Informal Governance in the European Union This page intentionally left blank Informal Governance in the European Union Edited by Thomas Christiansen Senior Lecturer, European Institute of Public Administration, Maastricht, the Netherlands Simona Piattoni Associate Professor of Political Science, Department of Sociology and Social Research, University of Trento, Italy Edward Elgar Cheltenham, UK Northampton, MA, USA â Thomas Christiansen and Simona Piattoni 2003 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher Published by Edward Elgar Publishing Limited Glensanda House Montpellier Parade Cheltenham Glos GL50 1UA UK Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc 136 West Street Suite 202 Northampton Massachusetts 01060 USA A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Informal governance in the European union/[edited by] Thomas Christiansen, Simona Piattoni p cm Includes bibliographical references and index European Union European Union countries—Politics and government European Union countries—Economic policy I Christiansen, Thomas II Piattoni, Simona, 1960– JN30.I495 2004 341.242′2—dc21 2003047226 ISBN 84376 351 Typeset by Cambrian Typesetters, Frimley, Surrey Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall Contents Contributors Abbreviations Preface 10 11 12 vii ix xi Informal governance in the European Union: an introduction Thomas Christiansen, Andreas Føllesdal and Simona Piattoni Informal governance: improving EU democracy? Alex Warleigh Cultures of states and informal governance in the EU: an exploratory study of elites, power and identity Ulf Hedetoft Common Market institutions, fraud and informal networks Carolyn M Warner Building velvet triangles: gender and informal governance Alison E Woodward The informal governance of EU environmental policy: the case of biodiversity protection Jenny Fairbrass and Andrew Jordan Selling off the state and supranational regulation: informal governance in the EU Raj S Chari and Hilary McMahon Informal governance and biotechnology Mark Rinhard Formal and informal governance in Single Market regulation Burkard Eberlein Informal governance in the Common Agricultural Policy Christilla Roederer-Rynning Informality as an asset? The case of EMU Jeannette Mak Governing by informal networks? Nuclear interest groups and the eastern enlargement of the EU Sabine Saurugger v 22 36 57 76 94 114 129 150 173 189 207 vi 13 Informal governance in the European Union Backing into the future? Informality and the proliferation of governance modes (and policy participants) in the EU Daniel Wincott Bibliography Index 226 237 263 Contributors Raj S Chari is a Lecturer in the Department of Political Science, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Thomas Christiansen is Senior Lecturer at the European Institute of Public Administration, Maastricht, the Netherlands Burkard Eberlein is DAAD Visiting Professor in the Department of Political Science at York University, Toronto, Canada Jenny Fairbrass is a Senior Research Associate at the Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment (CSERGE) in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia, UK Andreas Føllesdal is Professor of Philosophy at ARENA – a Norwegian Research Council programme on Europeanization – and at the Norwegian Centre for Human Rights at the University of Oslo, Norway Ulf Hedetoft is Professor of International Studies in the Institute for History and International Studies, Aalborg University, Denmark, and Director of the Academy for Migration in Denmark (AMID) Andrew Jordan is a Manager of the ESRC Programme on Environmental Decision Making, based in the Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment (CSERGE) at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Jeannette Mak is a Postdoctoral Researcher in the Department of Political Science at the University of Amsterdam and a Fellow of the Amsterdam School for Social Science Research, the Netherlands Hilary McMahon is a Doctoral Candidate in the Department