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Part A: Introduction 1. Rationale The world has seen profound economic and social changes on a global scale in the past twenty years. These changes bring not only opportunities but also challenges to many people. These changes have also had profound influence on our sense of self and place, causing considerable confusion and what has been widely referred to as a loss of meaning (Baudrillard 1983, 1993; Featherstone 1995). These changes have led to the appearance of many social phenomena. Globalization is the inevitable result of the economic and social transformation. The establishment of many organizations such as World Trade Organization (WTO), World Bank (WB), and International Monetary Fund (IMF) can be seen as the obvious examples of this process as these changes are partly the outcome of particular strategies pursued by particular people for particular interest within a particular system. The appearance of many organizations such as International Monetary Fund and World Trade Organization reflects the power imbalance between the rich and the poor countries. Globalization – a real but incomplete process- brings benefits to some people and hurts others. Supporters of this new world order view it as an inevitable and irreversible process which brings a lot of benefits to people and communities. Opponents believe that this new order increases inequality within and between nations, threatens employment and living standards and thwarts social progress. People who benefit from it try to extend it by using different resources such as discourse of globalization as well as other potent resources (donations to political parties). In this study discourse of globalization is thus considered as discourse of power used by those in power to enhance their power. This is the reason why the heads of these organizations try to support the ideology of the possibilities and opportunities when accessing these organizations. Therefore, in analyzing these changes/ these new phenomena, the questions of power are always taken into consideration. In order to find out the relationship of language and power in our contemporary world, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is considered as an important tool as what Fairclough stated: ‘This is an opportunity and a challenge for critical language study – it can make a considerable contribution on issues which are vitally important for the future of humankind’. 1 For all of the above-mentioned reasons the author conducts the research entitled ‘A Critical Discourse Analysis of Globalization Discourse’. 2. Aims of the study The study is aimed at: - finding out the ideology embedded in the globalization discourse - the expression of ideology in the globalization discourse - raising a critical awareness of the ideology of the globalization discourse for the language learners and others concerned with globalization 3. Scope of the study As mentioned above, through the globalization discourse people who benefit from the process of globalization try to highlight the bright side of this process. This study thus focuses on the speech made by the Director-General Mike-Moore of WTO. 4. Research assumptions Globalization -a controversial issue in recent years - has attracted the attention of many researchers as well as a hot topic of many discussions. Antiglobalizers claim that globalization is making the rich richer and the poor poorer. People who benefit most are seeking to extend it through a struggle to impose a new order by using a discourse of globalization which represents globalization as not only more complete than it is, but as a simple fact of life which we cannot dream of questioning or challenging. Because of this characteristic, the globalization discourse works ideology. As the head of WTO-a product of globalization Director-General Mike Moore would like to extend the possibilities and opportunities of WTO as well as globalization. Analyzing this speech in the light of CDA, the researcher assumes that: - The discourse embeds ideology and power - The speaker’s ideology can be uncovered by the analysis of vocabulary, mood and modality, transitivity, thematic structure and macrostructure 5. Research questions 1. What are the ideologies embedded in the globalization discourse? 2 2. How are these ideologies linguistically expressed in the globalization discourse? 3. Why are ideologies encoded in the globalization discourse? 6. Design of the study The study consists of three parts. They are: Part A: Introduction: This part includes the rationale, scope, aims, research assumptions, research questions and design of the study Part B: Development: This part includes three chapters Chapter 1: Theoretical background This chapter includes an overview of CDA theories in which a definition of CDA, views of CDA in late modernity and some key concepts of CDA such as critical, ideology and power are dealt with. This chapter also presents a brief description of Systemic Functional Grammar and its role in Critical Discourse Analysis. Chapter 2: Methodology In this chapter the social context of globalization including the definition and the perspectives of globalization, the introduction of WTO and Director-General Mike Moore and the reason for choosing the speech ‘The Backlash against Globalization’ of Director- General Mike Moore will be presented. This chapter introduces and explains the framework of Critical Discourse Analysis procedure which sets the basis for the analysis of the speech ‘The Backlash against Globalization’ in chapter 3. Chapter 3: A Critical Discourse Analysis of the speech ‘The Backlash against Globalization’ This chapter applies the CDA procedure by Fairclough and FSG theory into analyzing Director-General’s speech to see how language and power are embedded in the text. Part C: Conclusion: This part summarizes the major findings, provides concluding remarks, gives the implications of CDA in teaching and learning English and makes suggestion for further study. 