the SHALE DILEMMA History of the Urban Environment Mar tin V Melosi and Joel A Tarr, Editors  the SHALE DILEMMA A Global Perspective on Fracking and Shale Development Edited by Shanti Gamper-Rabindran University of Pittsburgh Press Published by the University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, Pa., 15260 Copyright © 2018, University of Pittsburgh Press All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America Printed on acid-free paper 10 ISBN 13: 978-0-8229-4513-0 ISBN 10: 0-8229-4513-4 Cataloging-in-Publication data is available from the Library of Congress Jacket art by Don Foley Infographics, donfoley.com Jacket design by Joel W Coggins For Felix CONTENTS Acknowledgments Introduction The Shale Dilemma ix SHANTI GAMPER-RABINDRAN PART I: THE UNITED STATES Mixed Fortunes The Risks and Rewards of Developing Shale Gas SHANTI GAMPER-RABINDRAN 33 Should Benefits and Costs Be Spread More Evenly? Political Battles over Local Government Powers, Taxation, Regulation, and Disclosure SHANTI GAMPER-RABINDRAN 89 PART II: EUROPE The United Kingdom To Develop or Not to Develop? One Nation or Localization? JIM SKEA 137 Poland Disappointed Expectations: Energy Security vs Bureaucracy and Geology MICHAEL LABELLE 178 France The Power of Public Opposition: From Permits to Protests to Bans PATRICE GEOFFRON 204 Germany The German Energiewende and the Decision to Ban Unconventional Hydraulic Fracturing MIRANDA A SCHREURS 231 viii CONTENTS PART III: EMERGING ECONOMIES China Replacing Coal with Shale Gas: Could Reducing China’s Regional Air Pollution Lead to More Local Pollution in Rural China? ALVIN LIN 267 Argentina Energy Extraction and Communities: Can Shale Development Proceed without Causing Pollution and Conflicts? MARÍA FLORENCIA SAULINO 305 South Africa Trying Not to Repeat History: Are Shale Gas Development and Broad-Based Economic Development Compatible? BARRY MORKEL AND MAARTEN DE WIT 342 Conclusion How and Why Countries Decide on Shale, and How They Can Make Better Decisions SHANTI GAMPER-RABINDRAN 379 Contributors Index 445 441 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, located in the heart of Marcellus Shale, is a microcosm of debates in communities and countries contemplating whether to pursue shale development and under what conditions These choices have raised debates about the ratio of benefits to costs, defined broadly, from shale gas and other energy sources, and the types of development pathways fostered by different energy choices These observations prompted me to organize the Environment and Energy conferences in 2014 and 2015 at the University of Pittsburgh (Pitt), which brought together colleagues from across the globe to discuss issues in the energy-economic-environment nexus I am indebted to the large number of people who generously shared their knowledge and experiences, including those from academia, research institutes, government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, industry, and from local communities I owe enormous thanks to Miranda Schreurs and Jim Skea for their early support of this book project, to Patrice Geoffron for cheering me, and to all three for their chapters I am most grateful to Michael LaBelle, Alvin Lin, Barry Morkel, Florencia Saulino, and Maarten de Wit for their chapters in this volume Many thanks to Pitt colleagues for their support: Ariel Armony, Eric Beckman, Patricia Beeson, Arie Beresteanu, Bopaya Bidanda, Minking Chyu, Louise Comfort, Allyson Delnore, Bernard Goldstein, Ron Linden, John T S Keeler, Ravi Madhavan, John Mendeloff, Jean Francois Richards, and Radisav Vidic I am immensely grateful to numerous colleagues who shared their insights and to presenters and participants at the Pitt conferences, workshops (the National Science Foundation-National Environment Research Council US-UK shale workshop and Natural Resources Defense Council-Sichuan University US-China shale workshop), seminars (Imperial College London, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Technical University of Munich, University of Munich, and University of Rome Tor Vergata), and conferences (the Chinese Economist Society, the European Environmental and Resources Economists, and the US Association for Energy Economists annual meetings) They include Michael Bradshaw, Elizabeth Casman, Susan Christopherson, Alessio D’Amato, Richard Davies, Amy Glasmeier, Bernard Goldstein, Wayne Gray, David Grover, Mathew Humphrey, Robert Jackson, George Jugovic, Timothy Kelsey, Robert Kleinberg, ix 446 INDEX Cabrera, Fernando, 325 Cambridge Econometrics and Pöyry, 212 Cameron, David, 113–14 Canada, 70n16 cap and trade, 49, 52 carbon budgets, 23, 138, 147, 166, 169 carbon capture and storage technology (CCS), 169, 421n12 carbon leakage, 73n40, 227n22, 421n11; efforts to prevent, 7, 65–66, 391–93 carbon pricing, 391 carbon taxes, 49, 52 Carrizo Aquifer, central governments, 120nn15–16, 324, 386; concern about public opinion on shale development, 137–38, 161; in decisionmaking process about shale development, 10, 12–13, 330–31; dependence on tax revenue from oil and gas industry, 305, 311; energy companies and, 180–81, 312; environmental regulations by, 90, 104–6; forcing disclosure of information by, 405–6; local communities vs., 396–97; local governments vs., 150–51, 168–69, 396, 397–98, 417–18; mineral rights owned by, 70n17, 99, 105, 119n9; oil and gas industry and, 167, 282, 312; optimism about benefits of shale development, 178, 331; promoting natural gas, 275–77; promoting shale development, 68, 407; promoting shale development in Argentina, 305–6; promoting shale development in China, 270–72; promoting shale development in Germany, 244–45, 251–54; promoting shale development in Poland, 182, 196; promoting shale development in UK, 137–38, 151, 164–70; protection of local communities and, 268, 326–27, 332; regulating shale development, 178–79, 296, 317–21, 363–64, 368, 389, 413, 416; relations with shale industry, 314–15, 399–400; state/provincial governments and, 249–51, 254, 306, 314–15 See also specific countries Chakravorty, Ujjayant, 101 Chandía, José, 325–26 chemicals, in hydraulic fracturing fluids, 37, 111–12; disclosure of, 120n13, 280; opposition to fracking based on, 243–44, 249, 253, 255 Cheney, Dick, 47 Chesapeake Energy, 42, 52, 57 Chevron, 181–82, 196, 404; contribution to Neuquén Province, 317–18; YPF deal with, 306, 309, 313, 315–16, 320, 322 China, 395, 405–6; air pollution in, 267, 272–75, 286, 393; decision making on shale development in, 118, 284–85, 290–93, 296, 395; dependence on coal, 