ENCYCLOPEDIA OF space and astronomy joseph a angelo, jr To the memory of my parents, Rose and Joseph Angelo, whose sacrifices, love, and dedication to family taught me what is most important in life and showed me how to see the hand of God in all things, large and small, in this beautiful universe Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy Copyright © 2006 by Joseph A Angelo, Jr All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher For information contact: Facts On File, Inc An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street New York NY 10001 ISBN-10: 0-8160-5330-8 ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-5330-8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Angelo, Joseph A Encyclopedia of space and astronomy / Joseph A Angelo, Jr p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8160-5330-8 (hardcover) Space astronomy—Encyclopedias Astronomy—Encyclopedias I Title QB136.A55 2006 520′.3—dc222004030800 Facts On File books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions Please call our Special Sales Department in New York at 212/967-8800 or 800/322-8755 You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M Toro Cover design by Cathy Rincon Illustrations by Richard Garratt Printed in the United States of America VB Hermitage 10 This book is printed on acid-free paper CONTENTS Acknowledgments vi Introduction vii Entries A–Z Feature Essays: “We Are Made of Stardust” “Moon Bases and the Third Millennium” 36 “The Ballistic Missile—A Revolution In Warfare” 73 “Cape Canaveral: The American Stairway to the Stars” 108 “Hazards of Space Travel” 123 “Switchboards in the Sky” 141 “Will It Rain on My Parade?” 396 “Reaching Beyond the Solar System” 455 “Role of the Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) in Space Exploration” 486 “Space Technology and National Security” 490 “Space-Age Archaeology” 499 “Space-Age Guardian Angels” 534 “Consequences of Interstellar Contact” 536 “Mariner: The Family of NASA Spacecraft that Changed Our Understanding of the Inner Solar System” 604 “Cosmic Consequences of Space Exploration” 619 Appendixes: Appendix I Further Reading 669 Appendix II Exploring Cyberspace 670 Appendix III A Chronology of Space and Astronomy 672 Appendix IV Planetary Data 691 Appendix V How Planets, Moons, Asteroids, Comets, and Interesting Celestial Objects and Planetary Surface Features Are Named 693 Index 706 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to publicly acknowledge the generous support of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the United States Air Force (USAF), the U.S Geological Survey (USGS), the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), and the European Space Agency (Washington, D.C., office) during the preparation of this book Special thanks are also extended to the editorial staff at Facts On File, particularly my editor, Frank K Darmstadt The staff at the Evans Library of Florida Tech again provided valuable research support Finally, without the help of my wife, Joan, the manuscript and illustrations for this book would never have survived three consecutive hurricanes during the summer of 2004 and then emerge from chaotic piles of hastily moved boxes to become a workable document vi INTRODUCTION The Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy introduces the exciting relationship between modern astronomy and space technology The book also examines the technical, social, and philosophical influences this important combination of science and technology exerts on our global civilization With the start of the space age in 1957, scientists gained the ability to place sophisticated observatories in outer space Since such orbiting astronomical facilities operate above the masking limitations imposed by our planet’s atmosphere, they can collect scientific data in regions of the electromagnetic spectrum previously unavailable to astronomers who could only look at the heavens from the surface of Earth Data from orbiting astronomical observatories, as well as from an armada of planetary exploration spacecraft, have completely transformed observational astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology Space technology has expanded our view of the universe Scientists now enjoy meeting the universe face-to-face and harvesting enormous quantities of interesting new scientific data from all the information-rich portions of the electromagnetic spectrum Some spacecraft are designed to investigate mysterious cosmic rays—those very tiny, but extremely energetic, pieces of galactic and extragalactic material that provide tantalizing clues about extremely violent cosmic processes, such as exploding stars and colliding galaxies Other spacecraft have explored the solar system Through developments in space technology, planetary bodies within the solar system are no longer the unreachable points of wandering light that intrigued ancient stargazers Today, as a result of flybys, orbital reconnaissance missions, and even landings by a variety of interesting robot spacecraft, these mysterious celestial objects have become familiar worlds The marvel of space technology has also allowed 12 human beings to walk on the surface of another world (the Moon) and to return safely to Earth with hand-selected collections of rock and soil samples for detailed investigation by fellow scientists The major entries and special essays within this book highlight the synthesis of modern astronomy and space technology This fortuitous union of science and technology has created an explosion in knowledge amounting to the start of a second scientific revolution—similar, but even more consequential, than the first The first scientific revolution began in the 16th century, when a few bold astronomers used their pioneering observations and mathematics to challenge the long-cherished philosophical position that Earth was the stationary center of the universe This book serves as a guide and introduction to the fundamental concepts, basic principles, famous and less-known people, major events, and impact of astronomy and space technology The collection of biographical entries, some brief and others a bit more extensive, allows the reader to discover firsthand the genius, sacrifice, visionary brilliance, and hard work of the men and women who established modern astronomy and/or brought about the age of space Special essays address a variety of interesting, intellectually stimulating topics and should help high school and college students better understand, appreciate, and even vii viii Introduction participate in the great space age revolution that embraces our global civilization The general reader will find major entries, such as rocket, telescope, and spacecraft, very useful as introductory treatments of complicated subjects Major entries are prepared in a simple, easy to read style and are generously complemented by illustrations, photographs, and visionary artist renderings The numerous supporting entries throughout the book serve as concise capsules of basic information An extensive network of cross-references assists the reader in further pursuing a particular scientific topic or technical theme Entries that describe the significance of past, current, and future space activities generally include a balanced combination of visual (graphic) and written material Images from contemporary space missions take the reader beyond Earth and provide a firsthand view of some of the most interesting celestial objects in our solar system Many major entries provide compact technical discussions concerning basic concepts considered fundamental in understanding modern astronomy and space technology While mathematics is certainly important in astronomy and space technology, the book avoids an oppressive use of formulas and equations Such detailed mathematical treatments are considered more appropriate for specialized textbooks and are beyond the scope of this introductory work Other entries summarize contemporary astronomical knowledge or discuss the results of important space exploration missions Because of the rapidly