPE, FAHA, FESO Professor, Senior Consultant, Department of Neurology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland This edition first published 2019 © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Edition History C Warlow, J van Gijn, M Dennis, J Wardlaw, J Bamford, G Hankey, P Sandercock, G Rinkel, P Langhorne, C Sudlow, P Rothwell Published by Blackwell Publishing (3e, 2007) All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions The right of Graeme Hankey, Malcolm Macleod, Philip Gorelick, Christopher Chen, Fan Caprio, and Heinrich Mattle to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law Registered Offices John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Office 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley products visit us at www.wiley.com Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats and by print‐on‐demand Some content that appears in standard print versions of this book may not be available in other formats Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty The contents of this work are intended to further general scientific research, understanding, and discussion only and are not intended and should not be relied upon as recommending or promoting scientific method, 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fact that an organization, website, or product is referred to in this work as a citation and/or potential source of further information does not mean that the publisher and authors endorse the information or services the organization, website, or product may provide or recommendations it may make This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a specialist where appropriate Further, readers should be aware that websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read Neither the publisher nor authors shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Names: Hankey, Graeme J., editor Title: Warlow’s stroke : practical management / edited by Graeme Hankey, Malcolm Macleod, Philip Gorelick, Christopher Chen, Fan Caprio, Heinrich Mattle Other titles: Stroke (Warlow) | Stroke Description: Fourth edition | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell, 2019 | Preceded by Stroke / C Warlow … [et al.] 3rd ed c2008 | Includes bibliographical references and index | Identifiers: LCCN 2018039802 (print) | LCCN 2018040801 (ebook) | ISBN 9781118492420 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781118492413 (ePub) | ISBN 9781118492222 (hardcover) Subjects: | MESH: Stroke–therapy | Intracranial Hemorrhages–therapy | Ischemic Attack, Transient–therapy Classification: LCC RC388.5 (ebook) | LCC RC388.5 (print) | NLM WL 356 | DDC 616.8/1–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018039802 Cover images: MR images of a 66-year-old woman with an acute stroke because of a proximal middle cerebral artery occlusion on the right, visible on the MR angiogram (right) The diffusion-weighted image (left) shows the core of the infarct and the perfusion-weighted image (center) shows the perfusion deficit The perfusion deficit is much larger than the core of the infarct and demonstrates a large volume of brain tissue that was salvaged with successful reperfusion Images courtesy of Professor Jan Gralla, Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology, University of Bern, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland Cover design by Wiley Set in 10/12 pt Warnock by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 v Contents Contributors vii Acknowledgments xi Abbreviations xiii 1 Introduction Development of knowledge about cerebrovascular disease Jan van Gijn Is it a vascular event and where is the lesion? 37 Simon Jung and Heinrich P Mattle Which arterial territory is involved? 129 John C.M Brust What is the role of imaging in acute stroke? 171 5A Neuroimaging 172 Marwan El‐Koussy 5B Ultrasound of the extra‐ and intracranial arteries 224 Georgios Tsivgoulis and Apostolos Safouris 5C Cardioembolic stroke 241 Issam Mikati and Zeina Ibrahim What caused this transient or persisting ischemic event? 267 Fernando D Testai Unusual causes of ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack 345 Fan Z Caprio and Chen Lin What caused this intracerebral hemorrhage? 399 Farid Radmanesh and Jonathan Rosand What caused this subarachnoid hemorrhage? 437 Matthew B Maas and Andrew M Naidech 10 A practical approach to the management of stroke and transient ischemic attack 455 H Bart van der Worp and Martin Dennis 11 What are this patient’s problems? A problem‐based approach to the general management of stroke 481 Yannie Soo, Howan Leung, and Lawrence Ka Sing Wong vi Contents 12 Have the patient’s cognitive abilities been affected? 