267, 272, 393; effects of shale development in, 267–68, 281–83, 394, 407, 411, 278, 283; efforts to move away from coal, 267, 271–72, 295; energy mix in, 267, 271–74, 295; government promoting shale development, 270, 275–77, 295, 381, 407; lack of protection for local communities in, 117–18, 398, 402, 403–4; lack of regulations on shale development, 278–80, 391; local communities’ opposition to shale development, 389–90, 404; Ministry of Environmental Protection’s relation to energy companies, 117, 268, 284–90, 399; need to enact and enforce regulations on shale development, 116–17, 268, 284–86, 290–93, 295–96, 413; reforms proposed by Ministry of Environmental Protection, 268, 290–93, 296; regulations on shale development, 407, 413; shale development in, 269–71, 286; shale gas reserves in, 269, 269, 269–70; shale production in, 270, 276–77 China National Offshore Oil Company (CNOOC), 270, 294 China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), 271, 277, 294, 399, 411; enforcement actions against, 267–68, 413; proposing own regulations, 285–86; shale gas production by, 270, 282 Christopherson, Susan, 95 Clean Air Act (US), 105 Clean Power Plan (US), 50, 66, 70n15 Clean Water Act (US, 1972), 71n19 Climate Action Plan (US), 52, 71n19 Climate Change Act (UK), 146–47 INDEX climate protection, 105, 219; commitments to, 9, 138, 146–48, 224, 255; in decision making about shale development, 9–10, 50, 138, 153–60, 170; effects of shale development on, 58, 68, 390–93; goals for, 227n21, 421n13; management of shale development for, 419–20; in opposition to fracking, 237, 243–44; steps toward, 7, 275–76, 392 Clinton, Bill, 49 coal, 66, 223, 348; air pollution from, 72n30, 274–75, 393; in causes of climate change, 275–76; China’s dependence on, 267, 272; dependence on, 182–83, 348; efforts to move away from, 178, 273–74, 295, 347, 390–93; efforts to move power generation away from, 205, 239, 272, 273–74; vs gas in power generation, 10, 49–50, 65, 186–87; Germany’s dependence on, 210, 231, 236, 237, 238, 392; GHGs from, 275, 390–93; increasing cost of burning, 185–86; need to avoid carbon leakage, 65–66, 391; in power generation, 46, 72n30, 183, 348, 420n3, 421n8; replaced by natural gas in power generation, 7, 46, 66, 147, 267, 422n14 coal-bed methane, 254 colonialism, in South Africa, 351–52 Colorado (US), 93, 96–98 Combes, Maxine, 218 Committee on Climate Change (CCC, UK), 138, 147–48, 166, 169–70 Conference of Parties (COP21) See Paris Climate Agreement ConocoPhillips, 270–71, 294 COP21 See Paris Climate Agreement (2016) Corbett, Tom, 95, 107 Cotton, Matthew, 162 crime, 323, 361 Cuadrilla, 163, 167, 398; exploratory wells by, 137, 140–41; rejection of application by, 141–42, 157, 168–69, 397, 417–18 Cuomo, Andrew, 51, 58–59, 408 Davis, Charles, 93 De Beers, 358 decision-making process, on shale development, 193, 216–17, 219, 277, 293, 447 344, 395; assessing fairness of, 394–408; comparison of results of, 12–13; environmental information in, 288–90, 352–53; exclusions from, 306, 326–27, 403; factors in, 9–10; improvements needed in, 11–12, 295–96, 331–32; lack of public input in, 314–16, 320–21; lack of transparency in, 118, 331; local communities in, 188, 193, 367, 370–71; “meaningful participation” in, 422n23; need for broader inclusion in, 327, 329–32, 343, 367–68, 420; proposals for improvements to, 252, 408–18; public involvement in, 161–64, 250, 306; regulations for, 355–56, 364 Denton, Texas, 96–97, 119n4 Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC, UK), 142–43, 147–50, 162, 171n2, 382 Department of Mineral Resources (DMR, South Africa), 345–46, 355–56, 358, 368 Department of Science and Technology (DST, South Africa), 368–69 Department of the Interior (US), 105 Devon Energy, 41–42 Dimock, Pennsylvania, 108–10, 402 Dobrinsky, Paula J., 53, 384 Dow, YPF deal with, 309 Downs, Erica, 284 Drieschner, Frank, 242 Duda, Andsrzej, 184–85 earthquakes, 72nn28–29, 353; in Oklahoma, 93, 413; in opposition to fracking, 137, 244, 251; public demand for stronger environmental regulations after, 107, 413; in risks of shale development, 153–60, 234, 268, 280; from underground injection of wastewater, 60, 62, 137, 140–41, 251, 394, 407, 411 Econometrix study (Shell), 350–51 Economic Commission of Latin American and Caribbean (ECLAC), UN, 326–27 economic development, 314; in decision-making process about shale development, 6–9, 419; environmental protection vs., 98, 268, 306, 399; expectations of shale industry bringing, 117, 305, 448 INDEX economic development: expectations of shale industry bringing (cont.), 313, 322, 331; impact of shale development on, 68, 358–59, 387–90; South Africa promoting shale development for, 342–43, 350–52, 370; state governments’ support for shale development based on, 91–94 economy: Argentina’s crisis in, 311–12, 332n1; China’s, 268, 273; costs and benefits of shale development on, 6–7, 52–57, 68; effects of energy trading on, 143–45; effects of shale’s boom-bust cycles on, 42–43, 54–56, 99–100; French, 204–5, 223; impact of shale development on, 53–57, 211–14, 219, 226n7, 321; opposition to shale development for, 195–96; South Africa’s, 347, 350–52, 361; support for shale development for, 166–67, 170, 186, 383 education, tax revenue used for, 100, 120n10 electricity, 244 See also power generation emergencies, local government’s responsibility for, 59–60 Energiewende (German energy plan), 232, 238, 247, 255, 382 energy consumption, 310–11; efforts to reduce, 222–23, 383; in UK, 140, 142–43, 143 energy crises: Argentina’s, 313, 316, 331; South Africa’s, 347, 369–70 Energy Development Strategy Action Plan (China) energy efficiency: call for investment in, 385, 420; efforts to increase, 142, 238, 247, 255, 383, 385–86; lack of commitment to, 48–49, 70n10, 350 energy exports, 3–4, 33, 311 energy imports: Argentina’s, 310–11, 331; US, 3–4, 33, 383 Energy Information Administration (EIA, US), estimates of shale gas reserves by, 43, 178, 181, 269, 307, 345; in France, 204, 206, 208; in US, 69n4, 69n6, 384 energy mix, 392; Argentina’s, 310–11, 316; China’s, 272–74; in decision-making process about shale development, 9–10, 384–85; French, 209–11, 223, 224; Germany’s, 231, 234–38, 236, 237, 255; goals for, 223, 385–86; Poland’s, 182–83, 420n2; South Africa’s, 347–49; UK’s, 137, 142–43; US’, 44–49 energy plans, 382, 386; French, 205, 211, 222, 227n20, 385; German, 232, 238, 247–48, 255, 382, 401; transition to low-carbon, 222–24, 232, 238, 392; US, 47–49, 52, 104 energy prices, 224, 244; Argentina government setting, 309–10; benefits of