Paul Wojtkowski Agroecology Simplified and Explained Agroecology Paul Wojtkowski Agroecology Simplified and Explained Paul Wojtkowski Universidad de Concepción Pittsfield, MA, USA ISBN 978-3-319-93208-8    ISBN 978-3-319-93209-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93209-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949050 © Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Preface As agroecology has advanced, it has become less a consensus and more a strewing of ideas The situation is analogous to the story of five blind men describing an elephant The first, touching the trunk, thinks the elephant is like a large snake The second, tusk in hand, finds it like a spear The third, feeling the ear, is reminded of a large leaf The fourth finds the leg like a tree trunk, and the fifth assumes the side is similar to a wall Of course, all are correct in their interpretation This goes to the central dilemma What does the beast actually look like? The monoculture has become the face of what is termed modern agriculture In this text, the preferred phrase is conventional agriculture Further along this same road is the green revolution model This is monocultural where yields are boosted by high, plot-external inputs and by high-yielding crop varieties This model is often supported by GMO varieties and the liberal use of agrochemicals Agroecologists reject this narrow view, instead putting forth the notion that agriculture, by way of agroecology, is based around biodiversity and the use of nature-­ supplied, goal-furthering bio-interactions These insure crop yields Beyond this, the situation gets messy This comes about because agroecology is plagued by complexity The initial view is of a labyrinth of concepts, ideas, principles, practices, theories, and approaches All front various manifestations of biodiversity The shortfall lies in the fact that there are few simplifying perspectives on how to navigate the maze In practice, the complexity is handed by subdividing agroecology into different schools of thought Each can have a philosophical and/or a political bent and be represented by one or a series of practical applications Through subdivision, the complexity of the whole is circumvented Permaculture and organic agriculture are the most prominent of these schools This point is brought home by reading the books and articles on agroecology, organic agriculture, permaculture, and related topics These texts have a consistent destination and many topical commonalities, but, at times, each seems to be looking at a different beast The goal of this book is to offer one view, one perspective v vi Preface Aggregating It may seem strange to begin the process of sorting by aggregating The various schools of thought are clearly part of agroecology If shorn of their political and philosophical undertones, the underlying ecology comes to the fore In explaining agroecology, there is a need to aggregate the land use sciences, i.e., agriculture, forestry, and agroforestry This is not a broadening of agroecology The logic behind this is watertight The theories that govern agronomic agroecology apply, in equal strength, to both forestry and agroforestry Universality Going forward, agroecology must apply to all: to the rice farmers in Asia, to those trying to eke a living from poor soils and erratic rainfall of sub-Saharan Africa, and to the backyard gardeners of the developed world One must not forget the very large commercial farms found in all parts of the world Although those that accept conventional agriculture may eschew agroecology, they may be eventually forced into the fold by (a) changing societal values, (b) by climate change, (c) by consumers seeking something better, (d) by better economic prospects, and/or (e) through a need for sustainability The hope is that, for all, the forces for change become irresistible and the land users seek and find more eco-accommodating agroecosystems In presenting the paths and options, the avenues for change are discussed in this text Agroecology Explained The main idea is to restate agroecology The scattered studies in the literature give little inclination that there is a skeletal core This also applies to the needed economics At the risk of spoiling any textual surprise, the core of agroecology is the plot or parcel of land This contains a single agroecosystem These are planned and managed systems as opposed to the unplanned ecosystems of natural ecology The single agroecosystem, of indeterminate size, has defining characteristics These are common to all agrosystems