579 Leonardo Pantoni 13 Specific treatment of acute ischemic stroke 587 Eivind Berge and Peter Sandercock 14 Specific treatment of intracerebral hemorrhage 657 Shoichiro Sato and Craig S Anderson 15 Specific treatment of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage 679 Gregory Arnone and Sepideh Amin‐Hanjani 16 Specific interventions to prevent intracranial hemorrhage 723 Preston W Douglas, Clio A Rubińos, and Sean Ruland 17 Preventing recurrent stroke and other serious vascular events 745 Cathra Halabi, Rene Colorado, and Karl Meisel 18 Rehabilitation after stroke: evidence, practice, and new directions 867 Coralie English, Audrey Bowen, Debbie Hébert, and Julie Bernhardt 19 The organization of stroke services 879 Peter Langhorne, Jeyaraj Durai Pandian, and Cynthia Felix 20 Reducing the impact of stroke and improving public health 933 Graeme J Hankey and Philip B Gorelick Index 953 Color plate section is found facing page 304 vii Contributors Sepideh Amin‐Hanjani, MD, FAANS, FACS, FAHA Fan Z Caprio, MD Professor and Residency Program Director Co‐Director, Neurovascular Surgery Department of Neurosurgery, University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, IL, USA Assistant Professor of Neurology Division of Stroke and Neurocritical Care Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago, IL, USA Craig S Anderson, MD, PhD, FRACP Rene Colorado, MD, PhD Neurological and Mental Health Division, The George Institute for Global Health Australia Sydney, Australia The George Institute for Global Health China, Peking University Health Sciences Center Beijing, P.R China Division of Medicine, University of New South Wales Sydney, Australia Neurology Department, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital Sydney, Australia Gregory Arnone, MD Neurosurgery Resident, Department of Neurosurgery University of Illinois at Chicago Chicago, IL, USA Eivind Berge, MD, PhD, RCPE, FESO Senior consultant, Department of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway Professor, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway Julie Bernhardt, PhD Professor, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia Audrey Bowen, MSc, PhD, AFBPsS, CPsychol Medical Director, Stroke Center, Salinas Valley Memorial Healthcare System Salinas, CA, USA Adjunct Instructor, Department of Neurology University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA Martin Dennis, MD, MB, BS, MRCP, FRCPE, FESO Chair of Stroke Medicine, Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, Stroke Research Group, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Preston W Douglas, MD Department of Neurology, Loyola University Chicago‐Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA Marwan El‐Koussy, MD Neuroradiology Consultant, Staff Member Institute for Diagnostic and Interventional Neuroradiology University Hospital Bern (Inselspital) Bern, Switzerland Coralie English, PhD Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester MAHSC, UK Associate Professor Physiotherapy, School of Health Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia John C.M Brust, MD Cynthia Felix, MD, PGDGM Professor of Neurology Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons New York, NY, USA Head of Geriatric Medicine Welcare Hospital Kochi, Kerala, India viii Contributors Philip B Gorelick, MD, MPH, FACP, FAHA, FAAN, FANA Howan Leung, MD Professor Translational Science and Molecular Medicine at Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA Adjunct Professor, Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA International Fellow, Population Health Research Institute affiliated with McMaster University Faculty of Health Sciences and Hamilton Health Sciences, Hamilton, ON, Canada Professor Emeritus, Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine and Therapeutics Prince of Wales Hospital The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong Cathra Halabi, MD Matthew B Maas, MD, MS Assistant Clinical Professor of Neurology Director, Neurorecovery Clinic Division of Neurovascular, Department of Neurology University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA Graeme J Hankey, MBBS, MD, FRACP, FRCP, FRCPE, FAHA, FESO, FAAHMS Professor of Neurology, Medical School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia Consultant Neurologist, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, Western Australia Debbie Hébert, BSc (OT), MSc (Kin), OT