END OF AN ERA • END OF AN ERA • HOW CHINA’S AUTHORITARIAN REVIVAL IS UNDERMINING ITS RISE Carl Minzner 1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America © Oxford University Press 2018 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer CIP data is on file at the Library of Congress ISBN 978–​0–​19–​067208–​9 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America To my mother, Pamela Burgy Minzner, who made it all possible TA B L E O F   C O N T E N T S • Acknowledgments  ix Preface  xv Introduction  1 Overview: The End of China’s Reform Era  17 Society and Economy: The Closing of the Chinese Dream  37 Politics: Internal Decay and Social Unrest  67 Religion and Ideology: What Do We Believe?  113 China in Comparative Perspective  143 Possible Futures  161 Conclusion  191 Notes  197 Index  241 vii AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S • Writing a book takes a long time In my case, it has extended well over a decade Many of the general ideas for this manuscript originated while serving as senior counsel to the Congressional-​Executive Commission on China from 2003 to 2006, monitoring and writing on a range of Chinese rule-​of-​law and human rights developments along with an outstanding team of coworkers and research assistants (many of whom have gone on to fascinating China-​related careers of their own) Others were developed between 2006 and 2007, as a fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations But as so happens to academics facing the tenure process, this project lay inchoate for a number of years as I began my teaching career and found myself confronting incentives for producing much more narrowly specialized academic articles I owe a deep debt of gratitude to the National Committee on United States–​China Relations for providing me with a much-​needed morale boost to restart this work, through including me in their Public Intellectuals Program from 2011 to 2013 Aimed at encouraging mid-​ career academics to communicate with the general public, the program played a crucial role in prompting me to try to write for a broader audience It also served an invaluable role of helping to break down the artificial disciplinary barriers that divide China scholars, introducing me to ix 246 Index Education (cont.) policy reform in early 2000s, 58 See also Colleges/​ universities Egypt, 153–​54 Eight Immortals, 74 Elections in India, 154 as source of polarization, 155–​56 in South Korea, 147, 152 in Taiwan, 145, 147–​50 village, 68, 72, 74, 75, 86 Elementary school, 41 Elites as beneficiaries of economic reforms, 25 emigration of families and assets, 11, 29 migration to U.S. for college, 47–​49 and Xi’s consolidation of power, 29 End of History, The (Fukuyama), 67–​68 Environmental costs of economic growth, 84–​85 Epoch Times (Dajiyuan), 124 Ethnic Chinese, 180–​81 Ethnonationalism and “China Dream,” 138 and China’s future, 181 in U.S., 188 Xi and, 31–​32, 59 Europe, income inequality in, 50, 53 Evangelical Protestantism, 114 Ever-​Victorious Army, 237n–​38n Examination system, 39 See also Gaokao Failed states, 177 Falun Dafa Research Association, 122 Falun Gong, 7, 23, 121–​26, 156 Family planning, 83–​84 Fang (relaxation), 165 Fangdichan gaige (property reform), 168 Fan Zhongyan, 38, 39 Faxi village petitions, 86–​87 Fenggang Yang, 119 Fen shu keng ru (burn the books and bury the scholars), 118 Film festivals, 140 Financial liberalization, 49–​50 Five-​Year Plan (2016-​2020), 59 