The main characteristic is the bio-­composition This can be a single plant species or two or more interacting species Timing and spacing complete this core Counters to the various threats are added to the core design, e.g., herbivore insects, weeds, drying winds The individual counters, when nature supplied, are also termed eco-services Preface vii Whatever the form, they should be present, and in sufficient quantity, such that all of the immediate threats are sufficiently thwarted This analysis goes to the essence of agroecology From this, it is more than possible to formulate an agroecosystem, one that incorporates the desired crops and attains the desired objectives This step is shortcutted by employing, as a starting point, a standard design Most often, this is a field-­ proven agrosystem It is through these standard designs, referred to as agrotechnologies, that the field experiences of the many are incorporated into the whole There is reason for this pre-summary This, and the brief recap the beginning of each chapter, is offered so the reader does not lose sight of the macro-whole among the many micro-pieces For further emphasis, the last chapter is a comprehensive overview of the same Economic Goals Agroecology may be an offshoot of ecology and some take this as the unifying motif Although true, this is not as strong an influence as one might think A portion, but not all, of the content carries over The differences may be far greater than the commonalities The strongest divergence comes by way of the economic goals Natural ecology is governed by nature, but nature is not directed by economic need Much of agroecology is directly or indirectly profit driven The remainder is yield-driven, cost-controlled, subsistence agriculture In short, agroecology is fully secured by economics In keeping, this text pairs the development of the central theme with the accompanying economics Agroecology Expanded Agroecology goes well beyond the core and the subsequent progression There is far more to agroecology than a simple intercrop Complex agroecosystems epitomize biodiversity and constitute a discrete agroecological category For this, they deserve a separate chapter There are also agroecosystems that are not species complex and cannot be classified under an intercrop heading These too deserve a freestanding explanation Objectives go beyond yields, revenues, and costs As an objective, risk aversion is critical to many However, some may wish to skip over risk and the risk counters, while others see this as a vital topic For these reasons, risk is a separate chapter As stated, agroecology is a labyrinth of ideas, concepts, etc In keeping the text streamlined, the main flow of the book, in 12 chapters, centers on those topics that are at the core of agroecology viii Preface Not included in the core are the options, alternatives, and nuances along with elaborations on the chapter-presented themes Some of these are interesting asides, some have targeted or specialized appeal, and others achieve importance given the right circumstances Rather than chance these nuances being overlooked, they are included as a part of an extensive Glossary This Glossary is large compared with the chapter text (by word count, the Glossary is about 60% of the book) This reflects the amount of information contained within the previously mentioned labyrinth of concepts, ideas, principles, practices, theories, and approaches The elaborations contained in the Glossary are cited, where topically congruous, within the chapter text The purpose is to allow the reader to delve deeper into specific discussions without disrupting the flow across the core of agroecology Theory Throughout this text, a number of theorems are presented Some were put forth by this author, but most are the work of others Some are well established, and others reside closer to the frontier of science Some come from the published literature, and some are the product of on-farm observation Some have empirical support, and some are based on unassailable logic (for more, see, as a Glossary topic, Decision Theory, page 250) A few are speculative and open to challenge Included are the rules of intercropping, the theory behind domestic fowl and insect control, the reason for spatial disarray, risk reduction, complex agrosystems, and a host of other topics The notion that agroecology has an explanatory core is, in and of itself, a theorem It is the form that this takes that is open to challenge; its existence is not in question For those who are educated or experienced in