Reg (Ont) Associate Professor, Department of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Toronto, ON, Canada Practice Lead (Occupational Therapy) and Clinic Lead for the Rocket Family Upper Extremity Clinic, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada Zeina Ibrahim Advanced Imaging Cardiologist Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiology Mount Sinai Hospital Chicago, IL, USA Simon Jung, MD Associate Professor Department of Neurology University Hospital of Bern, Inselspital Bern, Switzerland Peter Langhorne, MBChB, PhD, FRCP Professor of Stroke Care Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, UK Chen Lin, MD Vascular Neurology Fellow and NIH StrokeNet Research Fellow Division of Stroke and Neurocritical Care, Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago, IL, USA Department of Neurology Northwestern University Chicago, IL, USA Heinrich P Mattle, MD Professor Department of Neurology University Hospital of Bern, Inselspital Bern, Switzerland Karl Meisel, MD, MA Assistant Professor of Neurology Director, Outpatient Stroke Clinic Division of Neurovascular, Department of Neurology University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA Issam Mikati, MD, FASE, FACC Associate Director, Northwestern Memorial Hospital Echocardiography Lab Professor of Medicine and Radiology: Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine and Radiology, Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago, IL, USA Andrew M Naidech, MD, MSPH Department of Neurology Northwestern University Chicago, IL, USA Jeyaraj Durai Pandian, MD, DM, FRACP, FRCP, FESO Professor and Head, Department of Neurology, Christian Medical College Ludhiana, Punjab, India Leonardo Pantoni, MD, PhD “Luigi Sacco” Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, University of Milan, Milano, Italy Contributors Farid Radmanesh Yannie Soo, MBChB MRCP(Lond), FHKCP, FHKAM(Medicine) Division of Neurocritical Care and Emergency Neurology Center for Genomic Medicine Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, Prince of Wales Hospital The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Jonathan Rosand Fernando D Testai, MD, PhD, FAHA Henry and Allison McCance Center for Brain Health Division of Neurocritical Care and Emergency Neurology Center for Genomic Medicine Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA Program in Medical and Population Genetics Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA Associate Professor of Neurology Vascular Neurology Section Head Department of Neurology and Rehabilitation University of Illinois at Chicago Medical Center Chicago, IL, USA Clio A Rubińos, MD Second Department of Neurology, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, “Attikon” University Hospital, Athens, Greece Department of Neurology, University of Tennessee HealthScience Center, Memphis, TN, USA Department of Neurology, Loyola University Chicago‐Stritch School of Medicine, Maywood, IL, USA Sean Ruland, DO Professor Medical Director Neuroscience Intensive Care Unit Quality Medical Director, Neuroscience Service Line Department of Neurology Loyola University Chicago‐Stritch School of Medicine Maywood, IL, USA Apostolos Safouris, MD Second Department of Neurology, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, “Attikon” University Hospital, Athens, Greece Stroke Unit, Metropolitan Hospital, Pireaus, Greece Peter Sandercock, DM Emeritus Professor of Medical Neurology, Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Shoichiro Sato, MD, PhD Department of Cerebrovascular Medicine, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center Osaka, Japan Neurological and Mental Health Division, The George Institute for Global Health Australia, Sydney, Australia Georgios Tsivgoulis, MD H Bart van der Worp, MD, PhD Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands Jan van Gijn, FRCP, FRCP(Edin) Emeritus Professor of Neurology University of Utrecht, The Netherlands Lawrence Ka Sing Wong, MBBS, MHA, MD, MRCP, FRCP(Lond), FHKAM(Medicine) Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine and Therapeutics Prince of Wales Hospital The Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong ix 422 8 What caused this intracerebral hemorrhage? 