of Political Science, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland Simona Piattoni is Associate Professor of Political Science in the Department of Sociology and Social Research at the University of Trento, Italy Mark Rinhard is a Postdoctoral Researcher in the Department of Public Administration at Leiden University, the Netherlands Christilla Roederer-Rynning is Assistant Professor at the Institute of vii viii Informal governance in the European Union Political Science at the University of Southern Denmark (SDU), Odense, Denmark Sabine Saurugger is a Lecturer in Politics at the Institut d’Etudes Politiques, Grenoble, France Alex Warleigh is Reader in European Governance and Deputy Director of the Institute of Governance, Public Policy and Social Research at Queen’s University Belfast, UK Carolyn M Warner is Associate Professor of Political Science at Arizona State University, Tempe (AZ), USA Daniel Wincott is Senior Lecturer in Political Science and International Studies at the University of Birmingham, UK Alison E Woodward is Professor and Head of the International Affairs Programme at Vesalius College of the Vrije Universiteit Brussels, Belgium Abbreviations BCC BEPG BRIC BSC BSE CAP CEEC CEER CIE CIS Comagri CNJA COPA COREPER CUBE DEFRA DETR DG DoE EBRD EC ECB ECFIN ECJ ECPR EEC EEIG EFC EMBO EMU EP EPC ESCB ESF EU Biotechnology Coordination Committee Broad Economic Policy Guidelines Biotechnology Regulation Inter-service Committee Biotechnology Steering Committee bovine spongiform encephalopathy Common Agricultural Policy Central and Eastern European countries Council of European Energy Regulators Committee of Independent Experts Commonwealth of Independent States European Parliament Agriculture Committee Centre National des Jeunes Agriculteurs Comité des Organizations Professionnelles Agricoles Committee of Permanent Representatives Concertation Unit for Biotechnology in Europe Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (France) Department for Environment, Transport and Regions (UK) Directorate-General (of the European Commission) Department of the Environment (UK) European Bank for Reconstruction and Development European Commission European Central Bank Economic and Financial Affairs European Court of Justice European Consortium for Political Research European Economic Community European Economic Interest Groups European Farmers’ Coordination European Molecular Biotechnology Organization 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policy 66–7, 70, 110, 173–4, 176–87 agriculture 59, 66–70, 112, 131, 133 Amsterdam Treaty 31–2, 77, 84, 88, 192, 194 auditing 65, 66 Austria 48–9, 54, 100, 197, 217, 222 authority 13, 14, 36–7, 44 Belgium 48, 68, 100, 162, 197, 211 Beloff, Max 47, 48 benchmarking 193 best practice 150, 156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 165, 167, 170, 193 biodiversity policy 95–6, 101–13 Biotechnology Coordination Committee (BCC) 144–5, 146–7 biotechnology policy 129–30, 131–5, 139–41, 142, 143–7 Biotechnology Regulation Inter-Service Committee (BRIC) 141–3, 144, 145 Biotechnology Steering Committee (BSC) 139, 140–41, 142 Birds Directive 97, 98, 99–100, 101, 104, 105, 108, 112 Broad Economic Policy Guidelines (BEPG) 191, 193, 194, 197, 199, 200 BSE crisis 183, 185–6, 187 Bulgaria 220–21 Catholics 78, 82 Central and Eastern Europe 70, 208–9, 210, 211–13, 214–16, 217, 219–23, 224 Centre National des Jeunes Agriculteurs (CNJA) 176, 177, 178 Chernobyl 210, 211, 222 citizens, EU 3, 4, 23, 85, 170–71, 203, 231–2 clientelism cultural aspects 81, 82 definition 15–16 and efficiency 5, 12, 125–6 and hierarchies 79 and legitimacy 12, 14–15, 20, 227 and policy-making and policy networks 12, 81, 125 see also patron–client relationships Clinton-Davis, Stanley 101, 102 closed networks 21, 115, 118, 125–6, 174, 189, 196 COGEMA 210, 218 College of Commissioners 8, 145, 215 Comité des Organizations Professionnelle Agricoles (COPA) 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183 Committee of Independent