changing nature of contemporary space missions, the reader is encouraged to pursue updates through many of the excellent Internet sites suggested in Appendix II Still other entries, such as horizon mission methodology and starship, are designed to stimulate intellectual curiosity by challenging the reader to think “outside the box,” or, more appropriately, “beyond this planet.” These entries pose intriguing questions, introduce scientifically based speculations, and suggest some of the anticipated consequences of future space missions The search for extraterrestrial life is another important example Right now the subject of extraterrestrial life resides in the nebulous buffer zone between science fiction and highly speculative science, but, through advanced space exploration projects, these discussions could easily become the factual centerpiece of contemporary scientific investigation The confirmed discovery of extraterrestrial life, extinct or existent—no matter how humble in form—on Mars or perhaps on one of the intriguing Galilean moons of Jupiter could force a major revision in the chauvinistic planetary viewpoint human beings have tacitly embraced for centuries This deeply embedded terrestrial chauvinism suggests that planet Earth and, by extrapolation, the universe were created primarily for human benefit Perhaps this is so, but the discovery of life elsewhere could shatter such a myopic viewpoint and encourage a wholesale reevaluation of long-standing philosophical questions such as “Who are we as a species?” and “What is our role in the cosmic scheme of things?” The somewhat speculative approach taken by certain entries is necessary if the book is to properly project the potential impact of space exploration What has occurred in the four or so decades of space exploration is just the tip of the intellectual iceberg Space missions planned for the next few decades promise to accelerate the pace and excitement of the contemporary scientific revolution triggered by the union of space technology and astronomy Special effort has been made to provide not only easily understood technical entries, but also entries that are set in an appropriate scientific, social, and/or philosophical context This approach extends the information content of the book to a wider audience—an audience that includes those who want to become scientists and engineers as well as those who plan to pursue other careers but desire to understand how astronomy and space technology affect their lives Most early civilizations paid close attention to the sky Naked eye astronomy, the most ancient and widely practiced of the physical sciences, provided social and political cohesion to early societies and often became an integral part of religious customs To many ancient peoples the easily observed and recorded cyclic movement of the Sun, Moon, planets (only five are visible without the astronomical telescope), and stars provided a certain degree of order and stability in their lives After all, these ancient peoples did not possess the highly accurate Introduction personal timepieces that tend to control our modern lives In fact, people living in today’s schedule-dominated, fast-paced societies often become totally detached from the natural diurnal cycle that closely regulated the lifestyles and activities of ancient peoples As citizens of a 24/7-wired world that is always “open for business,” it is sometimes difficult for us to appreciate how the heavens and nature touched every aspect of a person’s life in ancient societies For these early peoples stargazing, myth, religion, and astrology often combined to form what scientists now refer to as “ancient astronomy.” So it should not come as too great a surprise to us that these peoples often deified the Sun, the Moon, and other important celestial objects Their lives were interwoven with and became dependent on the reasonably predictable motions of such commonly observed but apparently unreachable celestial objects Looking back in history from the vantage point of 21st-century science, some of us might be tempted to ridicule such ancient activities How could the early Egyptians or the Aztecs deify the Sun? But are we that much different with respect to how celestial objects control our lives? As a result of space technology our global civilization has become highly interwoven with and dependent on human-made celestial objects In addition to the revolution in modern astronomy, spacecraft now support global communications, are an essential component of national defense, monitor weather conditions, provide valuable scientific data about the Earth as a complex, highly interactive system, and help travelers find their way on land, on sea, and in the air A number of special entries and companion essays provide introductory discussions on just how much space technology affects many aspects of modern life The scientific method—that is, the practice of science as a form of natural philosophy or an organized way of looking at and explaining the world and how things work—emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries in western Europe Telescope-assisted astronomical observations encouraged Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Sir Isaac Newton, and other pioneering thinkers to overthrow two millennia of geocentric (Earth-centered) cosmology and replace it with a more scientifically sound, heliocentric view of the solar system Observational astronomy gave rise to the first scientific revolution and led to the practice of organized science (the scientific method)—one of the greatest contributions of Western civilization to the human race Today the combination of astronomy and space technology is encouraging scientists to revisit some of humankind’s most important and long-pondered philosophical questions: Who are we? Where did we come from? Where are we going? Are we alone in this vast universe? Future space missions will define the cosmic philosophy of an emerging solar system civilization As the detailed exploration of distant worlds leads to presently unimaginable discoveries, space technology and modern astronomy will enable us to learn more about our role and place as an intelligent species in a vast and beautiful universe This book is not just a carefully prepared collection of technical facts It also serves as a special guide for those readers who want to discover how astronomy and space technology are making the universe both a destination and a destiny for the human race For example, the entry on nucleosynthesis and the essay “We Are Made of Stardust” will help readers discover that the biogenic elements in their bodies, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorous, came from ancient stars that exploded and hurled their core materials into the interstellar void long before the solar system formed Throughout most of human history, people considered the universe a place apart from life on Earth Through modern astronomy and space technology we can now proclaim that “We have met the universe and it is US.” So come share the excitement, the vision, and the intellectual accomplishments of the astronomers and space technologists who helped humankind reach for the stars —Joseph A Angelo, Jr Cape Canaveral, 2005 ix 726 Index National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) 411, 490 National Solar Observatory (NSO) 411–412 National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) 323, 412 See also specific astronauts, missions, and spacecraft NATO III (satellites) 412 natural-form food 560 natural satellites 412 Naval Observatory, U.S 632 navigation 412–413, 440, 463 celestial 120 optical 413, 558 spacecraft 557–558 navigation satellites 413 Navstar (satellites) 413 n-body problem 413, 465–466 NEA See near-Earth asteroid NEAR See Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous near-Earth asteroid (NEA) 55–56, 413, 496, 620–621 Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) mission 413–414, 501 near infrared 414 nearside 414 nebula 414, 585, 655 See also specific nebula catalog of 418 dark 169 planetary 463 solar 550 