Floods, 3 Focus Interview (TV program), 75 Folk religions, 114 Forced collectivization, 49 Ford Foundation, 23 Foreign NGO law, 31, 91, 166, 179 Foreign relations and China’s future, 176–​77, 181–​88 with U.S., 181–​88 Foreign reserves, 65 Foreign trade, 22, 177, 179, 181–​85 Fraud and college expansion in late 1990s, 46 See also Corruption Freedom, as U.S. ideal, 187 Free trade, 182–​84 Friedman, Thomas, 10 Fu, Bob, 130 Fukuyama, Francis, 17–​18, 67–​69, 94, 108 Future, possible developments in, 161–​89 continued authoritarian rule, 164–​66 demise of liberal dream, 162–​64 dynastic cycle, 169–​72 Populist Nationalism, 166–​69 regime collapse, 172–​76 Fuzao (restless), 115 Gallagher, Mary, 93 Gandhi, Mahatma, 155 Gao Gang incident, 71 Gaokao (national college entrance examination), 39–​40, 42–​44, 46–​48, 193 GDP See Gross domestic product Gilley, Bruce, 162 Gini coefficient, 50–​51 Global financial crisis (2008), 4, 27, 65 Globalization, 22, 183 See also Foreign trade Index Gongnongbing (worker, peasant, solider) students, 39 Google, 24 Governance after Tiananmen Square protests, 73–​74 core problem, 68–​70 institutions (See Institutions of governance) local vs centralized, 70–​71 search for solutions, 70–​73 society and, 191–​93 Graft See Corruption “gray” (unregistered) religious faiths, 114–​17, 119–​20, 131–​32 Great Britain and Hong Kong, 109 and India, 154–​55 and U.S. political institutions, 143 “Great Firewall of China,” 24 Great Leap Forward, 8 “Green GDP,” 84 Gross domestic product (GDP) environmental costs of growth targets, 84 expansion in China (2001-​2014), 147 national debt as percentage of, 27 and pathway of authoritarian modernization, 146–​48 slowing of growth, 27, 61 Guangdong protests, 89 Guangju Massacre, 147 Guangxu Emperor, 171 Guangzhou, 24 Han Chinese and Qing dynasty, 238n and religious radicalization in western China, 137 and resurgent ethnonationalism, 31 in Xinjiang and Tibet, 25 Hangzhou, 60 Han Han, 164 Hard Authoritarianism, 164, 173, 178–​80 Havel, Vaclav, 143–​44 Hawley–​Smoot Tariff, 184 He, Xiaobin, 52 Hebei Buddhist Academy, 128 Hebei province, 127–​29 Heilongjiang taxi driver protests, 92 He Weifang, 40 Higher education See Colleges/​ universities High-​speed rail, 4 High-​tech startups, 62 Hindus, 155, 156 Hong Kong breakdown of China’s reform-​era norms, 109–​12 and ethnonationalism, 31–​32 247 and U.S. credit-​rating agencies, 229n Hong Kong Economic Journal, 110–​11 Hong Kong National Party, 111 Housing, privatization of, 52–​53 Housing bubble, 27 Housing prices, 52–​53 Huang Yasheng, 20, 51, 52 Hubei province, 46, 58 Hu Jintao and administration and CCP’s consolidation of power, 26 Deng and, 21 and “lost decade,” 11 pro-​rural policies, 57–​58 and rural economic development, 25–​26 and Xi’s rise to power, 29, 30 Hukou (household registration) system, 42–​44, 49, 59, 63 Human rights, 4, 126, 161, 178n, 181–​83, 185 Huntington, Samuel, 105, 144–​45 Ideological conformity, 140–​41 Imperial examinations, 39 Income inequality, 37, 49–​53 and China’s future, 173 248 Index Income inequality (cont.) factors contributing to, 51–​52 Gini coefficient, 50–​51 in 1990s, 9–​10 in early 2000s, 25 and state-​led capitalism, 9 India, political liberalization in, 154–​56 Indian National Congress, 155 Information controls, 85–​86 Infrastructure investments, 4–​5 “innovation society,” 60 Input institutions, 32 Institutionalized norms, 193 Institutional Revolutionary Party (Mexico), 154 Institutions of