cheap energy, 205, 242; effects of shale development and, 213–14, 222, 225n6; effects on consumption, 147–48; influence on industries, 53, 242, 247, 255, 383, 387; of renewables, 385, 421n6; US, 49, 53, 240, 247, 255, 387 See also natural gas prices; oil prices energy security, 144, 231; not incentive for shale development, 224, 236, 247; nuclear removing concern about, 205, 209; Poland’s concern about, 184–85, 194, 196; role of shale gas in, 9, 53, 137, 234, 381–86; shale gas alone not ensuring, 418–19; in US foreign policies, 47–49 energy transition, low-carbon, 222–24, 232, 238, 386, 392 Energy Transition Law (France), 205, 211, 222, 227n20, 385 environment, 98, 294, 396; effects of fracking on, 220–21, 231, 241, 246; effects of shale development on, 6–7, 153–60, 193–94, 289, 305–6, 321–22, 324–25, 406; risks of shale development to, 359–61, 394 environmental damage, 268, 367, 393; from mining in South Africa, 343, 361–63, 370 environmental management plans, in South Africa, 344, 346, 352–53, 367 environmental protection, 100, 217, 353, 402; commitment to, 415, 4011; economic development vs., 98, 306; energy security vs., 381–82; opposition to fracking based on, 204, 227n20, 242, 246–47, 255–56; opposition to shale development based on, 187, 195; optimism about shale development and, 113–14, 157, 194, 219, 234, 248, 365–66; reforms needed to improve, 328–29; shale companies’ commitment to, 107–8, 409; Sinopec’s report on, 281–82 INDEX Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, US), 106, 120n18, 406; fracking not regulated by, 70n8, 104; NGOs pushing for stronger regulation by, 104–5; reports on HVHF’s effects on drinking water, 108–11, 121n21; reports on shale operations, 108–11, 113, 407 Environmental Protection Law (China), 268, 284–85, 290, 294, 413 environmental regulations, 65, 214, 356–57; calls for strengthening of, 104–5, 107, 246, 251; by central governments, 90, 104–6, 120nn15–16; demand for, 115–16; enforcement of, 284–85, 306, 317, 407–8; exemptions from, 48, 120n13, 381; failures of, 112–13, 331, 407; on long-term stewardship of wells, 64–65; need for stronger enforcement of, 267–68, 306, 329, 371; need to enact, 267–68, 295–96, 313; in Poland, 188–89, 192–93; state officials’ relations with energy industry and, 114–15, 119n2; by state/provincial governments, 90, 92–94, 106–8, 329; strengthening of, 169, 252–55, 407; Trump’s rollback of, 52; in UK, 118, 148–52, 166–67; weak enforcement of, 324–25, 356–57; weakness of, 93, 306 Environmental Rights Amendment (PA), 98 environment impact assessments (EIAs), 318, 320; call for strengthening, 246–47, 250, 328; changes needed in China’s, 290–93, 295–96; in China, 285–90, 288–90, 413; in Poland, 187–89, 192–93; requirements for, 150, 319; weakness of China’s requirements for, 268, 287–89, 295 Eskom utility company (South Africa), 348–50 Esterhuyse Kemp Redelinghuys, 363–64 estimate ultimate recovery, from wells, 71n24 Europe, 207, 224; shale development in US vs., 214, 225n6 European Parliament, petitions to, 194–95, 198nn4–5 European Union, 189; efforts to reduce GHGs in, 66, 185–86; Environment Impact Assessment Directive in, 192–93; natural gas trade in, 143–45, 144, 183–84; renewables requirements of, 182–83 449 European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), 185–86 ExxonMobil, in Germany, 232, 234, 250 Falcon Oil and Gas, in South Africa, 344, 346, 352–54 Federal Environment Agency (UBA, Germany), 246–47 federal governments See central governments Federal Hydrocarbons Law (Argentina), 305–6, 313–14, 317–18 Federal Mining Act (Germany), 249–50, 254 Federal Water Act (Germany), 245, 249–50, 252, 254 Fernández de Kirchner, Cristina See Kirchner administration Feyrer, James, 54 Fillon, Franỗois, 221, 383 forced pooling, 51, 396 foreign policies See energy security fossil fuels, 26n1, 70n9; dependence on, 182–83, 236; in energy mixes, 44–47, 234–37; France moving away from, 209–11, 221, 223; public opposition to, 162–63, 204–5, 209; renewables vs., 385, 415; transitions away from, 7, 242, 386, 419–20; unconventional, 224 FracFocus, 112 fracking, 27n3, 35, 37, 38, 121n21, 171n4, 242–43, 248, 353; alternatives to, 215; bans on, 249–54, 325–26, 401; consideration of allowing, 164–66, 244–45, 249–54; in conventional oil and gas industry, 7, 27n3, 250–52; conventional vs unconventional, 27n3, 232, 248, 254–55; effects on drinking water, 108–11; exempted from environmental regulations, 48, 104, 120n13, 381; of exploratory wells, 181–82; French ban on, 204, 206, 219–22, 225, 226n9, 227n20, 383; German ban on, 231–32, 244–45, 248, 251–55, 383; German history of conventional, 232, 233, 242, 250–52; industry denying risks of, 121n20, 220–21, 324; not regulated by US Environmental Protection Agency, 70n8, 104; public opposition to, 214–15, 217–19, 238, 242–51; 450 INDEX fracking (cont.): regulation of, 94–95, 325, 344–46, 363–64; reports on effects of, 121n21, 246–48; in UK, 140–41, 170; unconventional, 234, 238, 241–42; water required for, 61–62, 72n31, 279–81, 309, 330, 366, 371n3, 411–12 See also chemicals, in hydraulic fracturing fluids; earthquakes France, 216, 395, 398; ban on fracking in, 204, 206, 219–22, 225, 226n9, 227n20, 383; commitment to environmental protection in, 8, 391–92, 415; conventional oil and gas industry in, 215–16; decision-making process, on shale development, 216–17, 219; energy mix in, 209–11; energy transition by, 222–24, 382, 385, 392; estimated shale gas reserves in, 204, 206–9, 212, 225n2, 225n5; lack of incentives for shale development, 224–25, 389; lack of shale exploration in, 208–9, 211–12; opposition to fracking in, 214–15; opposition to shale development in, 217–21, 391–92, 400; shale basins in, 206–8 Frickey, Clay, 95 Fukushima nuclear disaster, 224, 237–38 Fuling field (China), 270, 281 382; energy mix of, 234–38, 236, 255, 385–86, 392, 415; energy security as priority for, 231, 236, 420n2; nuclear energy in, 237–38, 392; opposition to fracking in, 231–32, 242–51, 383; opposition to shale development in, 391–92, 400; shale gas reserves in, 232, 234, 235; shale industry in, 231, 398 Germany Energiewende (German energy plan), 382 Giustiniani, Rubén, 315–16, 320 Golden Rules for a Golden Age of Gas (IEA), 33, 58, 409 Grabowski, Maciej, 191 greenhouse gases (GHGs), 185, 205, 243, 275, 422n14; climate protection policies to reduce, 71n19, 146–48; commitments to reducing, 391–92, 419; effects of, 187, 255; efforts to reduce, 50, 66, 178, 237; European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), 185–86; goals for reducing, 66, 222; methane and, 