Experts (CIE) 72–3 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 66–7, 70, 173–4, 176–86, 187 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 209, 212, 214, 217, 219 communication 41, 45, 139, 196, 202 competition and decision-making 22, 25, 115–16 electricity industry 153–4, 161, 164 and fraud prevention 59, 66 legislation 152, 168–9 nuclear industry 210, 211, 212 and policy 59–60, 115–16, 120–21, 124–5, 126, 152 and regulations 153–4, 161, 168–9 rules 69, 120–21 see also clientelism; monopolies 263 264 Informal governance in the European Union Comsource 118, 119–20 conciliation process 31, 32, 33 conflict of interest 136, 138, 165–7, 213–16 consumer groups 156, 159 consumers 173 cooperation and biodiversity policy 95 and biotechnology policy 142–4 and decision-making 22, 193, 203 and Economic and Monetary Union 192–3, 203 and European integration 8–9, 124–5 legal systems 69–70 nuclear safety 211 regulatory networks 165–6, 167 see also policy coalitions coordination 135, 139, 142, 143–4, 154–5, 158, 165, 192–3, 204 see also open method of coordination corporatism 79–80, 81, 82, 86, 95 corruption benefits 60 competition 59 costs 59, 60 and culture 62–3, 81, 82 definition 57–8 and EU regulations 71–2 and incentives 58–9, 62 Italy 71 and legal system 59, 60 in member states 37, 39, 52, 59, 60, 61–2, 63, 64, 228–9 and new institutions 61–2 and policy networks 62 and resources 59, 60, 61, 62 see also clientelism; fraud; nepotism; scandals Council of Europe 88, 233 Council of European Energy Regulators (CEER) 160, 162, 164 Council of Ministers and Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 174, 182 and cooperation decision-making 9, 31, 32–3, 185 and Economic and Monetary union 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 197, 199–200, 201 establishment of 64–5 and interest groups 105 nuclear safety policy 211, 212, 216 policy-making political power Council of Ministers for Agriculture 100, 181 Court of Auditors 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 74 criminal networks 64, 70 culture and clientelism 81, 82, 91 and corruption 39, 62–3, 81, 82 and fraud 72 and informal governance 43–53, 228, 229 and gender equality policy 91 and politics 37–8 Davignon, Etienne 135, 139, 144 decision-making and actors 22 biodiversity policy 96–101 co-decision 31, 32–3 and competition 22, 25, 115–16 and consensus 150 and cooperation 22, 142 and corporatism 79 Council of Ministers and democratic accountability and democratic deficit 47 European Commission 8, 115–16, 124 European Parliament formal 96–101 and formal integration and harmful decisions 15 and informal networks 1, 47 open methods 193, 196–7 and policy networks 10–11, 12 publicity of 15, 196 and scandals 49 supranational 114, 115, 116, 120–21 transparency 76, 115, 196 see also overlap issues; participation Delors, Jacques 44, 143, 144, 145, 215, 233 democratic accountability 4, 20, 170–71 democratic deficit 47, 170 democratization and decision-making 22–3, 53 Index and European Parliament (EP) 31–3, 34 informal governance 22–3, 34 of member states 37, 231–2 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) 34 and NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 25–31, 34 and policy networks 114, 115 Denmark 50–52, 101, 137 DG Agriculture 135, 139, 144, 184–5 DG Competition 90, 115–16, 120–21, 124, 125, 157, 169 DG Energy 156, 210, 211, 214–15, 216, 223 DG Environment and Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection 95, 101–2, 104, 136–7, 138, 139, 140–41, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 211, 214, 215, 216, 223 DG External Relations (DG I) 214, 215 DG External Relations (DG IA) 214, 215, 216, 221, 223 DG Health and Consumer Protection 146 DG Industry 135, 139, 141, 144 DG Information Society 139, 144, 157 DG Research 132, 133–6, 137, 138, 139, 140–41, 143, 144 DGs 132–48, 213–16 Directives on biotechnology 142–8 on electricity 156, 157, 161, 169 on telecoms 119–21 see also individual Directives; legislation; regulations disability policy 