governance agency and, 193–​94 Cultural Revolution’s effect on, 18–​19 decay in post-​reform era, 32–​34, 98–​100, 107–​8, 171–​73 in Hong Kong, 111 in imperial China, 2 and judicial reform, 104–​5 in reform era, 19, 21–​22, 32, 68, 71–​73 in South Korea, 152 weakness of non-​CCP institutions, 13, 173 International trade, 182–​84 Internet Alibaba and, 60–​63 censorship of, 24, 57 and citizen complaints, 23 and college students, 22 online activism, 89 as source for information on local problems, 86 Intra-​party democracy, 78 IPOs (initial public offerings), 60 Iran, 177 Iranian Revolution, 186 Iraq War, 144 Islamic fundamentalism, 178 Islam/​Muslims in India, 156 and Middle Eastern national identities, 177–​78 number of adherents in China, 114 and “patriotic” religious organizations, 119 and religious radicalization in western China, 137 See also Uighurs Isolationism, U.S., 183, 184 Japan, 21 See also Sino-​Japanese War J Curve, The (Bremmer), 155–​56 Jesuits, 118 Jews, 139 Jiangsu province, 43, 57, 58 Jiang Zemin, 21, 26, 29 Jieceng gehua (hardening of class differences), 49 Jing Hui, 128 Jingkong (capital appeals), 89 Jinshi, 38 Johnson, Ian, 114 Journalism media as watchdog, 75–​76, 86 overseas Chinese-​ language media, 239n in 1990s, 23 Judicial reform, 103–​5 Kaifeng, 139 Kaohsiung Incident, 147 KFC, 180 Kidnappings, 179n Kim Dae-​jung, 151, 152 Kim Young-​sam, 151, 152 KMT See Nationalist Party Koesel, Karrie, 132 Kristof, Nicholas, 12 Kroeber, Arthur, 63–​64 Kunming, chemical plant protests in, 5 Labor Contract Law (2008), 90–​91 Labor disputes, 91–​93 Lam, Willy, 107 Latin America, 144 Leadership succession, 21 League of Nations, 184 Legal reform under Deng, 19 election supervision, 76–​77 public-​interest lawyers, 23–​24 Index reversals in early 2000s, 24 in 1980s, 72–​74 Legal system, affluent vs poor in, 222n Lei Yang case, 87–​89 Lenin, Vladimir, 14 Leninism, 26 Liberal activists, 96 Liberal Dream, demise of, 162–​64 Liberal values, of U.S. support for, 178n, 187–​88 Liberty, as U.S. ideal, 187 Li Chengpeng, 54–​55, 57 Liebman, Ben, 95–​96 Li Hongzhi, 121–​23 Li Keqiang, 40, 70, 105–​6, 164 Li Lianjiang, 75 Lingdao xiaozu (leading small groups), 105–​6 Ling Jihua, 81 Literature, state promotion of ideological conformity in, 140 Liu Xiaobo, 12, 161–​63 Liu Zhijun, 4 Local elections, 74 “lost decade,” 11 Luce, Henry, 186 Ma, Jack, 61 Manchus, 39 Mandela, Nelson, 144 Mann, James, 162 Maoists, 7, 178 Mao Zedong bottom-​up supervision of bureaucracy, 71 and Confucianist repackaging of CCP, 7 effects of radicalism on China, 18–​19 examination of legacy after death of, 8 parallels of Xi’s rule with, 108–​9 Peng Zhen and, 74 personality cult of, 119 and Red Guard, 169 statue in Shenzhen, 115 wealth redistribution under, 49 and Yangtze, 1 Yiguandao and, 134 Market incentives, 19–​20 Market reforms, Deng Xiaoping and, 22 Mass incidents, 87 Mass protests, 94 Master’s programs, 47 Materialism, 115 McDonald’s, 63, 135, 180 Media, as watchdog, 75–​76, 86 Medical malpractice suits, 95–​96 Meng Jianzhu, 227n MEP (Ministry of Environmental Protection), 84–​85 Mercedes-​Benz, 31 Merit-​based systems, 19, 37–​49 Mexico, 154 Microsoft, 30 Migrant workers, wages for, 47 Millennialism, 132 Ming dynasty, 176 Minghui website, 124 249 Ministry of Civil Affairs (MOCA), 74 Ministry of Education, 44, 62 Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP), 84–​85 Ministry of Health, 83 Min River, 194 MOCA (Ministry of Civil Affairs), 74 Mongols, 39 Moody’s, 65 Mormons, 133 Muslims See Islam; Uighurs Nanxun (southern tour), 79 Napoleon Bonaparte, emperor of the French, 15 Nathan, Andrew, 23 National Congress 18th (2012), 9–​12 19th (2017), 12, 29–​30, 107, 164 National debt, 27 National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), 84 Nationalism, 168–​69 populist (See Populist Nationalism) and U.S.