65, 147–48, 421n8; rejection of shale development in reduction of, 224–25, 391–92; steps to reduce, 198n2, 390, 419–20, 421n12 Grillo, Ulrich, 242 Ground Water Protection Council, 112 Gallois, Louis, 220, 227n18 Gallucio, Miguel, 310, 313 Gasland (film), 154, 218, 242 gasoline taxes, 49, 70n13 Gas Plus program (Argentina), 309, 312 Gas y Petroleo Neuquén (Argentina), 117, 309 Geological and Mining Law (Poland), 187, 191–92, 397 geology, 214, 279; influence on shale development, 179, 182, 197, 271 Gerking, Shelby, 101 German Advisory Council on the Environment (SRU), 246–47 Germany, 184–85, 389, 395; commitment to environmental protection, 8, 231, 238, 4011; conventional hydrocarbons in, 232–34, 233, 250; decision making on fracking in, 245–48, 251–56; dependence on coal, 210, 392, 420n3; Energiewende energy plan of, 232, 237–40, 247, 255, Habeck, Robert, 249 Haggerty, Julia, 55 Halliburton loophole, 48, 104 Headwaters Economics, 101 health, 60–61, 268, 411; effects of fracking on, 112, 241; efforts to protect, 151–52; energy security vs., 381–82; fracking ban based on, 227n20, 231; protection of, 268, 402, 409; shale operations’ effects on, 58–59, 282–83, 322, 324, 408; threats to, 59, 361–63, 393 heating, 272; natural gas in, 46, 53, 142, 183, 236, 245, 247 Hendricks, Barbara, 231, 253 high-volume hydraulic fracturing (HVHF) See fracking Hickenlooper, John, 93, 96 historically disadvantaged communities, in South Africa, 367 Hitaj, Claudia, 56 INDEX Hollande, Franỗois, 204, 220, 22122, 227n18, 383 horizontal drilling, 37, 38, 41, 151; “deeplevel land” and, 164, 171; for oil, 46, 146; in shale development, 35, 232 House of Lords report (UK), 154–56 HSEs, 294–96; impacts of mining on, 343, 390; information about, 58, 410; protection from, 278–80, 332; from shale development, 324–25, 394 See also environment; health; social impacts Hughes, J David, 69n6 hydraulic fracturing fluids See chemicals, in hydraulic fracturing fluids Hydrocarbons Law (Argentina), 328 hydrogen sulfide, in natural gas, 268, 279 indigenous communities, 397, 404; conflict with shale industry over land, 389–90; in decision making about shale development, 330–31, 332, 343; excluded from shale development decision making, 306, 320–21, 326–27, 367; in the Karoo, 351–52; shale development’s effects on, 305–6, 322, 326–27 industries, 241, 292–93, 296, 388; decline of, 205, 273; effects of energy prices on, 53, 240, 242, 247, 255, 383, 387; mining and, 355, 362, 364; shale competing with other, 55, 215, 305–6, 350, 359, 395, 398–400; use of natural gas, 4, 46, 310 INEOS, 141, 147, 166 infrastructure, 343; local governments’ responsibility for, 95–96, 388–89, 397; for natural gas, 143–44, 184–85; for renewable energy, 386; for shale development, 329–30, 357, 360, 384–86 Infrastructure Act (UK), 164, 166, 169, 397 Ingram, Stephen, 412 Institute of Directors (IoD, UK), 152–53 Integrated Resource Plan (IRP, South Africa), 349 Internet, 218, 368 Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission (IOGCC), 64–65, 112 Jackson, Lisa, 121n20 Jackson, R B., 351 451 Jacob, Christian, 219–20 Jacobsen, Grant D., 55 Jaenicke, Edward C., 54 Jaspal, Rusi, 194 Jindal, Bobby, 103 jobs, 241, 353; expectation of shale development creating, 54, 186, 219–20, 322, 352, 370, 383; losses of, 71n21, 322, 388; mining, 238, 343; in oil and gas industry, 314, 322; in production of natural gas, 4, 250; from shale development, 213, 350; shale workers’, 59, 67, 323, 359 See also labor journalists, 110, 267–68, 282–83, 402, 406 See also media Jurassic Weald (England), 138 Kádár, B A., 226n14 Kaiser, George, 102 Karoo region (South Africa), 366, 400; costs vs benefits of shale development in, 342–44, 350–51; inequalities in, 351–52; lack of information on effects of shale development in, 369, 407; shale basins in, 345–47; shale development as threat to, 359, 389 Kasich, John, 100 Kelsey, Timothy W., 54 Kirchner, Néstor, 312 Kirchner administration (Argentina), 311–13, 315, 322 Kochalski, Miroslaw, 181 Krautzberger, Maria, 247 Krischer, Oliver, 253 labor, competition for, 55–56, 323, 388 Lancashire County Council (UK), 163; Cuadrilla exploring shale development in, 140–41; rejecting Cuadrilla application, 141–42, 157, 167–69, 397, 417–18; rejecting shale development, 118, 150 Lancashire (UK), 140–41, 163 land, 189, 214–15; access to for shale development, 277–78, 323, 357–58; agriculture competing with shale industry for, 283, 388–90; farmers’ lost to shale operations, 283, 398 land contamination, 62–64, 243–44, 286, 389–90 452 INDEX landowners, 193; energy companies negotiating with, 151, 189–90, 196, 357; inequalities among, 342–43, 351–52; opposition to shale companies’ plans, 346–47, 352–53; rights of, 4, 353, 396–97; state as, 277–78 land reform, in South Africa, 8, 343, 351–52, 359 landscape aesthetics, 15, 56, 138, 150, 168, 256 land-use planning, 357–58, 415–16 See also zoning lawsuits, 71n23; against shale industry, 4, 57, 59, 402, 406, 413, 421n7; over access to information, 358, 405–6 Leach, Andrew, 101 Lemańcyzk, Szczepan, 194 Li Keqiang, 274 liquefied natural gas (LNG), 43, 137, 143–45, 184–85, 210–11, 272 Lis, Aleksandra, 162 local communities, 244, 358–59; balancing national interests against, 414, 416–17; benefits from shale development to, 89, 100, 171n4, 317–18, 403; central governments vs., 396–97; conflicts with shale companies, 61, 282–83, 409, 417; cost of shale development to, 115, 295; costs and benefits of shale development, 370, 400–404, 415–18; damaged by previous mining, 343, 352, 361–63; effects of shale development on, 54–57, 59–60, 66–67, 189–90, 305–6; effects of shale operations on, 71n27, 293; environment regulations and, 115–16, 356–57; excluded from shale development decision making, 327, 343; lack of government protection for, 193, 268, 291–92, 306, 398, 402–4; limited benefits from shale development to, 359, 389; limited power of, 117–18, 396, 401; oil and gas companies and, 317–18, 331; opinions on shale development, 66–67, 321–22, 352; opposition to shale development, 138, 170, 178, 187, 205, 218, 346–47, 389, 401, 404; proposals for improvement in decision making on shale development, 414–18; regulations for shale development by, 357–58, 409, 417; shale companies’ contributions to, 331, 354–55, 396; in shale development decision making, 10–12, 188, 193, 288–89, 330–31, 367, 370–71, 403–5; on shale exploration, 195–96; South Africa’s disadvantaged, 342–43, 352; state/provincial governments vs., 332, 403, 407–8 local governments, 248, 283, 368; central governments vs., 150–51, 168–71, 