3 Part B: Development Chapter 1: Theoretical background This chapter is aimed at outlining a theoretical background of CDA. This chapter is structured as follows: the first part gives the concept of CDA; the second part is about the theories on CDA in late modernity and some key concepts of CDA. The last part examines the importance of SFG in CDA 1.1. What is Critical Discourse Analysis? A lot of CDA practioners like Chouliaraki and Falirclough, 1999; Fairclough, 1992, 1995; Gee, 1999; Luke, 1995; VanDijk, 1993; Wodak, 1996 treated social practices not only in terms of social relationships but also in terms of their implications for things like status, power … from the critical approaches In ‘An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in Education’ James Paul Gee emphasizes that ‘in fact critical discourse analysis argues that language in use is always part and parcel of, and partially constitutive of, specific social practices, and that social practices always have implications for inherently political things like status, solidarity, distribution of social goods, and power’ Fairclough (1993: 135) gives a definition of CDA by stating that ”By ‘critical’ discourse analysis I mean discourse analysis which aims to systematically explore often opaque relationships of causality and determination between (a) discursive practices, events and texts, and (b), wider social and cultural structures, relations and processes; to investigate how such practices, events and texts arise out of and are ideologically shaped by relations of power and struggles over power; to explore how the opacity of these relationships between discourse and society is itself a factor securing power and hegemony” From these statements, it can be seen that CDA mainly focuses on the question of language and power as language is an important element of social life. 4 1.2. Critical discourse analysis in late modernity This part will present the theories of Harvey, Giddens and Habermas in which they emphasize the economic and social transformations are to a significant degree transformation in language and discourse. As a matter of fact, language is seen as an important part of modern social life and social analysis is thus correspondingly oriented towards language to a sub-stantial degree. The method is to build up a picture of language condition of late modernity on the basis of what is said about language and what can be inferred about language. It is appropriate and productive. It is appropriate in the sense that we are aiming to show how CDA can contribute to a tendentious field of research, productive in the sense that we believe that doing so yields greater insights to the contemporary social use of language by foregrounding its contradictory properties. Harvey From Harvey’s point of view these economic changes have profound cultural consequences. He also identifies two sorts of reaction to these changes. One may be the exploitation of the possibilities they open up and the other may be a major defensive reaction which seeks to re- establish collective and individual identities and which has involved the thematisation of nation, region, community and family. Giddens The matter of late modernity from Giddens’ point of view is in terms of its institutional features and its cultural characteristics and ways in which it reshapes daily and personal life. Late modernity is characterized by a shift in the nature of the world system involving a dramatic acceleration of time- space distantiation, which Giddens refers to as ‘globalization’. In this case, globalization is understood in relation with power. In his opinion, ‘globalization is related to a new modality of power characteristic of late modernity’. Power is understood as the ‘transformative capacity’ of social action; where an agent acts to transform the world in some way via the agency of others, we have ‘domination’, a particular form of power. Dealing with time- space distantiation, Giddens points out the intensification of time- space distantiation involves the disembedding of social relations from particular places and contexts, and their generalization across temporal and spatial boundaries. Giddens pays a lot 5 of attentions to disembedding by claiming that disembedding can be seen as a particular regulative practice within social systems by which social relations are lifted out of their locales and reorganized to travel, so to speak. This is evident in the social use of language. It as well as other resources for social interaction becomes a skill which has to be learnt and which requires recourse to experts and expert systems. Habermas He introduces two concepts instrumental rationality and communicative rationality in which the former is about getting results and the latter is about achieving understanding. The division between ‘system’ and ‘lifeworld’, and processes of rationalization are the most prominent account of modernity from Habermas’s point of view in which lifeword is defined as the unreflective background consensus which constitutes a necessary frame for social interaction and the concept of rationalization of the lifeworld is referred as a process which points to the ambivalent status of the concept of ‘lifeword’. Rationalisation of lifeworld enables and brings about the ‘uncoupling’ of systems from the lifeworld which defines modern societies. These systems also remain dependent upon being institutionalized within the lifeworld. This leads to the fact that systems can be shaped by lifeworlds and vice verse. Based on the critical theories of late modernity, CDA deals with some problems in late modernity like colonization/appropriation, globalization/localization, reflexivity ideology and identity/difference. In analyzing these problems, the questions of power are always at issue. Colonization/appropriation The dialect of colonization/appropriation is directed towards the movement of discourse and genres from one social practice to another within the network of social practices. Globalization/localization Globalization/localization dialectic can be considered as a particular form of the colonization/appropriation dialectic but it is still be treated as a separate item because it is a form that is distinctive for late modernity and an important new feature of the social life of 6 discourse, which makes it increasingly difficult to justify taking a particular society as the object of analysis in CDA research. Reflexivity/ideology Enhanced reflexivity is said to include an enhanced reflexivity about discourse leading to the fact that people are generally more aware of their practices and their practices and pervasively and deeply open to knowledge-based transformation. However, people in different social positions seem to be in different relationships