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Chapter 6 - Decision-making processes. Our analysis of the internal influences of the tubbs model of small group interaction continues in Chapter 6. Several different decision-making processes are presented. We begin with a discussion of ways to improve creativity. The reflective thinking process, which is one of the oldest and most often used decision-making methods, is described.
CCHH AAPP TT EE RR Decision-Making Processes Stewart L Tubbs McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Decision-Making Processes • • • • McGrawHill Glossary Case Study Improving Creativity Reflective Thinking Process The KepnerTregoe Approach TheFishboneTechnique â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Decision-Making Processes (continued) • • • • McGrawHill Brainstorming Six Thinking Hats Incrementation Mixed Scanning Tacit Bargaining TheSystemsApproach â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Glossary Brainstormingatechniqueusedtogenerateideas.It emphasizesbrainactivity.Itcanbeappliedaspartofthe problemưsolvingprocess • Convergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which ideas come together to form a solution • Divergent Thinking—a form of thinking in which many different aspects of an idea are explored. Brainstorming is one technique of divergent thinking • Fishbone Technique—a method of examining cause and effect using a fishbone diagram McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Glossary Incrementalismtheprocessofmakingdecisionsthat resultinchangebyincrements KepnerTregoe Approach—a variation of the reflective thinking sequence. Its most important contribution is the way in which a group works through the criteria phase, differentiating between the musts and the wants of a solution • Mixed Scanning—a decisionmaking strategy that combines examining a problem comprehensively (the rational approach) and part by part (the incremental approach) McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Glossary ReflectiveThinkingProcessapatternforsmall groupproblemsolvingthatincludessixcomponents: 1.Whatistheproblem? 2.Whatareitscausesandlimits? 3.Whatarethecriteriaforanacceptablesolution? 4.Whataretheavailablesolutions? 5.Whatisthebestsolution? 6.Howcanitbeimplemented? TacitBargainingbargaininginwhich communicationisincompleteorimpossible McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide Case Study General Motors 1. What do you think are the main problems at GM? 2. What would you do if you were CEO of GM? 3. How does this case relate to your organization? McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide Improving Creativity • Creativity can be divided into two phases of thinking – Divergent thinking – Convergent thinking McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide Improving Creativity • Gibson and Hodgetts (1986) identify four different kinds of creativity that may be applied to group problem solving – – – – McGrawHill Innovation Synthesis Extension Duplication â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 10 Improving Creativity LeftưandRightưBrainFunctions McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 16 The Fishbone Technique The fishbone technique is so called because its outline resembles the skeleton of a fish – It helps to identify graphically the underlying causes of a problem McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 17 Brainstorming The Fishbone Technique McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 18 Brainstorming—Practical Tips One way to get at the root causes of problems is to ask “why” five times. For example, some team members don’t follow through on a team’s decision (Carr, 1996, p. 66) – Why? Because team members weren’t really committed to the decision in the first place – Why? Because the team didn’t spend enough time exploring the problems in implementing the solution – Why? Because it didn’t want to spend the time – Why? Because it didn’t think the problem was that important – Why? Because no one thought through the team’s mission clearly when it was formed McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 19 Brainstorming • Brainstorming emphasizes rightbrain activity – Rules for brainstorming: • • • • • • McGrawHill Put judgment and evaluation aside temporarily Turn imagination loose, and start offering the results Think of as many ideas as you can Seek combination and improvement Record all ideas in full view Evaluate at a later session © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 20 Brainstorming—Practical Tips 1. While brainstorming, take 3 x 5 index cards and have each member of the team follow this sequence: Say it, write it, toss it (on the table) 2. Categorize ideas 3. Classify 4. Prioritize McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 21 Six Thinking Hats • Six thinking hats is an intuitive way to keep your thoughts focused while problem solving – White hat—emotionally neutral – Red hat—emotions, gut instincts, intuition, and feelings – Black hat—represents careful and analytical thinking McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 22 Six Thinking Hats • Six thinking hats . . . (continued) – Yellow hat—represents sunny, optimistic, and positive thinking – Green hat—represents creativity, new ideas, alternatives, and possibilities – Bluehatrepresentscoordination,control,and thedisciplinetoknowwhentousewhichhat McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 23 Incrementalism BraybrookeandLindblom(1963)arguethat numerous decisions concerning governmental policies are arrived at partially as a result of adapting to political pressure rather than as a result of rational analysis McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 24 Incrementalism • The term incrementalism refers to the process of making decisions that result in change – Quadrant 1—High understanding/large change – Quadrant 2—High understanding/incremental change – Quadrant 3—Low understanding/incremental change – Quadrant 4—Low understanding/large change McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 25 Incrementation ModelofDecisionưMaking McGrawưHill Source:ReprintedwithpermissionoftheFreePress,aDivisionofMacmillan,Inc.,fromDavidBraybrookeandCharles â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved C.Lindbloom.AStrategyofDecision,copyrightâ1963byTheFreePressofGlencoe Slide 26 Mixed Scanning • Etzioni (1968) offers a decisionmaking strategy that is a combination of reflective thinking and incrementalism – The ability to maintain a balance between attention to the general and attention to the specific appears to be a major factor in successfulproblemsolving McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 27 Tacit Bargaining Murnighan(1992)advancedastrategy referred to as “tacit bargaining” or “bargaining in which communication is incomplete or impossible” (pp. 3536) – People can cooperate fairly successfully in some problemsolving situations if it is to their advantage to do so • Mixedmotive situations—when there is simultaneous pressure to cooperate and to compete– imply communication procedures that are distinctly different from those in other problemsolving situations McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 28 Tacit Bargaining • Murnighan (1992) . . . (continued) – A good negotiator should learn to: • Try to gauge your own strength or weakness • Try to gauge your counterpart’s actual strength or weakness • Surmise whether his perception of his strength or weakness accords with your reality McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved Slide 29 The Systems Approach • The decisionmaking process in most groups can be improved • The systems principle of equifinality is that several alternative methods may be used to reach the solution to the group’s problem • The appropriateness of any method will depend on the demands of the specific situation McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved Slide 30 The Systems Approach The rational problemsolving methods work well in most cases but seem particularly suited to an autonomous group trying to satisfy its own needs while being allowed to do so by a democratic leader • Tacit bargaining seems to be primarily appropriate in mixedmotive situations • The demands of the situation play a great part in suggesting which problemsolving strategy we want to employ McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved ... governmental policies are arrived at partially as a result of adapting to political pressure rather than as a result of rational analysis McGrawHill © 2004 The McGrawHill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved... The ability to maintain a balance between attention to the general and attention to the specific appears to be a major factor in successful problem solving McGrawưHill â2004TheMcGrawưHillCompanies,Inc.Allrightsreserved... Slide 27 Tacit Bargaining Murnighan(1992)advancedastrategy referredtoastacitbargainingor bargaininginwhichcommunicationis incomplete or impossible” (pp. 35 36) – People can cooperate fairly successfully in some