conventional agriculture, traveling from empirically based agriculture to theory-based agroecology can be an alien experience This should be less the case for those who have studied economics or ecology For those embracing agroecology, theory can be an essential step Theory imparts an ability to sort through the bio-complexity, assign relationships, and, when questions arise, foretell a likely solution or outcome This is especially true when, for agro-complex agrosystems, direct empirical results fall short or are missing This is especially true for those bio-complex systems where empirical data is in short supply It should be noted that theories are not laws Biology is laden with exceptions This applies to agroecology This does not mean that the theory should be heavily discounted Quite the contrary, being the only game in town, it is the pillar which supports the entire structure, exceptions included Clearly, the viability of agroecology has been amply demonstrated The theories explain but, more importantly, they serve to guide future directions and future research With theory in place, agroecology can proceed at a much quicker pace than otherwise possible Preface ix Vocabulary As any discipline advances, it pushes against the limits of the existing vocabulary This is true for agroecology The choice is to layer more meaning on existing words or to embrace more pristine, less laden, newer expressions The agroecological matrix is a new concept that can be central to ecological thought As a result, it merits a discrete expression Other concepts are time tested and are gaining in importance Ecological dynamics, threat counters, and eco-services are more or less synonymous Most utilized in this text is the word eco-services Although less prominent in the literature, it offers greater exactitude To describe variations on the agrosystem, some prefer the expression farm practices Being heavily layered with meaning, this is supplanted in this text by the less-­ used word agrotechnologies It should be noted that, as part of this expansion, the words intercropping and agroforestry are not distinct agrotechnologies These are headers that classify like, but slightly different, agroecosystems Rules/Guidelines Throughout this text, various rules/guidelines are put forth Some have a narrow focus and/or are of less importance An example are the rules of intercropping These aid in selecting species for co-planting Some are critical for success An example are the rules for complex agroecosystems These are critical, as management would not be possible without the understanding provided With many other examples, these rules/guidelines should be looked at as a starting point or check in the design/formulation process There are always exceptions Notwithstanding, if what is being contemplated violates a rule, a rethink is in order Scope Agroecology is worldwide Through examples and photos, this book takes this global perspective These examples and photos come from various countries and continents This should not be viewed as a dilution of agroecology There is only one agroecology Enrichment comes when farms employ different versions This is most manifest when the solutions found in one part of the world transfer to a similar problem in another part of the world More often, the solutions are not universally known x Preface This also occurs with the practices, options, and methods As an example, most assume the best way to plant trees is to use seedlings Unbeknownst to many, there are five tree planting methods (as a Glossary topic, see Planting Methods (shrubs and trees)) Choosing a less than suitable method represents a correctable inefficiency The same happens on a larger scale when selecting cropping systems Understanding the 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361, 362 Bees, 361–362 Biochar, see Tierra prieta Biodensity, see Density Biodisarray, see Disarray Bioduration, see Duration Birds, 219–221 Bison, 34, 39, 101, 147, 289, 294, 331, 350, 351, 375 Branches, 4, 38, 97, 102, 191 Buffer species, 42, 43, 46, 69, 71, 73, 224, 249, 371, 391 C Cajetes, 224–225 Camellones, 69, 71, 122, 141, 225, 339 Canopy patterns, 100, 102, 110, 113, 226 Canopy strategies, 78, 227 Catchments, 228–229 Cattle, 40, 89, 97, 101, 102, 111, 132, 140, 159, 200 Chickens, 36, 103, 216, 220, 240, 308, 318, 375, 376, 407 See also Domestic fowl Classification, 55, 59, 230, 231, 281, 282 Climate change, vi, 6, 117, 118, 121, 175, 177, 247 Commercial farming, 167–169, 242, 317 Competitive exclusion, 20, 231 Competitive partitioning, 231–235 