230, 231 Eastern Europe see Central and Eastern Europe Ecofin Council 191, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201 economic actors 115, 124, 196 Economic and Financial Committee 191, 192, 197 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) complexity of 190–91, 203, 205 informal governance 189, 193–7, 203, 204 open method of coordination 193, 196–202, 203, 204 265 relationship between institutions and member states 192–3, 203, 204–5 EDF 210, 217–18, 219–20, 221, 222–3 efficiency and clientelism 5, 12, 125–6 and closed networks 115, 125–6 European Union 43 and informal networks 47, 80 and inter-institutional networks 135 and legitimacy 13, 205, 230, 232 and nepotism and output legitimacy 13 and participation and privatization 125 and sovereignty 61 electricity industry competition 153–4, 161, 164 France 153, 217–20, 222 Germany 162, 163–4, 217, 218–19, 220, 222 regulation 153–4, 156–7, 160, 161, 162, 163–5, 166–7, 168, 169 elites Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 189, 195 and EU 46–7, 55, 229 and farm politics 176 and French–German entente 45 national 125 political 51, 54 and socialization 42 and states 36 supranational culture 46–7, 170 energy industry 159, 160 enforcement capacities 6, 8, 16, 59, 65, 66, 68–70, 202, 203 Environmental Action Programme 94, 97, 98 environmental groups 95, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108–9, 110, 111, 113, 129, 137, 145, 146–7, 224 environmental networks 136–9, 141, 142–3, 146 environmental policy, EU 94, 99, 159, 160 see also biodiversity policy; biotechnology: policy epistemic communities 11, 44, 45, 134, 158, 159, 165, 166 266 Informal governance in the European Union Eurogroups 194–5, 198, 200, 204, 212–13 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 221, 222 European Central Bank (ECB) 190, 191, 192, 194–5, 196, 199, 201, 202 European Commission advisory groups 157–8 agricultural policy 177, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187 biodiversity policy 95–6, 97, 98, 99, 100–105, 106–7, 109–10, 112, 113 biotechnology policy 129–30, 131, 132–3, 135–9, 141–4 competition policy 119–21, 124–5, 129, 152, 168 and conciliation 32, 138 and conflict 136, 138, 213–16 and cooperation 8, 95, 135–6, 143–4 and criminal networks 70 decision-making 8, 115–16, 124 and Economic and Monetary Union 190–91, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196–200, 201–2, 203–4, 205 enforcement capacities 69, 202, 203 and environmental groups 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 108–9 establishment of 64–5 EU enlargement 207, 213, 214 and expertise 104–6, 213 formal structure fraud 57, 70, 72–3 gender equality policy 84–5, 86, 87, 88, 92 and interest groups 2–3, 9, 101, 203, 213, 215 legitimacy 3, 203–4, 223 and member states 110–11, 220–23, 224 as multi-organization 213–16 nepotism allegations and NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 2, 9, 102, 107 and nuclear safety policy 208–9, 210, 211–12, 213–16, 217, 218–19, 220–23, 224 and open method of coordination (OMC) 6, 196–7, 203, 204 policy entrepreneurialism 101–3, 129, 131, 132, 135 policy-making 8, 85 and policy networks 2–4 power 8, 107, 168, 200, 216 and representative democracy resignation (1999) 72 and sanctions against Austria 48 and scandals 49, 54 and telecoms sector 116–17, 124 White paper on European Governance 1, 4, 21, 27, 54, 226–7, 234–6 see also individual DGs; regulations European Court of Justice and biodiversity policy 97, 100, 109, 112 coordination 193, 204 establishment of 64–5 powers 8, 52–3, 69, 185, 228 European Economic Community (EEC) 65, 69, 71 European Electricity Regulation Forum 156, 163, 167, 169 European Farmers’ Coordination (EFC) 179, 183 European integration 1, 5, 8–10, 45–6, 116, 231 European Parliament (EP) agricultural policy 177, 181, 185–6, 187 biodiversity policy 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 105, 106, 107, 109, 111, 112, 113 biotechnology policy 137 and cooperation 8, 95, 124–5 and criminal networks 70 decision-making 