nebula hypothesis 327, 414, 650 Nemesis (stellar companion) 414, 585 NEP See nuclear-electric propulsion system neper 414 nephanalysis 602 Neptune (planet) 414–415, 461, 551 discovery of 255–256, 352–353, 414 Great Dark Spot on 278, 414 moons of 415 Despina 181 Galatea 251 Larissa 346 Naiad 409 Nereid 415 Proteus 474 Thalassa 606 Triton 415, 617 Nereid (moon) 415 NERVA 415 Neumann, John von 415, 508, 539–540 neutral atmosphere 415 neutral buoyancy simulator 416 neutral burning 416 neutrino 416 neutrino astronomy 416–417, 596 neutron 417, 584 neutron star 373, 417, 586–587, 596, 601, 659 Newcomb, Simon 417–418 New General Catalog of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars (NGC) 418 New Horizons–Kuiper Belt Flyby mission 139, 418, 464 New Millennium Program 175 new moon 418 newton 418 Newton, Sir Isaac 286, 418–420 Newtonian mechanics 420, 496–497 Newtonian telescope 419, 420–421, 493–495, 602, 666 Newton’s law of gravitation 400, 420, 421, 438, 585 Newton’s law of motion 421, 489, 510 NGC See New General Catalog of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars Nicholson, Seth Barnes 421, 544 nickel-cadmium batteries 421 Nike Hercules (missile) 421–422 Nimbus satellites 397, 422 nitric acid 492 nitrogen tetroxide 473, 514 NOAA See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration node(s) 422, 595 ascending 53, 422 descending 181, 422 line of 358, 422 nominal 422 noncoherent communication 422 nondestructive testing 422 nonflight unit 422 nonimpinging injector 422 nonionizing electromagnetic radiation 422 nonservo robot 504 NORAD See North American Aerospace Defense Command normal 422 normal stars 584–586 North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) 422–423, 518, 575, 626 North Star See Polaris nose cone 423 reentry 492 nova 423, 587 nozzle(s) 423–424, 610 aerodynamic throat area of 15, 424, 511 aerospike 16, 424 area ratio of 424 bell 80, 424 converging-diverging 152–153, 511 de Laval 179–180 ideal 307 overexpanding 424, 442 plug 424, 464 supersonic 596 variable-area exhaust 635 nozzle extension 424 NPOESS See National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System NRAO See National Radio Astronomy Observatory NRDS See Nuclear Rocket Development Station NRO See National Reconnaissance Office NSO See National Solar Observatory NTR See nuclear-thermal rocket nuclear detonation 424 nuclear-electric propulsion system (NEP) 207, 424, 425 nuclear energy 214, 424 space 485, 562–563 nuclear explosion 424 nuclear fission 122, 241–242, 424, 471–472, 564 nuclear fusion 247–248, 425, 585, 586 nuclear radiation 425, 484 nuclear reaction 425 nuclear reactor 425 nuclear rocket 425, 564 Nuclear Rocket Development Station (NRDS) 425–426 nuclear-thermal rocket (NTR) 425 nuclear weapon 426 nucleon 426, 584 nucleosynthesis 101, 426 nucleus 426, 584 galactic 92, 251 nuclide 426 nutation 96–97, 426 Index O OAO See Orbiting Astronomical Observatory Oberon (moon) 427 Oberth, Hermann Julius 427–429, 516, 568 objective 429, 495 objective prism 429 oblateness 429 oblate spheroid 429 obliquity of ecliptic 429 observable universe 429 observatory 429 See also specific observatories observed 429 occult/occulting 429, 480 ocean remote sensing 429–430, 538 oersted 430 Oersted, Hans Christian 430 ogive 430 OGO See Orbiting Geophysical Observatory ohm 430 Ohm, George Simon 430, 431 Ohm’s law 430–431 Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus 431–432, 443 Olbers’s method 431 Olbers’s paradox 431 Olympus Mons 432 omni- 432 omnidirectional antenna 432 OMS See orbital maneuvering system one-g 432 one-way communications 432, 601 one-way light time (OWLT) 432 Onizuka, Ellison S 432 Oort, Jan Hendrik 432–433, 434, 538 Oort cloud 139, 433, 609 opacity 433 Oparin, Alexandr Ivanovich 433 Oparin-Haldane hypothesis 433 open cluster 251, 433 open loop 433 open system 434, 608 open universe 83, 434 operating life 434 operational missile 434 operations planning 434 Ophelia (moon) 434 Ophiuchus (constellation) 77 Öpik, Ernest Julius 433, 434 opposition 434 optical astronomy 64, 434 optical double 434 optical interferometer 314, 399, 434 optical navigation 413, 558 optics aberration in adaptive 11–12 coated 134 folded 244 optoelectronic device 434 OQF See Orbiting Quarantine Facility orbit(s) 434–435 chaotic 128 Clarke 131 eccentric 203 elliptical 213 equatorial 217 geostationary 263–264, 435, 437 geostationary transfer 474 geosynchronous 264, 526 halo 287 high-Earth 296 Hohmann transfer 297 hyperbolic 304 inertial 310 low Earth 362, 435, 439, 526, 555, 565, 629 lunar 369 Molniya 405–406 of objects in space 436–440 parabolic 445 parking 445 polar 437, 466 posigrade 437 prograde 469 retrograde 437, 502 stationary 590 sun-synchronous 594–595 synchronous 437, 598 transfer 616 orbital-capture trajectory 439 orbital debris 558–559, 561 orbital elements 435 orbital injection 435 orbital maneuvering system (OMS) 435, 473, 577 orbital mechanics 435 orbital period 435 orbital plane 435, 437 orbital transfer vehicle (OTV) 310–311, 424, 435 orbital velocity 435 orbital workshop (OWS) 547 orbit determination 412, 435 Orbiter (space shuttle) 435 orbiter (spacecraft) 435, 556, 567, 575–577 727 orbit inclination 435, 437 Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) 435–436, 581 Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO) 436 orbiting laser power station 436 Orbiting Quarantine Facility (OQF) 233–234, 436 Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO) 436 orbit trim maneuvers 413, 440, 558 order of magnitude 440 Origins Program 440–441, 561 Orion (constellation) 80, 81, 299, 441 Orion (project) 471–472, 589 Orion Nebula 418, 441, 519, 654 orrery 441–442 oscillating universe 442 oscillatory combustion 442 OSO See Orbiting Solar Observatory O stars 442, 584 OTV See orbital transfer vehicle outer planets 442 outer space 442 Outer Space Treaty (1967) 561 outgassing 442 overexpanding nozzle 424, 442 overpressure 442 OWLT See one-way light time OWS See orbital workshop oxidizer 442 oxygen 305 liquid 359, 364, 473, 514, 521, 575, 577 Ozma, Project 472 P Paaliaq (moon) 443 pad 443 pad deluge 443 pair production 443 Palermo Scale 56–57 Pallas (asteroid) 54–55, 443 Palomar Observatory 443 Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS) 443 PAM See payload assist module Pan (moon) 443, 530 Pandora (satellite) 443 Pangaea (continent) 525 panspermia 444, 606 parabolic 445 parabolic orbit 445 728 Index parabolic reflector 445 parachute(s) deceleration 171 drogue 194 parallax 266–267, 445 annual 31 Paris Observatory 114, 445 parking orbit 445 parsec 445 Parsons, William See Rosse, third earl of particle(s) 445, 584 alpha 22 antiparticle 34 beta 81 charged 128 electron 212, 584 elementary 213, 393, 584, 591, 641 HZE 306 neutron 417, 584 nucleon 426, 584 photon 452, 497, 592 positron 467 proton 474, 584 quark 477, 478, 479, 584 tachyon 600 virtual 641 WIMP 654 particle accelerator 445 pascal 445, 468 Pascal, Blaise 468 Pascal principle 468 Pasiphaë (satellite) 445 Pasithee (moon) 445 pass 445 passive 445 passive defense 445 passive homing guidance 297, 445 passive satellites 446 passive sensor 446, 500, 540 passive target 446 path 446 Patriot (missile system) 446 Pauli exclusion principle 446 payload 446, 511, 553 attached 68 habitable 285 science 533 payload assist module (PAM) 446, 473 payload bay 446 payload buildup 446 payload carrier 447 payload changeout room 447 payload integration 447 payload retrieval mission 447 payload servicing mission 447 payload specialist 447 Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia Helena 447, 522 PBV See post-boost vehicle PCC See permanently crewed capability PCM See pulse code modulation PE See potential energy Peacekeeper (missile) 447 Pegasus (launch vehicle) 447 Peltier effect 447 penetration aid 447–448 penetrator 448 penumbra 623 Penzias, Arno Allen 448–450, 653–654 perfect cosmological principle 450 perfect fluid 450 perfect gas 450 perforation 450 peri- 450 periapsis 437, 440, 450 argument of 47 periastron 450 pericynthian 450 perigee 437, 440, 450 perigee propulsion 450 perihelion 437, 450 perilune 450 period 