8.6 Diagnosis 8.6.1 History The cause of ICH may occasionally be inferred from patient history: ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● Long‐standing hypertension suggests hypertensive small‐vessel disease in patients with nonlobar hemorrhage However, hypertension is common and it may coexist with the primary etiology Previous hemorrhage in the same location suggests a structural lesion such as an AVM If the second hemorrhage is distant from the primary lesion, CAA should be considered Seizure may indicate AVM, cavernous malformation, or a tumor If seizures are partial and new‐onset, CAA should be considered [299] History of transient ischemic attacks or cognitive impairment also support the diagnosis of CAA The use of anticoagulants is a vital piece of information as it should be reversed urgently In patient known to have malignancy, especially melanoma, bronchial carcinoma, or renal carcinoma, hemorrhage into a metastatic tumor is the most likely diagnosis Metastatic choriocarcinoma should be considered in a patient who is pregnant or in puerperium Concomitant valvular heart diseases raises suspicion of septic embolism, although it is usually not the cause in the majority of these individuals If spontaneous hemorrhages at other body parts such as skin are detected, disorders of hemostasis should be explored In patients with hemophilia, severe headache, stroke, or sudden, unexplained coma is highly suggestive of ICH History of recreational drugs, particularly cocaine and amphetamines, should be sought in all ICH patients The circumstances preceding ICH may provide clues to the underlying condition Preceding neurological deficits suggest hemorrhagic transformation of an ischemic infarct, whereas puerperium indicates sinus venous thrombosis or choriocarcinoma Dissection of vertebral or carotid artery should be considered in patients with neck trauma A family history of ICH at a relatively young age may suggest cavernous malformation, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, or familial CAA 8.6.2 General physical examination Inspection could provide important clues to the etiology of ICH such as petechiae and bruising in coagulation disorders, telangiectasia of the skin and mucous membranes in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, and local skin discoloration consistent with malignant melanoma Hypertension is almost always present on presentation, although it is the etiology in only half of patients and is a reactive phenomenon in the remainder Hypertensive vascular changes in the retina or left ventricular hypertrophy suggest that hypertension is a contributing factor, but the absence of these findings does not exclude this possibility Heart murmurs may be coincidental but should prompt evaluation of infective endocarditis, as should needle track marks in intravenous drug users A collapsed lung or hepatosplenomegaly may point towards a malignancy 8.6.3 Neurological examination The neurological manifestations of ICH almost always include focal neurological deficits with or without decreased level of consciousness Signs and symptoms develop quickly, usually within seconds and minutes Rapid resolution of neurological deficit typically suggests ischemia, but ICH might also present with transient signs and symptoms [300, 301] Decreased or loss of consciousness is a nonlocalizing feature, except in hemorrhages in the posterior fossa Altered level of consciousness is not a reliable distinguishing factor between hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke Throughout the course of disease, level of consciousness decreases in about one‐third of the patients secondary to hematoma expansion, cerebral edema especially after the first 48 hours, obstructive hydrocephalus, or medical complications such as hyponatremia or neurogenic pulmonary edema Focal neurological deficits are determined by the location and size of hemorrhage Hemorrhage in the caudate nucleus may produce a few focal deficits, and usually presents with general symptoms of ICH such as headache, vomiting, and decreased consciousness In thalamic hemorrhage, the nature of neurological deficits critically depends on the affected nuclei [302] A characteristic feature of posterolateral thalamic hemorrhages is distortion of the vertical orientation of the body with a tendency to tilt towards the ipsilateral side [303] 8.6.4 Laboratory studies Although laboratory studies rarely provide diagnostically relevant information, they are crucial for the general medical management of patients who are often in poor clinical condition Hemostatic function should be evaluated in all patients Partial thromboplastin time, prothrombin time, and thrombin time may be abnormal in patients with coagulopathy Thrombocytopenia with normal platelet function is generally assumed to precipitate ICH only with platelet counts less than 10 000/μL Bleeding time is