396– 98, 417–18; in decision making on shale development, 11–12, 295–96, 395–96, 403, 416; effects of boom-bust cycles on, 322–23, 388–89; efforts to control shale development, 94–98, 115–16, 149–50, 168–69, 416; energy companies and, 96, 416–17; opposing shale development, 69, 118, 167–68; prioritizing economic growth over environment protection, 268, 284–85, 292, 399; regulation of shale development and, 138, 187–89, 287, 317; responsibility for emergencies, 59–60; state/provincial governments vs., 51, 89–90, 95–98, 119n5, 325–26, 397; support for shale development, 186, 196; tax revenues for, 102, 119n3, 388–89 Loma La Lata field (Argentina), 311–12 Longmont, Colorado, 96–98 Lonmin PLC, 362 Los Molles formation (Argentina), 307 low-carbon economy, 8, 222 Macri administration (Argentina), 311, 314, 316, 328, 385 Maniloff, Peter, 54 Mansur, Erin T., 54 manufacturing See industries Marcellus Shale Coalition (MSC), 100, 107 Marcellus Shale (US), 41, 43, 60, 69n4, 140 Marchand, Joseph, 55 Mares, David, 309 Martor, B., 217 Mastromonaco, Ralph, 54 Materka, 188, 195–96 McGlade-Ekins paper, 148, 392, 406 media, 112, 324–25, 406; coverage of shale development in, 116, 194, 282–83, 290, 293 See also journalists Meidan, Michal, 284 INDEX methane, 36, 65, 109, 204 methane leakage: need to control, 7, 65, 169–70, 275, 291, 391, 393, 421n8; regulation of, 105, 421n8; in shale production, 147–48, 153–60, 256 Midland Valley (Scotland), 140 Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA, South Africa), 353–55, 357–58, 362, 364–65 Mineral Planning Authorities (MPAs, UK), 150–51 mineral rights, 68, 353; benefits of, 67, 387; ownership of, 51, 55–56, 400; state/provincial ownership of, 119n9, 317; states’ ownership of, 70n17, 99, 105, 118, 119n9, 187, 205, 215–16, 353, 387, 389, 422n19; surface rights vs., 51, 56, 70n17, 396, 400 See also royalties mining, 353, 364; damage from, 8, 343, 352, 355–57, 361–63, 390, 419; Poland’s history of, 188–89; Scotland’s history of, 146; shale development not to repeat errors of, 366–67, 370; unequal costs and benefits from, 358–59, 370; uranium, 360 Mining Code (France), 215–16, 219, 226n12 Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy (France), 216 Ministry of Environmental Protection (China), 268, 283; energy companies and, 117, 284–85, 399; need to enact and enforce regulations, 285–86, 413; reforms proposed by, 290–93, 296 Ministry of Land Resources (MLR, China), 291 Ministry of Water Resources (China), 285 Mitchell Energy, 41 Monitz Ernest, 121n20 Montebourg, Arnaud, 213, 225n1 Montebourg Report (France), 209, 213, 215, 221, 223–24 Morris, Craig, 244 Mosconi report (Argentina), 324–25 Müller-Kraenner, Sascha, 253 Namaqualand Mines (South Africa), 358 National Development and Reform Commission (China), 276 453 National Development Plan (South Africa), 349 National Energy Act (South Africa), 349 National Energy Administration (China), 274 National Environmental Management Laws Amendment Act (NEMLA Amendment, South Africa), 357 National Environmental Management Plan (NEMA, South Africa), 354 natural gas, 141, 148; coal replaced by, 7, 274–75, 422n14; in countries’ energy mixes, 34–350, 232, 235–36, 310–11; effort to keep from replacing renewables, 148, 384, 391; hydrogen sulfide in, 268, 279; renewables and, 235–36, 239–40, 255, 422n14; shale gas portion of, 38 See also bridge fuel, natural gas seen as natural gas consumption: Argentina’s, 310–11; China’s, 267, 270, 276; Germany’s, 239, 247; Poland’s, 181, 183; South Africa’s, 348; UK’s, 169; US’, 46 natural gas markets, 26n1, 37, 53 natural gas prices, 65; Argentine government setting, 309–12, 314–16; declining, 315, 387; fracking lowering, 242, 245–47; shale gas and, 53, 185, 384; in US, 4, 53, 255, 387 See also energy prices natural gas production, 183, 210, 348; in Argentina, 310–12; in China, 272, 276–77; conventional, 242–43, 250; in Germany, 236, 250; in US, 45, 45–46 natural gas reserves, 6, 170, 248; conventional, 232, 233 See also shale gas reserves natural gas trade: Argentina, 305, 311, 313; China’s, 272; France’s, 210–11, 223; Germany’s, 232, 255; Poland’s, 183–85; UK’s, 143–45, 144–45; US’s, 3–4 natural resources, 148, 276 See also mineral rights nature-protection areas, fracking banned in, 247, 253 Nerlich, Brigitte, 194 Netherlands, 143–44, 171, 210, 236 Neuquén Basin (Argentina), 209, 305, 307, 330, 389 See also Vaca Muerta Formation Neuquén Province (Argentina), 309, 315, 322, 385; failure to protect indigenous communities, 326–27; 454 INDEX Neuquén Province (Argentina) (cont.): regulation of shale development by, 319–20, 329, 413; shale companies’ contributions to local communities in, 317–18, 396 Newell, G Richard, 95–96 New York state, moratorium on gas development, 51, 58–59, 71n23, 119n6, 408 noise, 4, 59, 138, 153–60, 168, 256 nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 52, 244, 316; access to information and, 69, 112, 331, 358; decision-making process about shale development and, 10, 193, 199n7; lawsuits by, 113, 285, 294, 406; on mitigating effects of shale development, 402–3; monitoring role of, 93–94, 292–93; not covering on shale operations in China, 293–94; in opposition to shale development, 138, 164, 166, 170, 352, 391–92; organizing to balance influence of, 115–16; pushing for stronger environmental regulations, 104–5, 365–66; research on effects of shale development and, 410–11; roles of environmental, 404–6; on weak enforcement of environmental regulations, 306, 324–25, 329, 356–57, 402 North Dakota, 101–3, 105, 118n1 North Sea oil and gas, 137, 143–45 North Yorkshire (UK), 167–69, 401 Norway, 70, 144, 181 nuclear energy, 47, 382, 423n31; efforts to end dependence on, 382, 385, 392; in France, 205, 209, 223–24, 382, 385; in Germany, 234, 237–38, 382, 392 Obama, Barack, 71n19; energy policies under, 48–49; environmental regulations under, 90, 104–6; on shale development, 50, 113, 381 Office of Unconventional Gas and Oil (OUGO, UK), 166 Ohio, 92 oil, 234; consumption of, 214, 348; imported, 210–11, 236, 272, 305; not found in Karoo, 347–48; production of, 272, 310–12; in UK, 141, 141, 146 Oil and Gas Authority (OGA, UK), 149 oil and gas industry, 8, 27n3, 41–42, 44, 55, 146, 205, 283, 399; Argentina trying to lure investment by, 313–14, 317–18; companies leaving Poland, 179–82, 190–91, 196; contributions by, 71n22, 322, 331; conventional, 35, 285–86, 305, 307–8, 310; conventional, in France, 206, 209, 215–16, 225n4; disclosure of information by, 160–61, 292–93; government setting terms for shale development by, 178–79, 190–93, 