–​China relations, 188 See also Ethnonationalism Nationalist Chinese, 134 Nationalist (KMT) Party (Taiwan), 149, 150, 186 250 Index National People’s Congress, 72 Nativism, 180, 187–​89 NATO, 183 Neo-​Totalitarianism, 165–​66 NEPA (National Environmental Protection Agency), 84 New Citizens Movement, 96, 156 New Democracy Party, 156 New Tang Dynasty (cable TV station), 124 New York Times, 81 NGOs (non-​ governmental organizations), legal restrictions on, 31, 91, 166, 179 Nigeria, 156 Nine Commentaries, 124 Ningde, 120 Norms absence in China, 193 destruction in Xi’s consolidation of power, 12, 28–​29, 33–​34, 107, 163 and governance, 192, 193 in Hong Kong, 109–​10, 112 in reform era, 32, 68 and response to social unrest, 95, 96, 100 unraveling of reform era policies, 18, 32–​33 Nuclear weapons, 184 Obama, Barack, and administration, 17 O’Brien, Kevin, 75 Office Depot, 63 Office of the United States Trade Representative, 183 Okhrana, 159 One-​child policy, 83–​84 One-​Party system and economic inequality, 65 ethno-​nationalism as new ideology, 138 and governance reform, 76 and limits on reform, 68 persistence of, 5 and resilient authoritarianism, 23 and unwinding of reform, 33 Xi and, 12, 31 Online activism, 89 Online chat rooms, 22 Online commerce, Alibaba and, 60–​63 Open Constitutional Initiative, 77 Open Government Information, 78 Optional Practical Training, 206n Origins of Political Order, The (Fukuyama), 67 Osnos, Evan, 4, 114 Overcapacity, 61, 82 “Pan, Mr.” (Buddhist), 126–​27, 131 Park Chun-​hee, 151 Parkinson’s law, 237n Party Congress, 10 “patriotic education” campaign, 21 Peerenboom, Randall, 144–​45, 148 Pei, Minxin, 108 Peking University, 41, 43 Peng Zhen, 74–​75 People’s Daily, 82 Personality cult of Mao, 119 of Xi, 30, 107–​9, 119 Petitioners, government response to, 86–​102 PetroChina, 80 Poland, 153 Police state, 153, 159 Politburo Standing Committee Bo Xilai and, 27 and SOE reform, 82 and Soft Authoritarianism, 164 Zhou Yongkang and, 26, 28, 107 Political institutionalization, 68, 105 Political-​Legal Committee, 98 Political liberalization and authoritarian modernization, 146, 149, 152, 154–​56 CCP’s opposition to, 18 Political Order and Political Decay (Fukuyama), 67 Politics, 67–​112 Pollution, 84–​85 Polo, Marco, 171 Index Pomfret, John, 188–​89 Population planning, 83–​84 Populism in U.S., 192 and Xi’s rise to power, 30 Populist Nationalism, 166–​69, 173, 180–​81 Postgraduate education, 47 Principal-​agent problem, 69–​70, 74–​75, 78 Privatization and crony capitalism, 80 of educational finance, 41–​42 of urban housing, 22 Project Beauty, 137 Protestantism Eastern Lightning and, 135–​36 evangelical Protestantism, 114 and “patriotic” religious organizations, 119–​20 in South Korea, 151 in Wenzhou, 138 Protests government response to, 92–​101 Kunming chemical plant, 5 post-​Tiananmen suppression of, 21 in Taiwan, 150 Public-​interest lawyers, 23–​24, 30 Purges under Deng, 19 of Zhou Yongkang, 28, 106, 107, 163 Putin, Vladimir, 14, 17 Putnam, Robert, 192 Qiao Shi, 73, 74 Qigong, 7, 121–​22 Qin dynasty repression of Confucianism, 117–​18 Qing dynasty