9, 23 co-decision 31, 32–3 conciliation process 31, 32, 33 with Council of Ministers 31–3 and Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 190, 193, 200, 203 establishment of 64–5 and EU democratization 31–3, 34 and European Commission resignation 72, 73–4 and expertise 104–6, 222 and fraud 65, 69, 70–71, 72 gender equality policy 85 Index legislative influence 31–3 and national governments 33 policy entrepreneurs 101 policy-making political power 8, 65, 69, 74 roles 31 European Political Cooperation (EPC) 45–6 European System of Central Banks (ESCB) 190 European Union accountability 43 budgets 59, 65, 74 complexity 229 cultural aspects 43–53, 228, 229 enforcing capacities 8, 13 France, influence of 44 funds 67, 71 as a ‘fused’ polity 22, 33 history of 64–5 identity 48 and informal governance overview 227–32 as an international organization 43 legitimacy non-hierarchical institutional framework 8, 9, 24 policies 3, 9, 13 see also policy-making as a proto-state 43 state-cultural dualism 43, 44–5 transnational aspects 58, 62, 64, 69–70, 78 European Women’s Lobby 77 expertise and biodiversity policy 109–10, 111, 113 and biotechnology policy 132, 133, 134–5, 136, 137, 140 European Parliament 104–6, 222 of interest groups 2, 213, 215, 218 and nuclear safety policy 210, 211–12, 214–16, 218, 220–21, 222, 223, 224 and regulatory networks 157, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164–5, 166, 168, 169, 170 farm politics 173–4, 176–9 Fédération Nationale des Syndicats 267 d’Exploitants Agricoles 176–8, 179, 180, 181 femocrats 77–8, 85, 87, 89–90 Finland 197 Florence Process 157, 158–9, 160, 163, 164–5, 168, 169 formal governance biodiversity policy 96–101 biotechnology policy 135, 139–41, 142, 143–6 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 174 interplay with informal governance 167–70, 207, 228 nuclear safety policy 211–13 Framatome 210, 217, 218, 222 France 44, 45–6, 47, 48, 66, 67, 68, 70–71, 97, 99, 105, 110, 135, 153, 176–9, 181, 200, 201, 210, 211, 216, 217–20, 221, 222, 223 fraud agency hypothesis 58–60, 63, 66 anti-fraud enforcing capacities 65, 66, 68–70 anti-fraud laws 69 benefits of 60, 67–8, 73 costs 59, 60, 68, 73 cultural hypothesis 58, 62–3, 64, 72 definition 57–8, 68, 73 against EU budget 65 against EU funds 67 European Central Bank 191 European Commission 57, 70, 72–3 and member states 61, 65, 66, 67–9 policy networks hypothesis 58, 62, 63, 64, 70–71 potential for 61–2, 67 predatory hypothesis 58, 61–2, 63–4, 66–70 reporting procedures 64 tolerance of 63–4, 65, 66, 67–9 see also clientelism; corruption; nepotism; scandals G7 208–9 gas industry 160, 168, 169 gender 4, 82, 83, 84–92 see also men; Old Boys’ networks; women; women’s interest groups 268 Informal governance in the European Union Germany 45–6, 47, 67, 70–71, 101, 137, 152, 162, 163–4, 167, 178, 197–9, 200, 201, 210, 211, 216, 217, 218–20, 220–21, 222–3 Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry 44, 45–6 globalization 50, 52, 231 gouvernance économique 192, 203, 204, 205 governance 6, 7, 14, 155–6 Greece 68, 69, 101 Green movement 137, 138, 146, 219, 223 Habitats Directive 97, 98–9, 100–101, 102, 103–5, 106, 107, 108, 109–10 hierarchies and clientelism 79 and corporatism 79, 82 and European Union 8, 9, 24 and governance 6, 7, 155, 167, 168, 203 and informal governance and patron–client relationships 79 Hungary 209 identity politics 4, 44–5, 47, 48, 76–7, 79, 80, 83 industry 73, 134–5, 144–5, 156, 158–9, 170, 220 influence 1, 20, 26–8, 31–3, 44, 106–7, 109, 146, 158–9, 230 informal governance definition 6–7, 22, 114–15, 174–5, 189, 207–8 and EU politics 1, 227–8 and European integration 8–10 emergence 150 enforcement capacities exchanges 6, and interplay with formal governance 167–70, 207 and lack of state laws 122 legitimacy 12–15, 20, 76, 111–12, 126, 171, 172, 223, 227, 230 participation personal relationships 91–2, 101 relationship building 103 selective contact 103–4 social pressure 13 informal networks influence in decision-making 1, 20 and