Complementarity, see Competitive partitioning Complex agroecosystems, 239 See also Rules Composting, 5, 43, 46, 239–242 Conservation agriculture, 47, 209, 242 Core elements, 18–20, 26, 27, 30, 33, 34, 57, 79, 159, 192–193, 195, 197, 202 Corporate farming, 140, 161, 167 Corridors, habitat, 43, 46, 69, 122 Cost equivalent ratio (CER), 28, 29, 162, 193, 243–245, 263–264, 275, 325 Cost orientation, see Economic orientation Cover crops, 245–247 © Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019 P Wojtkowski, Agroecology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93209-5 433 434 Critical shift, 247 Crop-over-tree agroecosystems, 84, 94, 99, 247–248 Cut-and-carry, 35, 249, 253, 274, 292, 309, 340, 366, 371, 387, 407 D Decoy plants, 216, 251, 309, 310, 405 Decision theory, 185, 187, 250, 256, 297 Drip irrigation, 100, 129, 375 Deer, 34, 39, 103, 215, 216, 289, 294, 327, 375 Density, 251 Design packages (defined), 64–66, 255 Desirable plant characteristics, 91–92, 213–214, 246, 252–254, 262, 379 Diagnosis and design, 167, 229, 254, 256, 257 Diet, 10, 11, 126, 176, 178, 179, 180, 268, 308, 365 Disarray, 258 Disruptive-crop hypothesis, 260 Domestication, 93, 261–262 Domestic fowl, viii, 36, 86, 103, 216, 220, 221, 250, 308, 363, 365, 375 Dovecote, 103 Drip zones, 262 Duration, 263 Index Fire, 290–291 Firebreaks, 43, 46, 69, 71, 122, 142, 291 Fish, 104, 111, 114, 132 Floating gardens, 59, 291 Food, 2, 4, 5, 11, 101, 104, 113, 126, 131, 132, 145, 165, 173–179, 182, 187, 192, 198, 202, 203 Food forests, 113, 198, 211 Food kilometers/miles, 291–292 Food sovereignty, 178, 179, 180 Food storage, 132 Forage banks, 101, 292, 352 Forest gardens, 110, 112–114, 152, 198, 202 Forestry, see Silviculture Free-form plots, 139, 293, 322 Free-range grazing, 101, 293–294, 299 Frogs, 104, 217 Frost, 295–296 Fungicides, 6, 39, 55, 203, 275, 296, 330, 352 See also Pathogens E Earthworms, see Vermiculture Eatable insects, see Entomo-agriculture Economic orientation, 263 Eco-services (defined), 1, 39–48 See also Rules Elephants, v, 39, 40, 216, 289, 327 Enemies hypothesis, 268 Energy, 5, 129, 145, 177, 231, 291, 354, 405 Entomo-agriculture, 103, 268–269, 306, 308 Erosion (water), 35, 139, 144, 157, 269, 270, 300, 320, 332 Erosion (wind), 46, 209, 213, 215, 245, 269, 271, 332 G Gabons, 42, 46, 69, 71, 122, 142, 146, 296–297 Game theory, see Decision theory Gathering, 5, 108, 110, 132, 219, 249, 283, 300 Geese, 220, 350, 363, 413, 416 See also Domestic fowl Genetically improved/modified crops, 3, 10, 297 Genetic modification, 3, 5, 10–11, 72, 180, 203, 278, 297–299, 329, 416, 420 Genetic resources, 180–183, 303 GM, see Genetic modification Goats, 89, 102, 111, 159, 294, 295, 331, 350, 352, 375, 386, 387 Grazing, see Pastures/Free-range grazing Grafting, 254, 298–299 Green revolution model, 299 Guidelines, see Rules Guide species, 224, 299–300, 380 F Facilitation, 271–277 See also Rules Factory farming, 12, 278–280, 335 Fallows, 280–282, 416 Family farms, 106, 140, 143, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169 Fencing, 285–289 Field margins, 289–290 H Harvests, 300 Hawthorne effect, 189, 301–302 Hedgerow alley cropping, see Alley cropping Hedges, 302 See also Living fences Heirloom varieties, 181, 303–304 Herbicides, 5, 6, 8–12, 39, 55, 155, 200, 203 Herds, 130, 138, 294, 295, 331, 351 Index Hogs, see Pigs Honeybees, 9, 39, 86, 216, 267, 361–362, 363 See also Pollination Horqueta trees, 304, 320 Horses, 102, 241, 289, 331, 375, 386 Hunting, 5, 39, 132, 216, 221, 294, 314 Hybrid farms, 169 I Industrial farming, 144, 208 See also Commercial farming; Factory farming Infiltration, 304–306 Infiltration (water), 35, 46, 59, 63, 70–71, 90, 128–130, 139, 157 Insect control, 306–314 Insecticides, 314–318 Insects (eatable), see Entomo-agriculture Integrated pest management, 318 Intercropping (seasonal examples), 80–82 Interplant interface, 25, 318–319 Irrigation, 6, 8, 10, 39, 55, 71, 118, 119, 121, 177 See also Drip irrigation Isolated tree agroecosystems, 319–320 L Lakes, 9, 119, 132, 217, 291, 370, 409 Land equivalent ratio (defined), 33 Landscape agroecology, 45, 135–153, 322–324 Landscape economics, 143, 324 Landscapes (categories of), 137–138, 323 Landscape land equivalent ratio (LLER), 325 LER, see Land equivalent ratio Light dynamics, 25, 110, 227, 379 See also Canopy patterns Living fences, 40, 43, 98, 243, 285, 288 See also Hedges Lodging, 277, 296, 380 Low-input agriculture, 31, 121, 209 M Malthus, 174–178 Manure, 5, 12, 42, 43, 46, 101, 155, 162, 209, 229, 240, 241, 249, 292, 312, 329, 332, 340, 344, 388, 