450 orbital 435 sidereal 543 synodic 599 transient 616 periodic comet 450 permanently crewed capability (PCC) 450 Perrine, Charles Dillion 450 Perseus (constellation) 21 Pershing 450–451 perturbation 451 petroleum 472–473 phase 451 phase change 451 phase modulation (PM) 451 phases of moon 247, 398, 418, 451 Phobos (moon) 179, 451 Phoebe (moon) 307, 451–452, 530 Phoenix (missile) 452 Phoenix (spacecraft) 506 photoelectric effect 452 photography astrophotography 62, 179, 327–328, 548, 655 infrared 312 schlieren 532 photoionization 452 photometer 452 photon 452, 497, 592 photon engine 452 photosphere 593 photosynthesis 430, 452 photovoltaic conversion 452 solar 550 photovoltaic material 452, 549, 550 physical double 434 physics astrophysics 62–65, 622, 627 geophysics 263 health 288 space 564 phytoplankton 430 PI See principal investigator Piazzi, Giuseppe 431, 453 Picard, Jean 453 Pickering, Edward Charles 453–454 Pickering, William Hayward 454 Pickering, William Henry 451, 454 pico- 454 piggyback experiment 454 pilot 454 Pioneer plaque 454–456, 458 Pioneer spacecraft 456–457 Pioneer 10 spacecraft 454, 455, 456, 457–458, 485, 486, 537, 556, 562, 619 Pioneer 11 spacecraft 454, 455, 456, 457–458, 485, 486, 556, 562, 619 Pioneer Venus mission 458, 637 pitch 459 pitch angle 459 pitchline 459 pitchover 459 pixel 459 plage 459 Planck, Max Karl 459–460, 478 Planck’s constant 452, 460 Planck (spacecraft) 460 Planck’s radiation law 89, 459, 460, 484 Planck time 83–84, 460, 477, 478, 591 planet(s) 460–461 See also specific planets Earthlike 198 extrasolar 226–228, 604 giant 265 inferior 311 inner 312 Index Jovian 324 oblateness of 429 outer 442 protoplanet 474 superior 595 terrestrial 604 planetarium 461 planetary 461 planetary albedo 461–462 planetary engineering 462–463 planetary nebula 463 planetary orbital operations 463 planetary orbit insertion 463 planetary probe 463 planetesimals 463 planet fall 463 planetoid 463 planet X 463 Plaskett, John Stanley 463–464 Plaskett’s star 463–464 plasma 464 plasma engine 464 plasma instruments 464 plasma physics 21 plasma rocket 464 plate tectonics 525 platform 464 polar orbiting 466–467, 595 space 556, 564 Pleiades (star cluster) 464 Plesetsk Cosmodrome 464 PLSS See primary life support system plug nozzle 464 plume 464 exhaust 222 plutino 464 Pluto (planet) 461, 464–465, 551, 613, 614 discovery of 363 moon of (Charon) 129, 418, 464–465, 551, 632 Pluto–Kuiper Belt Mission Express See New Horizons–Kuiper Belt Flyby mission PM See phase modulation pod 465 POES See Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite pogo 465 pogo suppressor 465 Pogson, Norman Robert 375, 465 Poincaré, (Jules) Henri 465–466 point of impact 466 point of no return 466 poise 466 polar coordinate system 466 polar flattening 429 Polaris (missile) 466 Polaris (North Star) 466 polarization 466 polar orbit 437, 466 Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) 466 polar orbiting platform (POP) 466–467, 595 Polar Space Launch Vehicle (PSLV) 467 poles 467 Pond See Zond Pond, John 467 Pons, Jean 467 POP See polar orbiting platform popping 467 Population I stars 467 young 662 Population II stars 467 port 467 Portia (moon) 467 posigrade orbit 437 posigrade rocket 467 positron 467 POSS See Palomar Observatory Sky Survey post-boost phase 467 post-boost vehicle (PBV) 467 potential energy (PE) 214, 467 power 467 resolving 502 power plant 467 power system(s) isotope 321 satellite 526–528, 555 power unit, auxiliary 69 preburners 467 precession 467 precession of equinoxes 468 precombustion chamber 468 preflight 468 preset guidance 468 pressurant 468 pressure 468 chamber 125 critical 163 dynamic (q) 194, 390, 477 exit 222 overpressure 442 radiation 484 stagnation 583 ullage 468, 622 pressure fed 468 729 pressure-laden sequence 468 pressure regulator 468 pressure suit 468 pressurization 468, 539 pressurization system 468 pressurized habitable environment 468 prestage 468 primary body 468 primary lens See objective primary life support system (PLSS) 574 primary mirror 429, 468, 493 primates 60 primitive atmosphere 468 principal investigator (PI) 469 prism 469 objective 429 probe(s) 469 See also specific probes atmospheric 67 deep-space 176 geoprobe 263 interstellar 199, 318, 471, 588 lunar 369 planetary 463 star 588 Prognoz spacecraft 469 prograde orbit 469 program 469 programmable robot 504 progressive burning 469 Progress spacecraft 469–470, 570 project 470 Project Blue Book 624–625 Project Cyclops 470 Project Daedalus 470–471, 589 Project Orion 471–472, 589 Project Ozma 472 Prometheus (moon) 472 prominence 472 propellant(s) 472–474 See also fuel composite 144, 510–511 cryogenic 164, 473, 513 double-base 191, 510 liquid 359–360, 473, 512–514, 548 monopropellant 406, 510, 514 restricted 502 rocket 472–474, 515, 521, 579–580 rubber-base 521 solid 469, 473, 510–512, 552 storable 591 propellant mass fraction 474, 512 proper motion 474 730 Index proportional counter 474 propulsion systems 474 beamed energy 80 electric 207–211 jet 323, 515 laser 347 matter-antimatter 390 nuclear-electric 207, 424, 425 perigee 450 rocket 515, 550 solar electric 207, 424, 549 space nuclear 563–564 Prospero (moon) 474 Proteus (moon) 474 protium 474 protocol testing 436 protogalaxy 474 proton 474, 584 Proton (launch vehicle) 474 proton-proton chain reaction 474 proton storm 474 protoplanet 474 protostar 475 protosun 475 prototype 475 See also Y Proxima Centauri (star) 475 PSLV See Polar Space Launch Vehicle Ptolemaic system 158, 475 Ptolemy 21, 78, 465, 475, 477, 592, 623 Puck (moon) 475 pulsar 80, 296, 475, 485, 587 binary 85 pulsating variable star 475 pulse 476, 557–558 pulse code modulation (PCM) 476 pulsejet 476 pump 476 pump-fed 476 purge 476 pyrogen 476 pyrolysis 476 pyrometer 476 pyrophoric fuel 476 pyrotechnic 476 pyrotechnics 476 pyrotechnic subsystems 476 Pythagoras 476 Q q (dynamic pressure) 194, 390, 477 QCD See quantum chromodynamics QED See quantum electrodynamics QSG See quasi-stellar galaxy QSO See quasi-stellar object quadrant 27, 477 quantization 477 quantum 477 quantum chromodynamics (QCD) 477, 479 quantum cosmology 477–478 quantum electrodynamics (QED) 478 quantum gravity 460, 477, 478 quantum mechanics 446, 478 quantum theory 459–460, 478 Quaoar (object in Kuiper Belt) 478–479, 603, 617 quarantine 231–232, 436 quark 477, 478, 479, 584 quasars 479–480, 485, 493, 532, 657 quasi-stellar galaxy (QSG) 479 quasi-stellar object (QSO) 479 Quickbird (satellite system) 480 quiet Sun 480 QuikSCAT (Quick Scatterometer) 480 R rad 481 radar 481, 500 spaceborne imaging 483, 555 synthetic aperture 481, 482, 555, 599 radar altimeter 481, 500 radar astronomy 481 radar imaging 481–483 Radarsat (spacecraft) 483 radial-burning 483 radial velocity 483 radian 483 radiance 483 radiant flux 243, 483 radiant heat transfer 483–484, 493, 617 radiant intensity 484 radiation 484 annihilation 31 background 71 blackbody 89, 459, 460, 549, 550, 590, 651 electromagnetic 211–212, 422, 518, 550 extreme ultraviolet 236, 518 Hawking 91, 288 infrared 312 ionizing 320, 517, 518, 541, 543 laws of 484 (See also specific laws) nuclear 425, 484 secondary 538 solar 436, 550 synchrotron 598 thermal 484, 607 ultraviolet 622 radiation belt(s) 484 Earth’s trapped 200–201, 484, 553, 564–565, 633, 634 Van Allen 564–565, 633, 634 radiation cooling 484 radiation dose 190 absorbed 4, 498 chronic 129 radiation hardness 484 radiation heat transfer See radiant heat transfer radiation pressure 484 radiation sickness 10, 484 radiation syndrome, acute 10, 484, 518 radiator 484 isotropic 321 radioactive decay 171 radioactivity 484–485 radio astronomy 449, 485 radio brightness 487 radio frequency (RF) 432, 472, 482, 485, 526, 527, 535–538, 617, 647 radio galaxy 485 radioisotope 485 radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) 418, 484, 485–487, 562, 623 radiometer 487, 500 infrared 312 radionuclide 487 radio source catalog 487 radio telescope 487, 638–639 radio waves 292–293, 487–488 rail gun 488 ramjet 488 rocket 515 range 488 Ranger Project 488 Rankine cycle 488 Rayleigh scattering 488–489, 531 rays (lunar) 489 RCS See reaction control system