197–98; governments’ relations with, 96, 167; influence on decisionmaking process, 281–82, 295–96; minimizing health and environment risks, 268, 324; Ministry of Environmental Protection not equal to, 268, 282, 284–85, 286; nonconventional methods in, 35, 221, 314; North Sea operations of, 137, 143–45; Oklahoma’s dependence on, 407, 413; promoting natural gas as green fuel, 275–76; regulations and, 48, 105, 148–52, 285–90, 326, 413; shale development under regulations for, 50–51, 68, 187–89, 285–86; shale industry vs., 7, 328; state governments’ relations with, 92–94, 117, 119n2, 399; state-owned companies in, 190–91, 267–68, 271, 277, 284–85, 305; UK’s offshore, 137, 143–46; weakness of regulators compared to, 325, 331 oil and gas reservoirs, 36 oil and gas service companies, 398–99, 427 oil consumption, 209–10 oil prices, 214; Argentine government setting, 312, 322; declining, 205, 310, 314, 315 See also energy prices oil spills, 294, 324 Oklahoma: debates over tax rates in, 101–2; earthquakes in, 93, 413; oil and gas industry in, 92–93, 399, 407, 413; shale industry in, 97, 103 Oklahoma Corporation Commission, 94 OPECST, 220, 227n18 Ordos Basin (China), 270 Pan Yue, 293 paraxylene accidents, in China, 294–95 Paris Climate Agreement (2016), 65–66, 205, 227n21, 274, 393, 419, 422n14 See also climate protection INDEX Parker, Dominic P., 55 Parker County, Texas, 108–9 Pavillion, Wyoming, 108–9 Pennsylvania, 41, 100, 112; local governments in, 95, 97–98, 396; water pollution in, 63, 409–10 performance bonds, 64 permitting process, 67, 407; in Argentina, 305–6, 318–19, 328–29, 333n4; in France, 216–20, 226n12, 401; in Germany, 248–50, 253; local governments in, 138, 193, 418; in Poland, 179, 192–93; in South Africa, 117, 344–47, 353–54, 357, 367, 399–400; in UK, 138, 151, 160 Petroleum Agency of South Africa (PASA), 346, 353–54, 356 Petroleum Exploration and Development Licenses (PEDLs), 140–41, 149–50, 161 Petronas, YPF deal with, 309 petrothermal energy, 248 PGNiG (Poland), 180–84, 198n1 Phillips, Susan, 121n19 pipelines, 42–43, 137, 143, 184–85 PKN Orlen (Poland), 180–82, 198n1 Poland, 382, 395, 420n2; abandoning shale development, 180–81, 423n26; energy companies leaving, 179–82, 190–91, 196; environmental regulations in, 188–89, 407; estimated shale gas reserves in, 178, 181, 196–97, 206; government support for shale development in, 182, 186, 381; local communities in, 400, 402–4; mining history in, 188–89; obstacles to shale development in, 179, 182, 197; opposition to shale development in, 226n14, 404; setting terms for shale development, 178–79, 187–93, 197–98; shale basins in, 180, 181; shale exploration in, 181–82 Polish Geological Institute, 181, 189, 193 political parties, Germany, 245, 251–52 pollution: from past mining, 356–57 See also air pollution; water pollution population density, and risks of shale development, 157, 242–43, 268, 277–79 power generation, 47, 147; coal in, 72n30, 183, 185–86, 348, 420n3, 421n8; coal vs gas in, 4, 10, 49–50, 65, 186–87; inadequacy of South Africa’s, 349, 370; move 455 away from coal, 205, 239, 272–74; natural gas as bridge fuel to renewables, 50, 390; natural gas complementing renewables in, 50, 235–36; natural gas in, 255, 310, 348, 384; nuclear in, 47, 209, 238; renewables in, 47, 70n11, 239–40, 255, 316, 349, 384–85; switch from coal- to gas-burning, 7, 46, 66, 147, 267, 393–94 Promised Land (film), 242 propane, in alternative to fracking, 215 property rights, vs environmental protection, 98 ProPublica, 108 provincial governments See state/provincial governments Pruitt, Scott, 106 Przybycin, Andrzej, 194 public, 242; in decision-making process, 414–18; excluded from decision making, 306, 314–16, 320–21; pressure to enforce regulations, 413; pressure to reduce air pollution, 274–75 public information, on shale development, 68–69, 315–16, 329; bias in, 110–11, 196, 367–68; disclosure of, 111–13, 160–61, 292–93, 405–6; dissemination of, 116, 218, 404–5, 416–17; on impact of shale development in China, 281–83, 288–90; lack of access to, 51–52, 290, 333n8, 402–3; lack of access to, in South Africa, 356, 358, 368, 370–71; need for more, 58–59, 246–48, 251; struggle for access to, 90, 108–13, 319–20, 331, 405 public opinion: on energy transition plans, 204, 218–19, 401; on fracking, 245–46, 248–55; fuel prices and, 53, 70n13, 316; increasing concern about environment, 107, 294, 296; mistrust of environmental regulators, 407–8; on shale development, 57–58, 66–67, 137–38, 161–64, 321–22; on shale industry, 293–95, 353, 361, 363 public opposition, to shale development, 194–95, 226n14, 382, 401, 415; efforts to defuse, 344, 409; fracking, 232, 241, 255; in France, 217–21, 225; reasons for, 352, 353, 415 public support, for shale development: in Poland, 184, 194, 196, 226n14, 382; 456 INDEX public support, for shale development (cont.): reasons for, 352, 381–82; in US, 51–52, 68–69, 401 race, in South Africa, 351–53, 359, 367, 370, 403 radioactivity, 72n35, 113, 156, 360 Raimi, David, 95–96 Raszewski Górski, 188, 194 refineries, 146, 285, 292–93, 348, 413 regulations, for shale development, 193; in Argentina, 317–21; central governments’ responsibility for, 413, 416; for conventional oil and gas industry, 215–16; effects of, 306, 360, 409, 410–12; enforcement of, 412, 413, 414, 415–16, 423n27; failure of enforcement of, 363–64, 414; need to enact and enforce, 278, 290–93, 295, 368, 413; weakness of, 355–56, 359, 412 See also environmental regulations renewables, 178, 273–74, 331, 349, 421nn5–6; call for expansion of, 8, 255, 316, 385–86, 420; effort to keep natural gas from replacing, 65, 148, 223–24, 384, 391, 422n14; Germany’s move toward, 232, 242–43, 382; goals for expansion of, 223, 238, 248; investment in, 100, 385, 392, 420; lack of commitment to, 48–49, 70n10, 182–83; natural gas as bridge fuel to, 50, 186–87, 390–91; natural gas complementing in power generation, 50, 235–36, 239–40, 255; in power generation, 47, 70n11, 239–40, 255, 316, 349, 384–85; support for, 43, 70n11, 162, 219, 382, 392, 415 Repsol, 312–13, 332n2 research: in decision making about shale development, 407–12; on effects of natural gas on GHGs, 422n14; on effects of shale development, 116, 193–94, 406, 411; on fracking, 241, 246–48; France promoting, 219–20, 222, 226n12, 227n18; need for more, 11, 246–48, 290–91, 368–69, 386, 408 revenue See tax revenues Richardson, Bill, 53, 384 Richardson, Nathan, 120n13 Rightor, Ned, 95 Risio, Diego di, 325 Roland Berger Strategy Consultants, 212–13 Rösler, Philipp, 252 Rossouw, R., 350 Royal, Ségolène, 227n20 