and Boxer Rebellion, 169 emperors’ view of state and empire, 178 Ever-​Victorious Army, 238n and examination system, 39 institutional decay, 171, 172 and petitioners, 89 reforms, 13–​14 rise and fall of, 176 and Taiping Rebellion, 137 turmoil after collapse of, 156 and Xi’s “Chinese Dream”, 31 Yiguandao and, 134 Qi Yuling case (2001), 77 Radicalization of Falun Gong, 124 government suppression as cause of, 157 of “gray” religions, 132–​33 in Tsarist Russia, 159–​60 Rail network, 4 251 Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), 155 Real estate economic overdependence on, 27 as foreign haven for Chinese capital, 34, 65, 186 Realist view of international relations, 176–​78, 186–​87 Realpolitik, 178n “red capitalism,” 22 “red” (state-​sponsored) churches/​religions, 119, 126–​31 “red dynasty” governance model, 2, 103–​4, 171–​72 Red Guard, 119, 169 Red Turban Rebellion, 133 Reform China’s abandonment of, 18 China’s lack of institutions to enable, 13 and counter-​reform era, 32–​35 under Deng Xiaoping, 8–​9 one-​Party rule vs., 68 origins of, 18–​20 post-​Tiananmen, 20–​23 in South Korea, 152 stagnation in late 1990s-​2000s, 23–​26 of state-​owned enterprises, 63–​64 suppression in China, 156–​57 252 Index Reform (cont.) in Tsarist Russia, 158–​59 unwinding of, 26–​32 Reform era abandonment of associated assumptions, 179 educational expansion during, 41 end of, 17–​35 and income inequality, 173 religion during, 119 Reformist autocracy, 153–​54 Regime change, dangers of, 185 Regime collapse, as future scenario, 172–​76 Religion, 113–​41 “black” faiths, 119, 121–​26 in contemporary China, 6–​7, 119–​21 evolution in response to state sanctioning or repression, 129–​36 “gray” faiths, 114–​17, 119–​20 history of new faiths in China, 117–​19 “red” faiths, 119, 126–​31 and search for values in contemporary China, 6–​7 and 1980s social reform, 20 state suppression’s effects on evolution, 135–​40 See also specific religions Renmin University, 88 Resilient authoritarianism, 11, 23 Ricci, Mateo, 118 “rigid stability,” 101–​2 Ringen, Stein, 103, 169, 193 Riots, 5, 25, 56, 97, 149 River Elegy (TV program), 20 Roach, Steven, 62–​63 Roman Catholicism See Catholicism Rowlatt Acts (1919), 235n RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh), 155 “rule according to law,” 21 Rural China/​Chinese credit policies disfavoring, 25 and gaokao, 39–​40 and housing privatization, 52 Hu Jintao and, 25–​26 and income inequality, 51–​52 policy reform in early 2000s, 57–​58 systematic exclusion from higher education, 41–​44, 203n in urban centers, 37 Russia historical lessons for China’s political evolution, 157–​60 post-​Soviet era, 173 Soviet era (See Soviet Union) Russo-​Japanese War (1904-​1905), 160 SARA (State Administration of Religious Affairs), 233n śarīrā (remnants), 129 Saudi Arabia, 177–​78 Schell, Orville, 161 School attacks, 56–​57 Search engines, 24 Secondary school, 41 Seed Law case (2003), 77 Self-​censorship, 24 Self-​immolations, 137 Service sector, 62–​63 Shaanxi province, 86–​87 Shambaugh, David, 33, 103, 164–​67 Shandong province, 135 Shanghai college expansion in late 1990s, 45 education policies in early 2000s, 58–​59 Ever-​Victorious Army, 237n–​38n housing prices, 52 ride-​hailing service restrictions, 63 Shanxi province, 81 Shattered states, 177, 178 Shen Yun arts troupe, 125 Shenzhen, 52–​53, 63, 115 Shou (tightening), 165 Shui luo shi chu (when the water recedes, the rocks come out), 38 Sichuan province, 76, 