reaction(s) 489 chain 122, 474 endothermic 214 exothermic 224 nuclear 425 Index reaction-control jets 489 reaction control system (RCS) 473, 489 reaction engine 489 reaction time 489 readout 489 readout station 489 Reagan, Ronald 571 real time 489 real-time data 489 Reber, Grote 489 reconnaissance satellites 411, 489–492, 518–519, 528, 582 recovery 492 rectifier 492 red dwarf (star) 492, 585 Redeye (missile) 492 red fuming nitric acid (RFNA) 492 red giant (star) 492, 586 redline 492 Red Planet 492 See also Mars redshift 277, 492, 588 Redstone (missile) 325, 492 reentry 492 reentry body 492 reentry corridor 492 reentry nose cone 492 reentry phase 493 reentry trajectory 493 reentry vehicle (RV) 2, 493, 542 maneuvering 375 multiple independently targetable 408 reentry window 493 Rees, Sir Martin John 493 reflectance 493 reflecting telescope 468, 493–495, 602 reflection 495 angle of 28–29 retroreflection 502 specular 580 refracting telescope 495, 602 refraction 495 atmospheric 67 regenerative cooling 495, 514 regenerative life support system (RLSS) 495 regenerator 495 regolith 496, 566–567 regressive burning 496 rehydratable food 560 Reinmuth, Karl 496 relative atomic mass 496 relative state 496 relativistic 496 relativity (theory) 205–206, 496–498 general 156, 217, 260, 497–498, 532, 575, 600, 601 special 496–497, 502, 575, 579 reliability 498 rem 498 remaining body 498 remote control 498 remotely piloted vehicle (RPV) 498, 628 remote manipulator system (RMS) 454, 498, 502, 505, 577 remote sensing 498–501, 555, 566, 626 active 10, 481–483 ocean 429–430, 538 rendezvous 501 repressurization 501 resilience 501–502 resistance 502 Resnik, Judith A 502 resolution 502 resolving power 502 restart 502 rest mass 502 restricted propellant 502 restricted surface 502 retrieval 502 retrofire 502 retrofit 502 retrograde 502 retrograde motion 502 retrograde orbit 437, 502 retroreflection 502 retroreflector 502 retrorocket 503 reusable launch vehicle (RLV) 503, 544 reverse thrust 503 reversible process 503, 608 revetment 503 revolution 503 RF See radio frequency RFNA See red fuming nitric acid RGO See Royal Greenwich Observatory Rhea (satellite) 503 Richer, Jean 503 Ride, Sally K 503 rift valley 503 Rigel (star) 503 rille 503 RIM-2 See Terrier RIM-7M See Sea Sparrow 731 ring (planetary) 503, 529–530, 610 ringed world 503–504 ring seal 504 RKA See Russian Space Agency RLSS See regenerative life support system RLV See reusable launch vehicle RMS See remote manipulator system robotics in space 223, 504–509, 602, 609 See also self-replicating system robot spacecraft 509 Roche, Edouard Albert 504, 510 Roche limit 504, 510, 610 rocket(s) 510–514 See also specific rockets antisubmarine 34 bipropellant 87, 514 booster 95 chemical 129, 510–514, 515 cluster of 134 control 152 fire arrow 241 free 246 ideal 308 liquid-fuel 273–274, 359 meteorological 396 multistage 408 nuclear 425, 564 nuclear-thermal 425 plasma 464 posigrade 467 retrorocket 503 single-stage 543 sounding 553, 647 spin 580 step 590 submarine 592 rocket engine(s) 514–515 See also specific engine parts altitude 23 arc-jet 44 booster 95 electric 207–211 F-1 244 gimbaled motor 267 ion 319 liquid-propellant 360, 405, 512, 567 LOX-hydrogen 364 photon 452 plasma 464 pulsejet 476 ramjet 488 reaction 489 rocket ramjet 515 732 Index rocket engine(s) (continued) sea-level 534 space shuttle main 467, 473, 513, 552, 567, 575, 577 sustainer 598 vernier 638 rocket propellant 472–474, 515, 521, 579–580 rocket propulsion 515, 550 rocket ramjet 515 rocketry 515–517 rocketsonde 517 rocket thrust 517 rocket vehicle 513, 517 rockoon 517 Roemer, Olaus Christensen 517 roentgen 517 Roentgen (Röntgen), Wilhelm Conrad 517–518 Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT) 518, 658 rogue star 518 roll 518 rollout 518 room(s) bioclean 86–87 clean 86–87, 132 Roosa, Stuart Allen 518 RORSAT 518–519 Rosalind (moon) 519 ROSAT See Roentgen Satellite Rosetta mission 139, 507, 519 Rosse, third earl of 519 Rossi, Bruno Benedetto 519–520, 658 Rossi coincidence circuit 520 Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) 519, 520–521 Roswell incident 624–625 rotate 521 rotating service structure (RSS) 521 rotation 521 differential 183, 432–433 synchronous 598 round off 521 rover(s) 521 lunar 370 Mars surface 381–383, 385, 386 surface 557, 596 Rover Program 521, 564 Royal Greenwich Observatory (RGO) 467, 521 RP-1 521 RPV See remotely piloted vehicle RSS See rotating service structure RTG See radioisotope thermoelectric generator rubber-base propellant 521 rumble 521 runaway greenhouse 281, 521 Russell, Henry Norris 293–294, 521–522, 581 Russian Space Agency (RKA) 522–523 See also specific cosmonauts, missions, and spacecraft RV See reentry vehicle RXTE See Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer Ryle, Sir Martin 523 S S/A See safe/arm system SAA See South Atlantic anomaly safe/arm system (S/A) 524 Safeguard 524, 540, 582 safety analysis 524 safety critical 524 SAFIR See Single Aperture FarInfrared Observatory Sagan, Carl Edward 456, 524 SAINT (satellite inspector system) 524 Salyut (space program) 469, 524–525, 569–570, 571 Sänger, Eugen 525 Santa Claus machine 508 SAO See Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory SAR See synthetic aperture radar satellite(s) 525 See also specific satellites and satellite parts active 10 artificial 53 capital 108 communications 140–144 constellation of 148 data relay 169 decayed 559 direct broadcast 185 early warning 197, 490 Earth 200 energy 214 equatorial 217 ferret 240 fixed 242 green 281 lunar 370 meteorological 176–177, 396 military 402 natural 412 navigation 413 passive 446 reconnaissance 411, 489–492, 518–519, 528, 582 search and rescue 534, 648 spy 582 surveillance 597 synchronous 598 weather 176–177, 595, 602–603, 648 satellite laser ranging (SLR) 347, 525–526 Satellite Power System (SPS) 526–528, 555 satellite reconnaissance 411, 489–492, 518–519, 528, 582 saturated liquid 528 saturated vapor 528 saturation 528 Saturn (launch vehicle) 99, 528, 546, 547 Saturn (planet) 429, 461, 528–531, 551 minerals of 566 missions to (See specific missions) moons of 530–531, 610 Atlas 66 Calypso 106, 602, 606 Dione 184 Helene 290 Hyperion 305, 530 Iapetus 307 Janus 323 Mimas 403 Paaliaq 443 Pan 443, 530 Pandora 443 Phoebe 307, 451–452, 530 Prometheus 472 Rhea 503 Telesto 602, 606 Tethys 602, 606 Titan 116–117, 304, 530–531, 611–612 rings of 115–116, 529–530, 610 scalar 531 scar 531 scarp 531 scattering 531 Compton 144–145, 146–147 Mie 402, 488, 531 Rayleigh 488–489, 531 scatterometer 480, 500 Scheiner, Christoph 531 Schiaparelli, Giovanni Virginio 363, 532, 650 Index Schirra, Walter M 532 schlieren 532 schlieren photography 532 Schmidt, Maarten 493, 532, 653 Schmitt, Harrison H 532, 632 Schriever, Bernard 532 Schwabe, Samuel Heinrich 532, 654 Schwarzschild, Karl 532 Schwarzschild black hole 90–91, 532 Schwarzschild radius 532 science fiction 532–533, 568, 602, 619–620, 650–651 science payload 533 scientific airlock 533 scientific notation 533 scientific spacecraft 556–557 scintillation counter 533 Scobee, Dick 533 Scorpius (constellation) 32 Scorpius X-1 (X-ray source) 264, 533, 658 Scott, David R 533, 655 Scout (launch vehicle) 473, 533 screaming 533 screeching 533 scrub 533 Scud (missiles) 533–534 sealed cabin 534 sea-level engine 534 search and rescue satellites 534, 648 search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) 455, 469, 470, 472, 508, 535–538, 619–620, 647–648 Seasat (observation spacecraft type) 538 Sea Sparrow (missile) 538, 579 Secchi, Pietro Angelo 538 second 538 secondary crater 538 secondary radiation 538 second law of thermodynamics 131–132, 538, 608 section 538 Sedna (planetoid) 538–539 Seebeck effect 539, 608 Selenian 539 selenocentric 539 selenodesy 539 selenography 539 selenoid 539 self-cooled 539 self-pressurization 539 self-replicating system (SRS) 508–509, 539–540, 566 semiactive homing guidance 297, 540 semimajor axis 540 sensible atmosphere 540 sensible heat 540 sensor(s) 540 active 10, 500, 540 infrared 312 passive 446, 500, 540 sensory robot 504 Sentinel (missile) 540 SEP See solar electric