efficiency 47, 80 and identity politics 4, 80 and negotiation rivalry 137–9, 143–4 and social movements 83 and ‘subterfuge strategies’ 47 information 104–6, 109–10, 111, 115, 132, 140, 161, 162, 164–5, 167 inspections 67, 68, 69 institution building 147–8, 175 institutional actors 22 institutionalism and biotechnology policy 139–41, 142, 143 European integration on fraud 61–2, 63, 70, 72 and regulatory networks 164 institutions, EU see EU institutions inter-institutional relations: and informal networks 4, 135 interest groups and biodiversity policy 97, 98, 110, 111 and Council of Ministers 105 and decision-making 22 and European Commission 2–3, 9, 101, 203, 213, 215 and European Parliament (EP) 3, 111 expertise 2, 213, 215 influence 26, 27, 106–7 lobbying 26, 27, 77, 144 and national governments 3, 106–7 nuclear sector 215–19 participation 80 and policy networks 2–4, 10–11, 12 registration see also policy networks; women’s interest groups International Monetary Fund 73 international relations 42–3 Ireland 100, 101, 116, 117–21, 197, 201 Italy 65, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 97, 99, 101, 110, 200, 211 Japan 130 Jeunesse Agricole Chrétienne 176 journalists 131–2, 137 Index Kohl, Helmut 45–6, 48 legal action 100–101, 112 legal system 1, 59, 60, 61, 66, 69–70 legislation EU anti-fraud 69 biodiversity 97, 98–101 biotechnology 129, 132 competition 54, 152, 168 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 192 environmental 99 political character 152 ‘soft laws’ 233, 234–4 telecoms 120 member states 44–5, 54, 117, 118, 119, 122, 177 legitimacy and assurance 14–15 and authority 14 and clientelism 12, 14–15, 20, 227 and efficiency 13, 205, 230, 232 European Commission 3, 203–4, 224 European Union 3, 232 and gender 84 and informal governance 12–15, 20, 54, 76, 111–12, 126, 171, 172, 223, 227, 230 of member states 36 and participation 7, 14, 134–5 and patron–client relationships 81, 89 and publicity 203–4 see also output legitimacy lobbying 54 interest groups 26, 27, 77, 86, 90, 97, 99, 105, 144 NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 26–7, 30, 31 professional practices 26 regulation Maastricht Treaty 31, 32, 45–6, 50–51 mainstreaming, gender 84, 86, 87–92 Mansholt plan 177–8, 180 marginalization 105, 110–11, 112 McSharry reform 183–5, 187 member states accounting 69 and agricultural policy 176–83 269 authority 36–7, 44 and biodiversity policy 97, 98–101, 110–11 and biotechnology policy 137, 138, 141, 144 and corruption 37, 59, 60, 61–2, 63, 64 and decision-making 22 democratization 37 and Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 190, 191, 192, 196, 197–9, 200–202, 203 and European Commission 110–11, 220–23, 224 and European Parliament (EP) 33 formation 36–8 and fraud 61, 65, 66, 67–9 ‘general will’ 36 identities 4, 43–4, 46 and interest groups 3, 106, 110–11 legislation 44–5, 54, 117, 118, 119, 122, 177 legitimacy 36 multicultural aspect 229, 231 and nuclear safety policy 208–10, 217–23, 224 and policy-making 9, 85 power 36–7, 44 regulations 44–5, 216 ritual practices 40–41 social policy 231 structural specificities 40 traditions 44–5 see also national networks; sovereignty; state culture Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) and agricultural policy 185–6, 187 and biodiversity policy 97, 98, 99, 102, 103, 104, 107, 109 and biotechnology policy 137, 138, 141, 144, 146 and democratization 34 and gender equality policy 85 modernity 78 monopolies 116, 117–18, 119, 120, 125 see also competition national governments, EU see member states 270 Informal governance in the European Union national networks 121, 122–3, 124, 125–6 nature conservation groups: and biodiversity 97, 98, 99, 105, 106, 107, 109, 110 neo-corporatism 10, 11, 14–15, 115 nepotism 2, 5, 16 Netherlands, the 67, 68, 72, 101, 197, 201 networks 11–12, 14, 23, 54, 81, 82, 87, 92, 137–8, 155–6 see also advocacy coalitions; closed networks; epistemic communities; national networks; open networks; policy communities; policy networks; supranational