90 Single-​Party system See One-​Party system Index Singles Day (November 11), 60 Sino-​Japanese War (1937-​1945), 3, 238n Smoot–​Hawley Tariff, 184 Social credit monitoring system, 10, 225n Social media as democratizing force, 89 and public sentiment against power structure, 54 state control of, 78 and unwinding of reform, 33 Social mobility, 37, 41 Social radicalization, 96–​102, 110 Social reform See Reform era Social unrest, government response to, 86–​102 Society, governance and, 191–​93 SOEs See State-​owned enterprises Soft Authoritarianism, 164 Soft power, 187 Solidarity, 153 Song dynasty, 171 Songhua River benzene spill (2005), 69 Songshi (litigation tricksters/​ instigators), 90 Soothing Scenario, 162 South Africa, 153 South China Morning Post, 101, 110–​11 South China Sea, 179 Southern Weekend, 23, 77, 78 South Korea and East Asian Model of authoritarian modernization, 144–​48, 151–​52 Gini coefficient, 51 semi-​institutionalized channels for dissent, 13 South Sudan, 156 Soviet Union bureaucratization of revolutionary parties, 237n collapse of, 9, 143, 173 national identity in 1920s, 177 SPC (Supreme People’s Court), 78, 104 SPC Leading Small Group Office for Judicial Reform, 104–​5 Spirituality, 6–​7 Spratly Islands, 182 Stalin, Joseph, 237n State Administration of Religious Affairs (SARA), 233n State Bureau of Letters and Visits, 89 State Council, 62, 76 State Department, U.S., 183 State-​led capitalism, 9 State-​owned enterprises (SOEs), 26, 63–​64, 80, 82 Stimulus spending, 27–​28, 82 Stock market bubble (2014-​2015), 64 253 Stolypin, Petr, 160 Strikes, 93–​94 Suicide bombings, 57 Sun Liping, 87 Sun Yat-​Sen, 1 Sun Zhigang, 24 Supreme People’s Court (SPC), 78, 104 Surveillance, 10, 225n Syria, 175–​76, 178 Taiping Rebellion, 136–​37, 238n Taiwan, 179n development track, 52 and East Asian Model of authoritarian modernization, 144–​50 economic growth (1960s-​1970s), 144 Gini coefficient, 51 and reformist autocracy, 154 semi-​institutionalized channels for dissent, 13 Donald Trump’s foreign policy and, 182–​83 Yiguandao and, 134–​35 Tang dynasty, 118, 127, 171 Tariffs, U.S., 183 Technocratic rule, 79–​80 Technology firms, 60–​63 Teng Biao, 24, 76, 96, 102 Terrorism, 25, 137 Three Gorges Dam, as metaphor for Chinese state, 1–​3, 194–​95 254 Index Three Supremes, 78 Tiananmen Square Buddhists and, 128 Confucius statue, 7 and end of political reform, 9, 20–​21 and resurgence of central government control, 73–​74 Tianjin, 122, 123 Tibet, 21, 25, 137–​38 Tibetan Buddhists, 20, 99–​100, 137 Time magazine, 108 Top-​down authoritarianism, 166, 193 Top-​down supervision, 70–​71, 103–​4 Trade, foreign, 22, 177, 179, 181–​85 Trade wars, 182–​83 Trump, Donald and authoritarianism, 17 chaotic foreign policy of, 182–​83 international power vacuum created by policies of, 11 and populism, 167, 192 Tudi gaige (land reform), 168 Tzu Chi, 7 Uber, 63 Uighurs, 20, 25, 31, 137, 139 Unemployment among college graduates, 37, 46–​47 United Kingdom See Great Britain United Nations, 84 United Nations World Conference on Women (Beijing Conference), 23 United States Chinese college students in, 47–​48 consequences of nationalist tilt, 188–​89 dangers of blind support for existing regime in China, 186–​87 dangers of regime change as foreign policy, 185 educational costs in, 48 Falun Gong in, 124–​26 foreign policy debates in, 178n future of Chinese relations, 176–​77, 181–​88 income inequality in, 53 international engagement by, 183–​85 naive