propulsion separation 540 separation velocity 540 Sergeant 540 service module (SM) 540 servo robot 504 Setebos (moon) 540 SETI See search for extraterrestrial intelligence SEU See single-event upset sextant 540 Seyfert, Carl Keenan 540 Seyfert galaxy 540 SFP See single failure point shake-and-bake test 541 Shapley, Harlow 164–165, 522, 541 Shenzhou 360, 541 Shenzhou 541 Shepard, Alan B., Jr 492, 541 shepherd moon 434, 541, 610 shield 541 shield volcano 541 Shillelagh 541 shimanagashi syndrome 541–542 shirt-sleeve environment 542 shock diamonds 542 shock front 542 shock wave 96, 542, 553, 587, 596 Shoemaker, Eugene Merle 631 short-period comet 542 short-range attack missile (SRAM) 542 short-range ballistic missile 542 shot 542 Shrike (missile) 542 shroud 542 shuttle 542 See also space shuttle shuttle glow 542 sickness radiation 10, 484 space 401, 567 sideband 542 sidereal 542 sidereal day 103, 542 sidereal month 542 sidereal period 543 733 sidereal time 543, 610 sidereal year 543, 660 Sidewinder (missile) 543 siemens 543 sievert 543 sight, line of 359 signal 543 signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) 543 signature 543 SIM See Space Interferometry Mission simulation 543 Single Aperture Far-Infrared Observatory (SAFIR) 441 single-event upset (SEU) 543 single failure point (SFP) 543 single-stage rocket 543 single-stage-to-orbit vehicle (SSTO) 544, 657 singularity 544 Sinope (moon) 421, 544 Sirius (Dog Star) 544 SIRTF See Space Infrared Telescope Facility SI unit(s) 544–546, 626 See also specific units Skylab (SL) 41, 265, 546–548, 557, 559, 569, 570, 573 SL See Skylab; Spacelab Slayton, Deke, Jr 548 Slipher, Earl Carl 548 Slipher, Vesto Melvin 548, 613, 614 sloshing 548 SLR See satellite laser ranging SLV See space launch vehicle SM See service module; Standard Missile Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) 372, 548 Smith, Michael J 548 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) 548, 592 SMM See Solar Maximum mission SN 1987A See Supernova 1987A SNAP (Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power) 485, 549, 563 Snark (missile) 549 SNP See space nuclear power SNR See signal-to-noise ratio; supernova remnant soft landing 549 software 549 SOHO See Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Sol 549 See also Sun sol (Martian day) 549 734 Index solar 549 See also Sun solar activity 549 Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) 549 solar cell 452, 549, 550 solar constant 312, 549 solar cycle 549, 594 solar day 103, 660 mean 103, 390, 660 solar electric propulsion (SEP) 207, 424, 549 solar energy 214, 550, 560 solar flare 242, 550, 551, 565, 578, 594 solar mass 550 Solar Maximum mission (SMM) 550 solar nebula 550 solar panel 550 solar particle events (SPEs) 564, 565, 594 solar photovoltaic conversion 550 solar radiation 436, 550 solar sail 550 solar storm 551, 579, 580 solar system 551 solar telescope 551–552 Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program (ISTP) 549 solar thermal conversion 552 solar time 610 mean 390 solar wind 260–262, 552, 578, 590, 593 solenoid 552 solid 552 solid angle 552, 590 solid Earth 552 solid lubricant 552 solid propellant 469, 473, 510–512, 552 solid rocket booster (SRB) 473–474, 510–511, 552, 575, 576 solid-state device 552 solipsism syndrome 552 solstice 553 sonic 553 sonic boom 553 sound, speed of 305, 580 sounding rocket 553, 647 South Atlantic anomaly (SAA) 553, 565 Soyuz launch vehicle 553–554 Soyuz spacecraft 41, 554, 570, 571 space 554 deep 172 outer 442 space adaptation syndrome See space sickness space base 554 space-based astronomy 554 space-based interceptor (SBI) 555 spaceborne imaging radar 483, 555 space capsule 555 space charge effect 607 space colony 555 space commerce 555 space construction 555 spacecraft 556–557 See also specific spacecraft and parts atmospheric probe 556 chaser 129 continuously crewed 152 crew-tended 163 Earth-observing 199, 603 flexible 243 flyby 244, 556 free-flying 246 mother 408, 556 orbiter 435, 556, 567 robot 509 scientific 556–557 surface penetrator 557, 596 surface rover 557, 596 target 600 spacecraft charging 557 spacecraft clock 133, 557 spacecraft drag 557 spacecraft navigation 557–558 space debris 170, 281, 558–559, 561, 651 space defense 559 Space Detection and Tracking System (SPADATS) 559, 575 space food 401, 559–560 Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) 581, 582 Space Interferometry Mission (SIM) 440, 441, 561 space junk 561 Spacelab (SL) 561 space launch vehicle (SLV) 561 space law 561–562 space medicine 562 space mine 562, 566 space nuclear power (SNP) 485, 562–563 space nuclear propulsion 563–564 space physics 564 space platform 556, 564 spaceport 564 space radiation environment 564–565 space resources 565–566 space settlement 541–542, 552, 554, 555, 566–567 spaceship 567 space shuttle 542, 567, 575–578 See also Space Transportation System; specific astronauts and shuttle parts space shuttle main engine (SSME) 467, 473, 513, 552, 567, 575, 577 space sickness 401, 567 space simulator 567 space station(s) 554, 567–572 See also specific space stations space station remote manipulator system (SSRMS) 506 space structures 555 expandable 224 large 346, 555 spacesuit 189, 190, 283, 572–575 space system 575 Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) 441, 575 space-time 575 Spacetrack (sensors) 575 Space Transportation System (STS) 575–578 See also specific astronauts and spacecraft abort modes in crew of 404, 454 development of 525 main engine of 567, 575 mobile launch platform of 405 payload bay in 446, 577 payload servicing mission of 447, 577 space tribology 578 space tug 578 space vehicle 16, 578, 588–589, 606–607 space walk 578 space warfare 578, 626 space weather 551, 578–579 SPADATS See Space Detection and Tracking System Sparrow (missile) 579 Spartan (missile) 579 spatial resolution 502 special purpose dexterous manipulator (SPDM) 506 special relativity 205–206, 496–497, 502, 575, 579 specific heat capacity 579 specific impulse 473, 579–580 specific volume 580 spectral classification 107, 580 Index spectral line 580 spectrogram 580 spectrometer 245, 580 mass 389 spectroscopy 29–30, 101, 106, 245, 335–336, 538, 580 emission 213, 580 spectrum 580 absorption electromagnetic 212, 592, 622, 647–648 emission 213 line 359 specular reflection 580 speed, critical 163 speed of light 239, 398–399, 497, 580 speed of sound 305, 580 SPEs See solar particle events spherical coordinates 580 spicule 580 spin-off 580 spin rocket 580 spin stabilization 68, 580 spiral galaxy 252, 580 barred 77, 252 Spitzer, Lyman, Jr 581–582 Spitzer Space Telescope (SST) 440, 581, 582, 587 splashdown 582 SPOT (satellites) 582 Sprint (missile) 582 SPS See Satellite Power System Sputnik (satellite) 338, 490, 517, 582, 619 spy satellites 582 squib 582 SRAM See short-range attack missile SRB See solid rocket booster SRS See self-replicating system SSBN See ballistic missile submarine SSME See space shuttle main engine SSRMS See space station remote manipulator system SST See Spitzer Space Telescope S star 583 SSTO See single-stage-to-orbit vehicle stacking 583 Stafford, Thomas P 583 stage 583 stage-and-a-half 583 staged combustion 583 staging 583 stagnation point 583 standard candle (astronomical) 561, 583 standard cosmological model 477 Standard Missile (SM) 583–584 standard model 584 star(s) 584–587 See also nebula; specific stars A 54, 584 abnormal 586 alpha 22 B 100, 584 barium 77 beta 81 black dwarf 89, 586, 651 blue giant 93 carbon 112 Cepheid variable 121–122 clock 133 degenerate 179 delta 181 dwarf 194 epsilon 216 eta 218 evolved 221 F 246, 584 fixed 242 flare 242 G 283, 584, 594 gamma 257 giant 265, 586 K 340, 584 M 408, 584 magnetic 373 main-sequence 375, 585 neutron 373, 417, 586–587, 596, 601, 659 normal 584–586 nova 423, 587 O 442, 584 oblateness of 429 Population I 467 Population II 467 protostar 475 pulsar (See pulsar) pulsating variable 475 red dwarf 492, 585 red giant 492, 586 rogue 518 S 583 subgiant 592 sunlike 594 supergiant 595 supernova 423, 587, 595–596, 668 variable 586, 635 white dwarf 586, 595, 651 Wolf-Rayet 