abnormal in patients with abnormal 8.7 Subdural hematoma platelet function such as chronic renal failure or autoimmune diseases Various tests for measurement of platelet function, including platelet function analyzer 100 (PFA‐100), VerifyNow, and platelet aggregation have been applied in patients with antiplatelet agent‐associated ICH There is little evidence to suggest, however, that these tests have sufficient sensitivity to detect platelet dysfunction and have any role in the management of ICH [304] Autoantibodies, usually IgG class, may impair the activity of specific coagulation factors in inhibitor syndromes that usually develop in patients with hemophilia who have received multiple infusions of factor concentrates, or in patients with autoimmune diseases Blood cultures should be obtained if infective endocarditis is suspected High erythrocyte sedimentation rate or C‐ reactive protein titers support the diagnosis Mild leukocytosis may result from ICH, especially with large hematomas [305] 8.6.5 Computed tomography scan Noncontrast head CT scan is the single most common imaging modality used for the evaluation of acute ICH CT scan is sensitive for the detection of acute lesions, and provides information on accompanying abnormalities including extension of hemorrhage into the ventricles, edema, and shifts in the brain contents Hyperacute hemorrhages appear isodense and quickly become hyperdense The density of hematoma decreases gradually from the periphery towards the center, and reaches the density of white matter within 2–3 weeks CT angiography has become a common imaging modality in the acute phase because of its role in identifying underlying vascular malformations and aneurysms, as well as active extravasation of contrast media, termed the “spot sign” [306] Follow‐up brain CT scan is usually required to assess hematoma expansion, severity of edema, and shift 8.6.6 Magnetic resonance imaging The MR signal intensity of hemorrhage changes depending on the oxidation state of the iron atoms of hemoglobin and the integrity of the red blood cell membrane [307] Paramagnetic molecules such as deoxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin produce local inhomogeneity in the magnetic field and lead to fast decay of the local MR signal This property of paramagnetic molecules is called magnetic susceptibility effect, resulting in hypointensity on MRI sequences sensitive to this effect In the hyperacute phase (i.e the first few hours), hematoma appears slightly hypointense or isointense on T1‐ weighted images and slightly hyperintense on T2‐weighted images A thin rim of hypointensity on T2 can be seen due to the formation of deoxyhemoglobin at the periphery In the acute phase, there is iso‐ or slight hypointensity on T1, and marked hypointensity on T2 images due to susceptibility effect of deoxyhemoglobin The early subacute phase includes the first few days to a week after hemorrhage, during which formation of methemoglobin and oxidization of iron to ferric state results in marked hyperintensity on T1‐weighted image Hematomas continue to appear hypointense on T2 images due to the presence of susceptibility effect With degradation of red blood cell membrane in the late subacute phase, methemoglobin diffuses within the hematoma, resulting in the loss of susceptibility effect and consequently hyperintensity on T2 images In the chronic phase, the excess iron atoms liberated by protein degradation are converted to hemosiderin, exerting susceptibility effect leading to hypointensity on T2 These lesions are best visualized using susceptibility‐weighted or GRE sequences The hematoma center may evolve into a fluid‐filled cavity or slit isointense with cerebrospinal fluid 8.6.7 Angiography Given the high accuracy of CT and MR angiography, conventional angiography is used less frequently However, cerebral angiography is indicated in patients suspected to have vascular lesions Normotensive individuals under the age of 45 years with lobar hemorrhage appear to benefit the most from angiography given the high probability (50–80%) of treatable vascular lesions in this age group [308] Vascular lesions may be too compressed to be seen in the acute phase, and therefore it may be needed to defer angiography until the mass effect of hematoma has resolved 8.7 Subdural hematoma Subdural hematoma is discussed in this chapter because many causes of subdural hematoma overlap with those of ICH (Table 8.6) In addition, subdural hematoma occurs in 20% of patients with lobar ICH, particularly when hematoma volume is larger than 60 cm3 [69] A