Royal Society/Royal Academy of Engineering report (RS/RaEngUK), 154–56 royalties, 57, 71n22, 71n25, 115, 333n5; governments’ dependence on, 187–89, 311, 314, 346; lease and royalty payments for, 57, 115; limits on, 306, 314, 317; underpayment of, 400, 422n20 Russia, natural gas from, 144, 178, 183–85, 223, 236, 241, 382, 420n2 Sacerdote, Bruce, 54 Safe Drinking Water Act (US), 48, 61, 104, 120n13, 381 safety, 67, 71n27, 151–52, 268, 282–83 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 218–19, 221 Saussay, A., 213–14 Schafft, Kai, 388 Schuepbach, 220–21 Scientific Advisory Board (US), 111, 407–8 Scotland, 141, 146, 166 See also United Kingdom seismicity See earthquakes Shabangu, Susan, 114, 364 shale basins, 5; in Argentina, 308; in China, 269; in France, 206–8; in Germany, 234, 235; in Poland, 180, 181; recovery estimates often overstated, 351; in South Africa, 345–47, 347; in US, 39–40 shale development, 38; benefits of, 5–6, 34–36, 51–52, 66–69, 89; costs and benefits of, 52–57, 89, 113–16, 350–51; costs of, 6, 36, 51–52; evaluation of costs and benefits, 5–7, 10, 34; risks of, 267–68, 277, 358–64 shale gas, 36; benefits of, 26n1, 49, 137, 146–48, 162, 185, 293; definition of, 35 shale gas production, 12; in China, 270, 277, 281–82, 281–83, 282; in US, 38–41, 40, 45, 69n1, 383 shale gas reserves, 13, 137, 307; caution in use of estimates of, 151, 198, 206, 351; in China, 269–70; estimates of, 181, 196–97, 204, 206–9, 212, 225n2, 225n5, 232, 234, INDEX 384; in France, 204, 206–9, 214, 225n2, 225n5; in Germany, 232, 234; in Poland, 196–97; in South Africa, 345–46; in US, 69n4, 69n6, 384 shale industry: commitment to responsible operations, 107–8, 409; downplaying and denying risks, 121n20, 220–21, 324; downturns in, 33, 42–43, 388–89 (See also boom-bust cycles); green techniques for, 107–8, 410–12; influence of, 115–16, 116–17, 398–99; information from, 110–11, 367–68, 408; infrastructure needed by, 307–9, 315, 329–30, 332; leases and royalties from, 115; need to be held accountable, 416–17; public perception of, 293–95, 353, 361, 363; rapid expansion of, 7, 10–11, 33; struggle to get information from, 90, 108–13, 358 shale oil, 5, 204, 207, 234 Shell, 398; operations in China, 270–71, 282–83, 403–4; operations in South Africa, 117, 344, 346, 350, 352–54, 399–400 Sichuan Basin (China), 270, 404; risks of shale development in, 267–68, 277–80, 295, 389 Sierra Club, 52 Sinopec (China), 283, 289, 399; enforcement actions against, 285, 413; shale gas production by, 270, 277, 281–82 Smith, Chris, 157 social impacts, 66–67, 323, 361–63, 381–82, 388 Soekor (South Africa), 345–48 South Africa, 395, 397, 405; acquiring shares in mining ventures, 364–65, 399–400, 422n19; economy of, 350–52, 361; energy mix, 347–49; energy security of, 381, 384–85; land reform in, 8, 343, 359; local communities in, 117–18, 402–3; local communities’ opinions on shale development, 389–90, 400; mining in, 8, 361; opposition to shale development in, 342–43, 389–90; permitting process, 344–47, 367; promoting shale development, 342, 344–45, 347, 349–51, 369–71, 384–85; regulations on shale development in, 116–17, 353–58, 366–69, 407, 457 410, 413; shale basins in, 345–47, 347; status of shale development in, 343–47; Strategic Environmental Assessment of, 365–66, 414; weakness of regulations for shale development, 355–56, 359, 391 Southwestern Energy, 42 Soward, Larry, 119n2 Spigelmyer, David, 100 “Square Kilometre Array” telescope project, 361 state/provincial governments, 70n11, 103, 111–12, 119n9, 325–26; central governments vs., 105–6, 249–51, 254, 306, 314; in decision making on shale development, 330–31; dependence on tax revenue from oil and gas industry, 98–99, 118n1, 305, 311, 399; environmental regulations and, 105, 113, 306; environmental regulations by, 90, 105–8, 329; EPA giving investigation of drinking water to, 108–10; failure to protect indigenous communities, 326–27, 397; local communities and, 332, 403, 407–8; local governments and tax revenues, 119n7, 388–89; local governments in Argentina vs., 397–98, 418; local governments in US vs., 51, 388–89, 418; local governments vs., 89–90, 95–98, 119n5, 254, 395–96, 397; promoting shale development, 68, 305–6, 331, 399, 401–2; regulation of shale development by, 50–51, 91, 317, 399, 407–8, 413–14; regulatory agencies of, 368, 407–8; relations with oil and gas industry, 399; relations with shale industry, 91–94, 114–15, 119n2, 312, 314–15; role in fracking decisions, 248–50, 253; setting rates on shale industry, 119n7, 333n5; uses of shale tax revenue, 102–3, 120nn10–11; weak oversight of shale development, 287, 324, 402 states: land ownership by, 277–78; mineral rights’ ownership by, 99, 187; setting tax rates on oil and gas, 99–102 Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs), 407; South Africa, 345, 365–66, 397, 410, 414; UK, 152–57 surface rights, 51, 56, 67 Suttles, Shellye, 56 458 INDEX taxes, 190–92, 322; rates of, 91–92, 99–102, 114, 119n7, 419; types of, 98–99, 101–2, 119n7 tax revenues, 4, 51, 311, 316; appropriate investment of, 89–90, 391–92, 419; distribution of, 388–89; governments’ dependence on, 114, 118n1, 223, 305; proposed uses of, 100, 391; for state/provincial governments, 395–96; states’ collection of, 98–99; states sharing with local governments, 90, 95–96, 119n7, 388–89; uses of, 89–90, 101–3, 120nn10–11 Texas, 92–94, 96–97, 102–3 Texas Railroad Commission, 61–62, 94, 109, 112 Third Energy, 169 tight gas, 271, 309; conventional fracking for, 232, 242, 252, 254; production of, 272–73 tight oil, 35, 46, 242 tort system, 402 tourism, 345; effects of shale development on, 56, 389; shale development competing with, 10, 215, 226n10, 343, 359, 398 Toxic Release Inventory, 104–5 trade deficits, 45, 53, 137, 213, 305, 311 traffic, 4; in opposition to shale development, 138, 153–60, 157, 167–69; quality of life in local communities, 59–60 transportation: of hazardous wastes, 319, 366; of natural gas, 52, 56, 284, 421n9; of wastewater, 37, 214–15, 308–9, 330, 360; of water, 37, 281, 308–9 transportation sector, 49, 71n20, 236, 310, 361 Trump, Donald, 52, 90; repeal of environmental regulations under, 105–6, 412; withdrawing from Paris Climate Agreement, 66, 393 Trust Fund of Corporate Social Responsibility (Argentina), 316, 318, 331 Uliasz-Misiak, Barbara, 194 Uliasz-Misiak Przybycin Winid, 194 Unconventional Energy and US National Security Task Force, 53, 384 United Kingdom: climate protection policies of, 8, 138, 146–48, 169–70; effects of shale development, 153–62, 411; energy consumption in, 140, 