655 735 young Population I 662 young stellar object 662 zeta 664 starburst galaxy 587 star clusters 134, 587 See also specific clusters catalog of 418 globular 270–271, 621 open 251, 433 stardust 5–7 Stardust mission 138, 234–235, 588 star grain 588 starlight, aberration of 2, 96–97 star probe 588 starship 588–589 star systems, double 191, 434 See also binary star system star tracker 590 state of the art 590 static firing 590 static testing 590 stationary orbit 590 stationkeeping 590 steady flow 590 steady state 590, 608 steady-state universe 95, 590 Stefan, Josef 89, 94, 459, 590 Stefan-Boltzmann law 87–89, 94–95, 484, 590 stellar 590 stellar evolution 521, 522, 585–587, 590, 650 stellar guidance 590 stellar wind 590 Stephano (moon) 590 step rocket 590 steradian 552, 590 Stinger (missile) 590 Stirling cycle 591 stoichiometric combustion 591 Stonehenge 591 storable propellant 591 storm(s) geomagnetic 263 ionospheric 320 magnetic 373, 579 proton 474 solar 551, 579, 580 stowing 591 strain 591 stress 591 stretchout 591 stringer 591 string theory 591 Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm 591 736 Index Struve, Otto 591–592 Struve, Otto Wilhelm 592 STS See Space Transportation System STScI See Space Telescope Science Institute Subaru Telescope 592 subcarrier 601 subgiant 592 sublimation 592 submarine(s), ballistic missile 76 fleet 242 submarine rocket 592 submillimeter astronomy 548, 592 submillimeter window 548 subsatellite point 592 subsonic 592 Sufi, Abd al-Rahman al- 592 Sullivan, Kathryn D 592 Sun 584–586, 592–594 See also solar active 10 faculae of 237 protosun 475 quiet 480 as Sol 549 Sunbeam See Yohkoh (spacecraft) sundial 28, 271, 594 sungrazer 594 sunlike stars 594 sunspot 531, 532, 549, 594, 623, 654 sunspot cycle 594 sun-synchronous orbit 594–595 Sun tower (SPS concept) 527 superautomation 508 supercluster 595 supergiant 595 superior planets 595 superluminal 595 supernova 423, 587, 595–596, 668 Supernova 1987A (SN 1987A) 596 supernova remnant (SNR) 596 supersonic 596 supersonic nozzle 596 surface penetrator spacecraft 557, 596 surface rover spacecraft 557, 596 surface tension 596 surveillance 596–597 surveillance satellites 597 Surveyor Project 505, 549, 597–598 sustainer engine 598 Swift (spacecraft) 598 Swigert, John Leonard “Jack,” Jr 598 Sycorax (moon) 598 synchronous orbit 437, 598 synchronous rotation 598 synchronous satellites 598 synchrotron radiation 598 Syncom (spacecraft) 599 synodic month 610 synodic period 599 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) 481, 482, 555, 599 system integration process 599 Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power See SNAP T tachyon 600 taikonaut 360, 541, 600 tail 600 tailoring 600 takeoff 600 tandem launch 600 tank(s) 512–513, 600 external 225, 575, 576–577 integral 313 vehicle 635 tankage 600 tap 600 Targai, Muhammed See Ulugh Beg target(s) 600 cooperative 153 passive 446 target acquisition 600 target spacecraft 600 TAU See Thousand Astronomical Unit mission Taurus (constellation) 20, 304 Taylor, Joseph H., Jr 303–304, 601 TBM See theater ballistic missile TCM See trajectory correction maneuver TDRS See Tracking and Data Relay Satellite telecommunications 184, 601, 617 telemetry 174, 601, 610 teleoperation 53, 498, 602 teleportation 602 telepresence 602 telescience 602 telescope(s) 602 See also specific telescopes and telescope parts Cassegrain 113–114 Earth-based 198 Galilean 253, 332–333, 495, 602 Gregorian 281, 666 infrared 312, 602 Keplerian 332–333, 602, 667 Newtonian 419, 420–421, 493–495, 602, 666 radio 487, 638–639 reflecting 468, 493–495, 602 refracting 495, 602 solar 551–552 telescope mounting altazimuth 22 equatorial 216–217 Telesto (moon) 602 Television and Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS) 396–397, 422, 602–603 temperature 603 absolute 3–4, 608 absolute zero color 135–136 control of 606–607 critical 163 cryogenic 164 stagnation 583 temperature scale, Celsius 121 Tenth Planet 603 tera- 603 TERCOM See terrain contour matching Tereshkova, Valentina 570, 603 terminal 603 terminal guidance 603 terminal phase 603 terminator 603 Terra 603 See also Earth terrae 603 terraforming 462–463, 603 terrain contour matching (TERCOM) 613 terran 603 Terra (spacecraft) 501, 603 terrestrial 603 terrestrial environment 603 Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) 227, 440, 441, 604 terrestrial planets 604 Terrier (missile) 605 Terrier land weapon system 605 tesla 605 test article See nonflight unit test bed 605 test chamber 606 test firing 606 test flight 606 Tethys (moon) 602, 606 Index THAAD See Theater High Altitude Area Defense Thalassa (moon) 606 theater ballistic missile (TBM) 606 theater defense 606 Theater High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) 606 Thebe (moon) 606 theology 223–224 theorem of detailed cosmic reversibility 444, 606 thermal conductivity 606 thermal control 606–607 thermal conversion, solar 552 thermal cycling 607 thermal energy See heat thermal equilibrium 607 thermal infrared 607 thermal protection system 607 thermal radiation 484, 607 thermionic conversion 607 thermistor 607 thermocouple 539, 607–608 thermodynamics 608 See also heat first law of 608 second law of 131–132, 538, 608 third law of 608, 609 zeroth law of 607, 664 thermoelectric conversion 608–609 thermonuclear weapon 609 third law of thermodynamics 608, 609 Thor (missile) 532, 609 Thousand Astronomical Unit mission (TAU) 609 three-body problem 465–466, 609 three-dimensional grain configuration 609 throat 609 throttling 609 thrust 609 reverse 503 rocket 517 thrust barrel 609 thrust chamber 609 thrust terminator 609 thrust-time profile 610 thrust vector control (TVC) 552, 610 tidal force 610 time 610 burn 102 ground elapsed 282 launch 349 local 360 look-back 362 lunar 610 mean solar 390 one-way light 432 Planck 83–84, 460, 477, 478, 591 reaction 489 real 489 sidereal 543, 610 solar 610 space-time 575 transit 616 T-time 620 universal 610, 627 Zulu 667 time dilation 497 time line 610 time tic 610 time tick 610 TIROS See Television and Infrared Observation Satellite Titan (launch vehicle) 480, 532, 610–611 Titan (moon) 116–117, 304, 530–531, 611–612 Titania (moon) 612–613 Titius, Johann Daniel 613 Titius-Bode law See Bode’s law Titov, Gherman S 613 TNO See Trans-Neptunian object Tomahawk (missile) 613 Tombaugh, Clyde William 363, 463, 464, 613–614 topside sounder 614 Torino Impact Hazard Scale 56–57 torque 614 torr 614 total impulse 614 touchdown 614 tower(s) drop 194 escape 218 TOW missile 614–615 TPF See Terrestrial Planet Finder track 446, 615 tracking 615 Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) 615 tracking systems, active 10 trajectory 439, 463, 616 See also specific phases ballistic 76–77 flyby 439 impact 439 orbital-capture 439 reentry 493 737 trajectory correction maneuver (TCM) 413, 558, 616 transceiver 616 transducer 616 transfer orbit 616 geostationary 474 Hohmann 297 transient 616 transient period 616 transit (planetary) 616 Transit (spacecraft) 616 transit time 616 translation 616 translunar 616 transmission grating 616 transmittance (transmissivity) 617 transmitter 617 Trans-Neptunian object (TNO) 614, 617 transpiration cooling 389, 617 transponder 617 trap 617 travel “faster-than-light” 239, 305 hazards of 123–125 interstellar 319 Trident missile 242, 617 triple point 617 tritium 617 Triton (moon) 415, 617 Trojan group (asteroids) 8, 56, 617 tropical year 660 truncation error 617 Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich 515, 568, 572, 618–620 Tsyklon launch vehicle 620 T-time 620 tube-wall construction 620 tumble 620 Tunguska event 620–621 turbine 621 gas 259 vapor 635 turbulence 621 turbulence ring 621 turbulent flow 621 turbupump system 512–513, 621 turnoff point 621 TVC See thrust vector control twilight 621 two-body problem 621 two-dimensional grain configuration 621 two-phase flow 621 Tychonic system 98, 621 Tycho’s star (supernova) 621 738 Index U UARS See Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite UAV See unmanned aerial vehicle UFO See unidentified flying object UGM-27 See Polaris UHF See ultrahigh frequency