understanding of democratization process, 143–​44, 162 pessimism about China’s current direction, 10–​11 populism in2016 election, 167 retreat from promotion of democracy, 17 school testing as principal-​agent problem, 69 upholding of liberal values domestically, 187–​88 “war on terror,” 224n Universities See Colleges/​ universities Urbanization, 25, 37, 42–​44 Urumqi, 25 Utah, 133 Values, in contemporary China, 6–​7 Violence, random incidents of, 5–​6, 54–​57 Vocational training, 45, 62 Voluntary organizations, 22–​23 Wahhabism, 178 Walder, Andrew, 52 Walesa, Lech, 144 Walmart, 61 Wang Qishan, 106 Wang Zuo’an, 233n “war on terror,” 224n Weak states, 177 Weber, Max, 108 Wedemen, Andrew, 80 Weibo, 78, 164 Weiwen (stability maintenance), 163 Wei Yinyong, 163 Wenchuan earthquake (2008), 194 Weng’an, 5 Wen Jiabao, 25 Wenzhou, 120, 139 White Lotus Rebellion, 133, 137 Whyte, Martin, 209n–​10n Index World Trade Organization, 22, 161 Xia Junfeng, 55 Xi Jinping anti-​corruption campaigns, 28–​29 Chinese Dream promotion, 59–​60 and Confucianism, 138 consolidation of power, 11–​12, 28–​30 economic forecasts, 61 economic reform, 12 and Hard Authoritarianism, 164 loss of bureaucratic cohesion under, 102–​9 Meng Jianzhu and, 227n and one-​Party system, 12 reform of state-​owned enterprises, 63–​64 suppression of ideological nonconformity in the arts, 140 and “traditional faiths,” 6–​7 and unwinding of reform, 33–​34 and Zhou Xiaoping, 163 Xinfang (letters and visits) bureaus, 89 Xingwei yishu (performance art), 96 Xinjiang, 25, 137–​39 Xuequfang (apartments in desirable school districts), 58 Xu Yuyuan, 57 Xu Zhiyong, 13–​14, 24, 76, 96 Yang Jia, 54 Yangmei (strawberries), 126 Yangtze River, 1, 194 Yellow River, 2–​3 Yifa zhiguo yigui zhidang (use law to govern the country, use internal regulations to govern the Party), 104 Yiguandao, 134–​35 Yipiao fojue (priority target with veto power), 92 Yirenping, 96 Yong qian lai mai wending (buying stability with cash), 95 Yuan dynasty, 39, 171 Yu guoji jiegui (linking up with the outside world), 22 Yu Jianrong, 56, 101–​2 Yulun jiandu (public opinion supervision), 75 Yu the Great, 2 Zakaria, Fareed, 146 Zasulich, Vera, 158–​59 Zen (Chan) Buddhism, 127–​28 Zeng Qinghong, 165 255 “Zhang, Mr.” (Baha’i adherent), 114–​17, 120, 121 Zhang Yimou, 40 Zhao Ziyang, 20, 21 Zhejiang province, 31, 97, 126, 139 Zhengnengliang (positive energy), 85 Zhengzhi guiju (political rules), 107 Zhongguo meng See Chinese Dream Zhongnanhai complex, 123 Zhou Enlai, 180–​81 Zhou Xiaoping, 163, 164 Zhou Yongkang, 227n and court system, 104 imprisonment on corruption charges, 11–​12 public security spending, 98 purge of, 28, 106, 107, 163 quasi-​independent fiefdom of, 10, 26 Xi and, 29 Zhuan Falun, 122 Zhuanke (junior college) students, 205n Zhu Rongji, 75, 79–​81, 161–​64 Zhu Suli, 39, 40 Zuzhihua, zhengzhihua, jietouhua (organized, politicized, pushed towards street action), 96 .. .END OF AN ERA • END OF AN ERA • HOW CHINA’S AUTHORITARIAN REVIVAL IS UNDERMINING ITS RISE Carl Minzner 1 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers... to 2006, monitoring and writing on a range of Chinese rule- of- ​law and human rights developments along with an outstanding team of coworkers and research assistants (many of whom have gone on... Michael Chang, Martin Dimitrov, Yinan He, Joanna Lewis, Anthony Spires, Elanah Uretsky, and the National Committee’s indefatigable Jan Berris (master at the art of discreetly disposing of alcohol