409 Matrix equations, 52, 326–328 Microbes, 328–330 Micro-catchments, 42, 46, 69, 70, 146, 305, 330 435 Mimicry, 97, 101, 108, 142, 147, 211, 216, 331, 332, 376 Modeling, 54, 184, 185, 326, 332, 345–346, 389 Monocultures, 335–338 Mounds, 338–339 Mulch, 339–340 Multi-participant agroecosystems, 340, 397 Multi-purpose trees, 42, 46, 158, 194, 341–342 N Natural ecology, vi, vii, 4, 108, 266, 283, 294, 297 Niches, see Competitive partitioning Non-harvest option, 64, 65, 92, 108, 111, 283, 301, 344–345 No-till, see Till/no-till O Opportunity costs, 157–159, 165 Optimization, 345–346 Orchards, see Plantations; Streuobst Organic agriculture, v, 208–210, 239 Oceans, 9, 217, 370, 409 P Paddies, 347 Parklands, 348 Pastures, 350–352 Pathogens, 352–353 Permaculture, v, 209, 353 Pigs (hogs), 103, 114, 215, 289, 294, 331, 350, 375 Pitfalls, 188–189, 306 Plantations, 354–356 Planting methods (shrubs and trees), 357–359 Planting ratios, 21, 23, 24, 78, 184, 260, 359, 361, 369 Pollination, 34, 37, 158, 219, 306, 314, 328, 361–363 Ponds, 363 See also Lakes Population ecology, 4, 318 Precepts (agroecological), 40, 49, 52, 265, 267, 364, 407 Predator-prey, 365 Primary species, 365 Profitability, 29, 31, 55, 142, 143, 162, 279, 319, 326, 332, 334, 346, 347 Index 436 Profit (defined), 28 Pruning (trees), 365–366 Push-pull (insects), 368 Q Quality-of-life, 142, 145, 181, 208, 292, 322, 368–369 R Ratio lines, see Planting ratios Relative value total (RVT), 369 Repellent plants, 36, 41, 49, 216, 218, 267, 306–311, 314, 370, 371, 405, 407 Resource concentration hypothesis, 370 Revenue orientation, 370 Rice paddies, see Paddies Riparian buffers, 370–371 Rivers, 8, 9, 59, 98, 119, 291, 296, 370, 409, 412 See also Streams Robins, 219 Rocks, see Stones Rotations, 371 See also Rules Row orientation, 25, 215, 227, 372–373 Rules (for) below ground interactions, 77 complex agrosystems, 109 eco-services, 40–41, 49, 169, 194 facilitation, 90–91 intercrops, 76–77 landscapes, 139, 324 risk reduction, 125, 126 rotations, 272 shade systems, 78 S Salt, 145, 181, 374, 375 Scarecrows, 38, 215, 216, 220, 251, 368, 375 Scattering (risk), 127–128 Secondary species, 19, 59, 68, 91, 92, 212, 222, 223, 252–254, 271, 365 Semi-husbandry, 375–376 Shade systems, 376 See also Rules Shelterbelts, 43, 46, 69, 71, 122, 142, 374, 380 See also Windbreaks Shrub gardens, 110–113, 211, 212, 371, 393 Sigmoidal equations, 381 Sigmoid functions (illustrated), 18, 50, 125, 160, 232, 235, 237, 274 Silviculture, 110, 114, 202, 381–382 Slash and burn, 338 Slash and char, 388 Slash and mulch, 388, 389 Solution theory (landscape), 147, 389–390 Sparrows, 219 Spatial patterns, 18, 24–26, 42, 57, 72, 77, 108, 192 Starvation, 5, 120, 126, 132, 175, 177 Stones (clusters, walls, etc.), 69, 70, 141, 393–394 Streams, 71, 98, 211, 225, 279, 296, 297, 370, 412 Streuobst, 83, 345, 356, 390 Strip cropping, 391–393 Subsistence farming, 5, 15, 103, 125, 140, 143, 153, 165, 167–169 Support (physical), 90, 94, 100, 277, 395, 410 Surplus ecology, 157 T Taungyas, 396–399 Temperature, 34, 37, 48, 49, 62, 71, 118, 121, 128, 129, 185 Terraces, 399–400 Threat counters, see Eco-services Tierra prieta, 46, 219, 388, 404, 409 Till/no-till, 174, 345, 404–405 Trade, 180, 275, 389 Tradition agriculture, 209 Trap crops, 40, 71, 92, 251, 309, 310, 405–406 Traps (birds and animals), 406–407 Traps (insect), 40, 306, 307, 310, 318 Traumatic release, 309, 407 Tree-over-crop agroecosystems, 167, 282, 408–409 Treerow alley cropping, see Alley cropping Tropical homegardens, 106, 211, 241, 408 Truant resources, 9, 409–410 V Vermiculture, 240–242 Vines, 67, 87, 90, 91, 92, 100, 277, 282, 288, 395, 410 See also Support von Liebig hypothesis, 326 W Wades, 225, 296, 305, 371 Waterbreaks, 43, 69, 71, 122, 142, 411 Index Water channels, 43, 69, 71, 122, 217, 243, 410–411 Water harvesting, 118, 119, 136, 142, 229, 347, 411–412 Weed control, 412–414 Windbreaks, 37, 46, 47, 50, 69, 71, 97, 122, 129, 140, 142, 146, 148, 417 See also Shelterbelts 437 Wind tunnel effect, 37, 418, 419 Woodpeckers, 220, 221, 308 Y Yield functions, see Sigmoidal equations Yield gap analysis, 162, 163, 420 ... irresistible and the land users seek and find more eco-accommodating agroecosystems In presenting the paths and options, the avenues for change are discussed in this text Agroecology Explained. .. laws and regulations and therefore free for general use The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and. . .Agroecology Paul Wojtkowski Agroecology Simplified and Explained Paul Wojtkowski Universidad de Concepción Pittsfield, MA,