ruptured leptomeningeal artery adjacent to the dura with extravasation into both the parenchyma and subdural space is the most plausible explanation for concomitant subdural and ICH Isolated subdural hematoma commonly occurs in the elderly due to the rupture of bridging veins Occasionally, subdural bleeding is arterial, resulting from the rupture of small pial arteries, usually in the perisylvian area [309] Anticoagulation is an important contributory factor, accounting for approximately 20% of chronic subdural 423 424 8 What caused this intracerebral hemorrhage? Table 8.6 Etiology of subdural hematoma ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● Anticoagulation Thrombolysis Coagulation disorders Aneurysms Arteriovenous malformations Rupture of pial arteries: spontaneous or sympathomimetic drug‐related Low cerebrospinal fluid pressure Dural arteriovenous fistulas Dural metastasis Moyamoya disease Tension pneumocephalus Arachnoid cyst rupture Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease hematomas [310] Low cerebrospinal fluid pressure is increasingly recognized as a cause of chronic subdural hematoma; abnormalities that suggest this etiology include diffuse dural enhancement and occasionally tonsillar herniation, mimicking Chiari malformation [311, 312] Cerebrospinal fluid leak may be iatrogenic due to lumbar puncture or neurosurgery, but may also occur spontaneously [313] Spontaneous subdural hematomas usually occur over the cerebral convexity, although they may also be found in other areas such as posterior fossa and posterior interhemispheric fissure [314, 315] Acute hemorrhages appear as hyperdense crescentic collections over the cerebral convexity (Figure 8.22) Frequently, subdural hematomas progress gradually, turning into a hypodense fluid collection on CT scan In cases resulting from aneurysmal rupture, there is usually a tell‐tale extravasation of blood into the subarachnoid space but occasionally subdural hematoma is the only manifestation Figure 8.22 Acute subdural hematoma (arrows) CT scan shows crescentic hyperdensity on cerebral convexity causing midline shift The MRI signal intensity of subdural hematoma develops in a pattern like that of ICH Acute hematoma is hypointense on T2‐weighted images, and becomes hyperintense on both T1‐ and T2‐weighted images in the subacute phase With degradation of hemoglobin and accumulation of hemosiderin, chronic subdural hematomas become hypointense on T1‐weighted images References Hart RG, Boop BS, Anderson DC Oral anticoagulants and intracranial hemorrhage Facts and hypotheses Stroke 1995;26(8):1471–1477 Martini SR, Flaherty ML, Brown WM, Haverbusch M, Comeau ME, Sauerbeck LR et al Risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage differ according to hemorrhage location Neurology 2012;79(23): 2275–2282 Labovitz DL, Halim A, Boden‐Albala B, Hauser WA, Sacco RL The incidence of deep and lobar intracerebral hemorrhage in whites, blacks, and Hispanics Neurology 2005;65(4):518–522 4 Woo D, Sauerbeck LR, Kissela BM, Khoury JC, Szaflarski JP, Gebel J et al Genetic and environmental risk factors for intracerebral hemorrhage: preliminary results of a population‐based study Stroke 2002;33(5):1190–1195 Sundquist K, Li X, Hemminki K Familial risk of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke: a large‐scale study of the Swedish population Stroke 2006;37(7):1668–1673 O’Donnell MJ, Xavier D, Liu L, Zhang H, Chin SL, Rao‐Melacini P et al Risk factors for ischaemic and intracerebral haemorrhagic stroke in 22 countries (the INTERSTROKE study): a case‐control study Lancet 2010;376(9735):112–123 References Woo D, Haverbusch M, Sekar P, Kissela B, Khoury J, Schneider A et al Effect of untreated hypertension on hemorrhagic stroke Stroke 2004;35(7):1703–1708 Jamrozik K, Broadhurst RJ, Anderson CS, Stewart‐ Wynne EG The role of lifestyle factors in the etiology of stroke A population‐based case‐control study in Perth, Western Australia Stroke 1994;25(1):51–59 Eastern Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease Collaborative Research Group Blood pressure, cholesterol, and stroke in eastern Asia Lancet 1998;352(9143):1801–1807 10 Falcone GJ, Biffi A, Devan WJ, Brouwers HB, Anderson CD, Valant V et al Burden of blood pressure‐related alleles is associated with larger hematoma volume and worse outcome in intracerebral hemorrhage Stroke 2013;44(2):321–326 11 Jackson CA, Sudlow CL Is hypertension a more frequent risk factor for deep than for lobar supratentorial intracerebral haemorrhage? 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