networks new institutionalists 175 NGOs (non-governmental organizations) accountability 29 and biotechnology policy 141, 146 and decision-making 23, 28, 29, 31 educational role 28, 30, 31 and EU democratization 25–31, 34 and European Commission 2, 9, 102, 107 expertise independence 28–9, 31 influence 26–8 internal democracy 28, 29–30, 31 lobbying 26–7, 28, 30, 31 membership 26, 27 moral issues 27 policy coalitions 27–8 and policy networks resources 26, 27, 28–9, 31 Nice Treaty 4, 194, 197 normative standards: of official representatives 5, 162, 163, 164 norms 39, 48–50, 163, 164, 204–5, 228–9 Northern Europeans 81, 82, 91 nuclear industry 210–12, 216–19, 220–23, 224 nuclear safety policy 208–10, 211–13, 214–16, 217–23, 224 OECD 134, 135, 137, 138, 142 official representatives: codes of conduct 5, 162, 163, 164 OLAF 64, 65, 70, 73, 191 Old Boys’ networks 81, 83 open method of coordination (OMC) 6, 193, 197–202, 203, 204, 233–5 open networks 12, 81, 92 openness 14, 193, 196–7 output legitimacy 13, 23, 170, 232 Pareto improvements 13 participation and efficiency by EU citizens 23, 85 and identity 80 interest groups 80 and legitimacy 7, 14, 134–5 and policy-making 10–12 and privilege 15 patron–client relationships 76–7, 78–9, 80–83, 89 peer pressure 163, 193, 196, 202, 203, 204 personal relations in biodiversity policy 101, 104, 105, 107, 108–9, 110, 111, 113 in gender equality policy 91–2 and informal governance 44, 45–6, 47, 54, 56 PHARE programme 209, 212, 214, 215 pluralism 10, 11, 14–15, 95, 114 Poland 209 policy, ‘overlap’ 115–27 policy coalitions 24–5, 27–8 policy communities 11, 139 policy cycle 107–8 policy frames 133, 137–8, 143 policy-making and clientelism ‘Community method’ 234–5 and compromises 9–10 Council of Ministers and EU actors European Commission European Parliament and implementation 97, 100–101, 112 and negotiation and nepotism and participation 10–12 policy entrepreneurship 101–3, 129, 131, 132, 135 and private actors specialists 87 Index transparency 117, 126 see also individual policies policy networks alternative 137, 142–3 and clientelism 12, 62, 81 and compromises 9–10 and corporatism 79–80 and corruption 62, 63, 64 and decision-making 10–11, 12 definition 114 and democratization 114, 115 and environmental groups 95 and European Commission 2–4 exchanges 115 and fraud 58, 62, 63, 64, 70–71 informal aspects and interest groups 2–4, 10–11, 12, 76 and NGOs (non-governmental organizations) norms 12 nuclear industry 217–24 and ‘overlap’ issues 115–27, 130, 133 patron–client relationships 76–7, 80–82 and social movements 76–7 theories of 114–15 and women 83, 86, 92 see also individual policies political actors 123 political culture 37–8, 41, 42, 47–8, 49–50, 51–2, 54 political support 104–6, 109, 110, 111, 113 politicians 87, 124, 131–2 Portugal 68, 97, 101, 197, 198–9, 200, 201 power disaggregation 48 and European Commission 8, 107, 168, 200, 216 and gender 83 women 83–4, 90, 91, 230 and identity politics 83 and inequality 230 of member states 36–7, 44, 180–82 and patron–client relationships 78, 82–3 271 political 8, 54, 214 of social movements 76–7, 82–3 and ‘velvet triangles’ 85 pressure groups 15 private actors 9, 22, 57, 115, 120, 122–4, 155–6, 158–9 privatization 115, 116, 117–21, 122, 123–4, 125 professionalism 158, 161, 163, 164, 165, 170, 176, 177 public actors 9, 22, 115, 122–3, 155, 156, 159 public funds: fraud 57 public officials 57–8, 124 public opinion 86, 98, 99, 100, 196, 197–8 publicity: of decision-making 15, 140, 196–7, 199, 203–4 regulation best practice 150, 156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 165, 167, 170 and competition 52, 151–2, 153, 154, 156, 159, 161, 168–9 conflict of interests 165–7 energy industry 159 electricity industry 153–5, 156–7, 160, 161, 162, 163–5, 166–7, 168, 169 gas industry 160, 169 EU 160 decentralization problem 153, 161 decentralized coordination 160–65 European Commission 156, 159, 164–5, 168, 169–70 flexibility 153 monitoring 163 two-tier 151–3 formal governance interplay with