Uhuru (spacecraft) 622, 658 ullage 539, 622 ullage pressure 468, 622 ultra- 622 ultrahigh frequency (UHF) 622 ultrasonic 622 ultraviolet (UV) astronomy 64, 581, 622 ultraviolet (UV) radiation 622 extreme 236, 518 Ulugh Beg 622–623 Ulysses mission 623 umbilical 623 umbra 623 Umbriel (moon) 623 UMR injector 623 underexpansion 624 unidentified flying object (UFO) 147, 624–626 unit(s) 626 United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) 562 United States Air Force 489, 490, 559, 624–625, 626, 657 See also specific missions and spacecraft United States airspace 422–423 United States Space Command (USSPACECOM) 626–627 United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) 422, 627 Unity (module) 627 universal time (UT) 610, 627 universal time coordinated (UTC) 627 universe 627 age of 17–18 closed 83, 133–134, 442 expanding 167, 224, 300–301, 351–352 flat 83, 242 heat death of 289 island 320, 327 life in the 354–357, 433, 469, 535–538, 604, 631 observable 429 open 83, 434 oscillating 442 steady-state 95, 590 unmanned 628 unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) 498, 628 upcomer 628 uplink 601, 628 uplink data 629 upper atmosphere 629 Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) 501, 629 upper stage 629 Uranus (planet) 551, 629–631 atmosphere of 629, 631 moons of 631 Ariel 48–49 Belinda 80 Bianca 83 Caliban 105 Cordelia 155 Cressida 163 Juliet 324 Miranda 404 Oberon 427 Ophelia 434 Portia 467 Prospero 474 Puck 475 Rosalind 519 Setebos 540 Stephano 590 Sycorax 598 Titania 612–613 Umbriel 623 Urey, Harold Clayton 433, 631 Urey-Miller experiment 433 Ursa Major 631 U.S Geological Survey (astrogeology) 631–632 U.S Naval Observatory (USNO) 632 USSPACECOM See United States Space Command USSTRATCOM See United States Strategic Command UT See universal time UTC See universal time coordinated Utopia Planitia (Mars) 632 V vacuum 633 VAFB See Vandenberg Air Force Base Valles Marineris (Mars) 633 Van Allen, James Alfred 633–634 Van Allen radiation belts 564–565, 633, 634 Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) 603, 626, 634 vane(s) control 152 guide 283 Vanguard Project 634 vapor 634 vaporization 634 vapor turbine 635 variable-area exhaust nozzle 635 variable star 586, 635 Vatican Observatory 635 vector 635 vector steering 635 Vega (spacecraft) 635 Vega (star) 635 vehicle(s) 635 See also launch vehicle(s); reentry vehicle aerodynamic 15 aerospace 16 boostglide 96 experimental 224 flight test 243 kinetic kill 335 manned 376 miniature homing 403 orbital transfer 310–311, 424, 435 post-boost 467 reentry 493, 542 remotely piloted 498, 628 rocket 513, 517 single-stage-to-orbit 544, 657 space 578, 588–589, 606–607 unmanned aerial 498, 628 vehicle tank 635 Vela spacecraft 635 velocity 635 angular 31 circular 130 critical 163 escape 218 exhaust 222 hyperbolic 304 hypervelocity 305 orbital 435 separation 540 velocity of light See speed of light Venera probes and spacecraft 635–636, 637 vengeance weapon See V-2 rocket Venus (planet) 551, 636–638 as evening star 221 missions to (See specific missions) planetary engineering on 462, 463 Index surface features of 22, 34, 81, 320, 390 transits of 616 vernal equinox 542, 610, 638 Verne, Jules 427, 568, 638, 650 vernier engine 638 Very Large Array (VLA) 638–639 Very Large Telescope (VLT) 639 Vesta (asteroid) 55, 169–170, 639 Viking Project 639–641 landers used in 556–557, 640–641 nuclear power used in 562 objective of 376–377 radioisotope thermoelectric generator used in 486 robotics used in 505 soft landings of 549 on Utopia Planitia 632 Virgo Cluster 641 virtual particles 641 virtual reality (VR) 543, 602, 641–642 viscosity 642 viscous fluid 642 visual binary 86 VLA See Very Large Array VLT See Very Large Telescope Vogel, Hermann Carl 454, 642 void 642 volcano 103, 642 shield 541 volt 642 electron 212 volume 642 chamber 125 control 608 specific 580 Voskhod (spacecraft) 339, 352, 642 Vostok (spacecraft) 249, 338–339, 603, 613, 642 Voyager record 642–643 Voyager spacecraft 439, 455, 472, 485, 486, 556, 562, 619, 643–646 cosmic consequences of 619 findings of 324, 414–415, 427, 434, 474, 519, 623, 629–631 as flyby spacecraft 556 nuclear power used by 562 radioisotope thermoelectric generator used by 485, 486 recordings carried by 455, 642–643, 644 VR See virtual reality V-2 rocket 98–99, 516, 517, 646 Vulcan (planet) 646 W Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) 553, 647 warhead 647 water for astronauts 560 light 358 water hole 470, 647–648 watt 483, 648 wave(s) 648 See also microwave Alfvén 21 carrier 113 gravitational 277 radio 292–293, 487–488 shock 96, 542, 553, 587, 596 wavelength 648 wave number 648 weakly interacting massive particle See WIMP weapon(s) See also specific weapons defensive satellite 178 directed energy 185 kinetic energy 335 laser guided 347 nuclear 426 thermonuclear 609 weapons of mass destruction (WMD) 648 weather, space 551, 578–579 weather satellites 176–177, 396–398, 595, 602–603, 648 web 648 Webb, James E 649 weber 650 weight 650 atomic 68 dry 194 gross liftoff 281 weightlessness 389–390, 400–401, 416, 650, 664 Weizsäcker, Carl Friedrich Baron 650 Wells, Herbert George (H G.) 650–651 wet emplacement 651 WFF See Wallops Flight Facility Whipple, Fred Lawrence 548, 651 Whipple shield 651 White, Edward H., II 649, 651 white dwarf 586, 595, 651 white hole 651 white room 651 White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) 516, 651 Wien’s displacement law 89, 484, 651–653 739 “wilco” 653 Wildt, Rupert 653 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) 653 Wilson, Robert Woodrow 448, 449, 653–654 WIMP (weakly interacting massive particle) 654 wind solar 260–262, 552, 578, 590, 593 stellar 590 window 654 atmospheric 67, 654 launch 351, 654 reentry 493 submillimeter 548 wind tunnel 654 wing 654 wireless power transmission (WPT) 526 WMAP See Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe WMD See weapons of mass destruction Wolf, Johann Rudolph 654 Wolf, Maximilian (Max) Franz Joseph Cornelius 654–655 Wolf-Rayet star (WR) 655 Woolley, Sir Richard van der Riet 655 Worden, Alfred Merrill 655 work 655 working fluid 655 wormhole 655 WPT See wireless power transmission WR See Wolf-Rayet star WSMR See White Sands Missile Range W Virginis Star See Cepheid variable X X (prefix) 656 X-1 (aircraft) 656 X-15 (aircraft) 656–657 X-20 (space plane) 657 X-33 (launch vehicle) 657 X-34 (vehicle) 657 X-37 (vehicle) 657 XMM-Newton (spacecraft) 657, 658 X-ray 479–480, 517–518, 587, 657 X-ray astronomy 64, 264–265, 518, 520, 521, 622, 657–659, 661 X-ray binary star system 86, 659 X-ray burster 659 740 Index Y Y (prototype) 660 Yagi antenna 660 yardangs 660 Yarkovsky effect 660 yaw 660 year(s) 660 calendar 104–105, 660 sidereal 543, 660 Yerkes Observatory 660–661 yield 661 ylem 661 YM (prototype missile) 661 Yohkoh (spacecraft) 661 Young, John W 661–662 Young, Thomas 662 young Population I stars 662 young stellar object (YSO) 662 Z Z (atomic number) 68, 474, 663 ZAMS See zero-age main sequence Zarya (module) 663 Zeeman effect 663 Zenit (launch vehicle) 663–664 zenith 664 zenith distance 664 zero-age main sequence (ZAMS) 664 zero-g 401, 650, 664 zero-gravity aircraft 664 zero-length launching 664 zeroth law of thermodynamics 607, 664 zeta star 664 zirconium star See S star zodiac 664 zodiacal light 664 Zond (spacecraft) 664–666 zone of avoidance 666 zoo hypothesis 342, 666 Zucchi, Niccolo 666–667 Zulu time 667 Zvezda (module) 560, 667 Zwicky, Fritz 168, 596, 667–668 Zwicky Catalog 668 ... Encyclopedia of space and astronomy / Joseph A Angelo, Jr p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-8160-5330-8 (hardcover) Space astronomy Encyclopedias Astronomy Encyclopedias... me what is most important in life and showed me how to see the hand of God in all things, large and small, in this beautiful universe Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy Copyright © 2006 by Joseph... firsthand the genius, sacrifice, visionary brilliance, and hard work of the men and women who established modern astronomy and/ or brought about the age of space Special essays address a variety of