142–43, 143; energy supply of, 137, 141, 143, 170; government promoting shale development in, 137–38, 145, 151, 164–70; local communities in, 170, 389, 396–97, 404; local governments vs central government in, 167–68, 396; moratorium on shale development in, 137, 140–41; oil and gas industry in, 137, 142–46; opposition to shale development in, 118, 138, 163–64, 382, 391–92, 400–401; permitting process in, 149–52; public opinion on shale development in, 137–38, 161–64; regulation of shale development in, 118, 148–52, 164, 407, 411; shale development decision making in, 141, 166–69, 395, 396, 405–6; shale development in, 137–42, 152–60, 163–64, 167, 170–71; shale industry in, 140–42, 168, 398; shale reserves in, 137–40, 139; trade in natural gas, 143–44, 144–45 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 421n13, 422n14 United States: decision making on shale development in, 35–36, 52, 67, 108–13, 115–16, 395, 396, 405; economic effects of shale development in, 52–58, 113, 387; economic reasons for supporting for shale development in, 52–55, 92; effects of shale development in, 51, 66–67; energy imports/exports, 3–4, 33; energy mix in, 43–49, 393; energy plans of, 47–49, 52, 104; energy policies of, 48–49, 381, 391, 412; energy prices in, 205, 225n1, 240, 244, 255, 383; energy security concerns in, 43–44, 68; environmental effects of shale development in, 52–58, 60–66, 394, 407, 411; environmental regulations on shale development in, 90, 391, 407; fracking in, 3–5, 48, 61–62, 104, 108–11, 120n13, 121n20, 381; lessons drawn from, 10–11, 116–18; local communities in, 59, 115, 400; local governments in shale decision making, 69, 94–98, INDEX 115–16, 396; local governments vs state governments, 67, 89–90, 95–98; mineral rights over surface rights in, 56–57, 396; as model for shale development, 3–5, 33–34, 36, 256, 409–10; nonapplicability as model for shale development, 197–98, 212, 214; oil and gas industry in, 43–44, 48, 92–93, 399, 407, 413; opposition to shale development in, 69, 406; reasons for supporting for shale development in, 49–50, 68; regulations on shale development in, 68, 412; shale development in, 182, 214, 225n6; shale gas production in, 3, 38–41, 39–40, 43–45, 69n1, 69n6, 383–84; shale industry in, 33–34, 41–43, 49–50, 97, 103, 271, 388–89, 398–99; state policies on shale development in, 50–51, 68, 90–94, 114–15; support for shale development in, 36, 43–44, 51–52, 68, 381; tax revenues from shale development in, 90, 98–103, 114; uneven benefits from shale development in, 56–57, 66–69, 89, 113–16, 388–89; withdrawing from Paris Climate Agreement, 66, 393 uranium mining, in South Africa, 360, 363 Vaca Muerta Formation (Argentina), 305, 306, 313, 420n4; conflict with shale industry over land, 389–90; declining production at, 310, 332; indigenous communities protesting shale development at, 326–27, 404; obstacles to development of, 308–9; public opinion on exploitation of, 321–22 Vásquez, Patricia I., 327 Wait, R., 350 Warner, John, 53, 384 wastes, 414; classification of, 113, 319; disposal of, 366, 394, 410; research on, 409–10; tracking of, 112–13, 329 wastewater, 37, 72n31, 196, 256, 280, 371n3; “beneficial” uses of, 64, 72nn36–37; contamination from, 62–64; infrastructure needed to manage, 308–9, 330; lack of regulations on, 287–88, 291; management of, 319, 324, 329; need for better 459 management of, 194, 332, 360, 411; recycling of, 63, 281, 330; regulations on, 189, 251, 412–13; returning to surface, 72n34, 113; sent to municipal treatment plants, 63, 189; underground injections of, 60–61, 291, 319 See also earthquakes, from underground injection of wastewater water, 37, 318, 332 water pollution, 62–63, 112, 286, 402; EPA reports on, 108–10, 121nn19–21; importance of research to avoid, 409–10; lawsuits over, 294, 421n7; public concern about in France, 204, 212, 214–15, 217, 226n9; risks of downplayed, 121n20, 234, 324; from shale development, 4, 153–60, 278–80, 282, 389–90; sources of, 73n39, 280, 363; use for fracking, 232, 413–14, 420n4; from wastewater sent to municipal treatment plants, 63, 189 water quality, 324, 330, 353; effects of shale development on, 57–58, 343, 359; monitoring of, 107, 369, 411; opposition to fracking based on, 243–45, 249, 252, 255–56, 325–26; protection of, 93, 189, 281, 318, 360; regulations on, 93, 189, 318 water quantity: agriculture competing with shale industry for, 218, 323, 366, 388; competition for, 56, 61, 279, 330, 350, 360; influence on shale development, 271, 309; opposition to fracking based on, 196, 243, 244; regulations on, 319, 329; scarcity of, 194, 268, 278–80, 323, 345, 360, 411; shale development’s demand on, 4, 61–62, 153–60, 324, 343, 410; use in fracking, 27n3, 63, 411 Waters of the U.S rule, 52, 71n19 water treatment plants, shale wastewater sent to, 63, 189 Weber, Eicke, 242–43 well blowouts, 60, 282–83, 295 well integrity, 27n3, 324, 411; effects of failure of, 62–63, 109, 360; regulation of, 151–52, 360; in scenarios for shale development, 153–60 wells, 71n24; abandoned, 27n3, 73n39; 460 INDEX wells (cont.): exploratory, 181–82; green completion of, 105; long-term stewardship of, 64–65 Whitmarsh, Lorraine, 162 Wines, Michael, 93 Winid, Bogumila, 194 Wintershall, 241, 250, 398 Wolf, Tom, 100, 107 workers, shale industry, 59, 67, 323, 359, 361–63, 388 World Heritage Sites, UNESCO, 360–61 Wozniak, Piotr, 181 Wrenn, Douglas, 54 Wytch Farm (England), 146 Xie Zhenhua, 274 Xi Jinping, 274 XTO Energy, 42 Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales (YPF, Argentina), 314, 324, 326–27; contribution to Neuquén Province, 317–18; deal with Chevron, 306, 309, 313, 315–16, 320, 322; declining production at Vaca Muerta, 310, 312, 332; development of Vaca Muerta formation by, 309, 313; nationalization of, 311–13; state ownership of, 117, 305 Yang, Tseming, 284 Zdebel, Hubertus, 253, 255 zoning, in local governments’ control of shale development, 94–98, 115–16, 188, 317, 326 Zuma, Jacob, 365 ... impacts on the energy balance, the economy, and the environment at the national, regional, and global levels China, Argentina, the United States, and South Africa rank first, second, fourth, and. . .the SHALE DILEMMA History of the Urban Environment Mar tin V Melosi and Joel A Tarr, Editors the SHALE DILEMMA A Global Perspective on Fracking and Shale Development Edited by Shanti Gamper-Rabindran... Poland have undertaken shale exploration, and South Africa’s government is assessing permit applications for shale exploration France has enacted a ban on HVHF and Germany has implemented a moratorium