informal governance 167–70 of lobbying national 153–5, 162, 163, 165, 167, 168, 169 policy transfer 162 regulatory lacuna 154–5, 169 telecoms sector 157 transnational regulatory networks 155–171 272 Informal governance in the European Union regulations European on biotechnology 129–30, 132–3, 134, 136, 141–2, 143, 144, 146 complexity 61, 71 compliance 12, 13, 111, 116, 197–202 and corruption 71–2 economic 151–2 social regulatory policy 151 see also Directives; legislation of member states 44–5, 216 regulatory agencies 169, 233 regulatory officials 159–60, 163, 170 regulatory power biotechnology policy 145–6 EU 151–2, 155, 164–5, 168 national 151, 152, 153 supranational 151 regulatory-style policies 230–31 relational systems 174–5, 176 representative democracy 3, 13, 14, 77 resources 59, 61, 77, 89, 90, 91 RISK-AUDIT 211, 221, 222 RSPB 99, 103, 106, 107 RWE 210, 217, 218 sanctions 48–9, 192 Santer Commission 54, 74, 82, 230 scandals 49–50, 54, 82, 228–9 see also clientelism; corruption; fraud; nepotism Scandinavia 81, 161 Schmidt, Helmut 45–6, 178 Schroder, Gerhard 198, 199, 201 scientific communities, international 131–2, 133–4, 145, 146 scientific networks 136–7, 138, 139, 140 Siemens 210, 211, 217, 222 Single European Act (SEA) 94, 99 Single Market 44, 125, 153–4, 159, 160 Slovakia 221–3 social identity: and informal networks social movements and corporatism 82 identity-based 76–7, 83 and informal networks 83 and patron–client relationships 76, 82 and policy networks 76–7 power 76–7, 82–3 see also interest groups; women’s interest groups social policy 52, 88–9, 230–32 socialization 41–2, 53, 164 society: and member states 36 Southern Europeans 81, 82, 91 sovereignty 60, 61 Spain 48, 68, 97, 100, 101, 110, 201–2, 211 Stability and Growth Pact 191, 192, 194, 197–8, 199, 200–202, 203–4 state culture 38, 39–54, 55 stereotypes 46 Structural Funds 66, 90, 103 subsidies 65, 67, 69 supranational culture 46–8, 229, 231–3 supranational institutions 232–3 supranational networks 52, 114, 115, 116, 120–21, 124, 125–6 Sweden 211 Switzerland 70 TACIS programme 209, 212, 214, 215 taxes 68 technical expertise see expertise technocracy 158, 159, 165, 166 Telecomm Eireann 116, 117–21, 123, 124, 125 telecoms sector 116–27, 157 Thatcher, Margaret 45, 46, 48 ‘Third Way politics’ 48–9 Third World 70 TPEG (Twinning Programme Engineering Group) 211, 218 trade unions 117, 118, 121, 126 traditionalism 78 transparency and corporatism 82 decision-making 13, 15, 47, 49, 76, 115, 196 European Commission 204 and policy-making 33, 117, 126 regulatory networks 170–71 Treaty of Rome 84, 94, 173, 184 trust 14, 43, 79, 81, 113, 134, 165 UCLAF 64, 65, 67, 72, 73 see also OLAF UK 45, 46, 65, 69, 95–6, 97, 99, 100, Index 101, 103, 104, 105, 106–7, 108–9, 110, 135, 161, 178, 210, 211, 228–9 United Nations 85, 87–8 Uruguay Round negotiations 184–5, 187 USA 130, 132, 136, 137, 144, 160, 184, 210 ‘velvet triangles’ 77–8, 84–7, 90, 91–2 Venables, Tony 27 veto powers 13, 14, 15, 150, 192 Vickers, J.S 118 Weber, Max 36–7, 49 WENRA (West Europen Nuclear Regulators) 216–17 273 Western Europe 212, 216–17, 220, 221, 222 women and gender equality policy 84–90, 91–2 as ‘minority’ issue 77, 83–4, 91 network techniques 87, 92 in policy networks 83, 86, 92 and power 83–4, 90, 91 representation 77, 83 see also mainstreaming, gender; ‘velvet triangles’ women’s interest groups 77–8, 85-7, 89, 90, 91 World Bank 73, 88 WWF 99, 103, 104, 107, 112 ... prevail in the Council of Ministers and in the European Parliament In addition to the coordination within the Commission, the cooperation across the EU institutions and the inter-level bargaining.. .Informal Governance in the European Union This page intentionally left blank Informal Governance in the European Union Edited by Thomas Christiansen Senior Lecturer, European Institute... the Union? Are there instances in which informal governance in fact serves to inject greater efficiency into the formal arrangements of policy-making in the EU? There are, however, also the normative