to discourse and language and knowledge about discourse is a contested resource in social struggles. Chouliaraki L. & Fairclough, N. (1999) point out that ‘CDA can itself be regarded as a manifestation within theoretical practice of generally enhanced language reflexivity, and should reflex on its own position and role in knowledge-based struggles over discourse’. Habermas has suggested that increasing reflexivity displaces ideology as a resource for domination and ideology is replaced in this role by fragmentation. Identity/difference Identity means an interactional focus on people constructing their own individual or collective identities in discourse. The struggle to find identities is one of the most pervasive themes of late modernity. Struggles over identity are also struggles over difference. CDA’s task is partly descriptive and partly normative, in the sense that it can contribute to social struggles around identity and difference by identifying unrealized potentials. 1.3. Critical, Discourse, Analysis This section helps us form the background knowledge about the three components of CDA namely: Critical, Discourse, Analysis Critical In Fairclough’s opinion “Critical is used in the special sense of aiming to show up connections which may be hidden from people – such as the connections between language, power and ideology referred above them”. Wodak (2001:9) states that 7 Basically, ‘critical’ is to be understood as having distance to the data, embedding data in the social, talking a political stance explicitly, and focus a self reflection as scholars doing research. Discourse Fairclough and Wodak (1997) point out CDA sees ‘discourse – language use in speech and writing – as a form in speech and writing – as a form of ‘social practice’’. Chouliaraki L. & Fairclough, N. (1999) view discourse as a particular perspective on these various forms of semiosis – it sees them as moments of social practices in their articulation with other non-discursive moment. Analysis According to Chouliaraki L. & Fairclough, N. (1999), the analysis of discourse covers the structural and interactional analysis. The structural analysis is concerned about the locating the discourse in its relation to the network of orders of discourse and specifying how the discourse draws selectively. From the interactional perspective the concern is with how the discourse works the resource – how the genres and discourses which are drawn upon are worked together in the textual process of the discourse, and what articulatory work is done in the text. 1.4. Key concepts in CDA Having deep understanding about CDA requires us to get used to some key concepts of CDA like ideology and power since the notion of ideology and power were all seen as relevant for an interpretation or explanation of text. 1.4.1. Ideology Wodak (2001) has pointed out that the concepts of ideology first appeared in late eighteen- century France (Thompson, 1990) and has thus been in use for about two centuries. According to Thompson ideology refers to social forms and processes within which, and by means of which, symbolic forms circulate in the social world. Ideology is an important aspect of establishing and maintaining unequal power relation. CL takes a particular interest in the ways in which language mediates ideology in a variety of social institutions 8 For Thompson (1990), the study of ideology is the study of the way in which meaning is constructed and conveyed by symbolic forms of various kinds. This study also investigates the social contexts within which symbolic forms are used and not used. For Gramsci, ideology is tied to action, and ideologies are judged in terms of their social effects rather than their truth values. 1.4.2. Power The question of language and power is always taken into consideration especially in modern times with a lot of profound social and economic changes. The question of language and power severs to understand the new order. For CDA, language is not powerful on its own – it gains power by the use of powerful make of it. Wodak explains why CDA often chooses the perspectives of those who suffer and critically analyses the language use of those in power, those who are responsible for the existence of inequalities and who also have the means and the opportunity to improve conditions. CDA emphasizes the need for interdisciplinary work in order to gain a proper understanding of how language functions in constituting and transmitting knowledge, in organizing social institutions or in exercising power Power is about relations of different, particularly about the effects of differences in social structures. Language is entwined in social power in a numbers of ways: language indexes power, expresses power, is involved where there is contention over and a challenge to power. 1.5. Systemic Functional Linguistic in Critical Discourse Analysis In this part, I will discuss systemic functional grammar, the reasons why FSL is used in CDA and how it is used in this study. Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999: 139) explain that ‘and especially the linguistic theory which we believe has the most common with CDA and most to offer CDA, systemic functional linguistic (SFL)’ and ‘the version of CDA which we work with ourselves has used SFL as its main resource for textual analysis’. 9 Fairclough (2003: 5) points out a ‘complementary relationship’ between SFL and CDA as follows: ‘SFL is profoundly concerned with the relationship between language and other elements and aspects of social life, and its approach to the linguistic analysis of texts is always oriented to the social character of text…This makes it a valuable source for critical discourse analysis, and indeed major constructions to critical discourse analysis have developed out of SFL’. For Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999: 139), SFL ‘views language as a semiotic system which is structured in terms of strata. Language connects meanings (the semantic stratum with their spoken and written expressions (the stratum of phonology and graphology). Both meanings and expression interface with the extra-linguistics.’ The relationship between strata is one of ‘realization’: each of the strata defines a potential, a set of possibilities – a meaning potential (semantics), a wording potential (lexicogrammar), an expression potential. This relationship can be extended in the ‘context of situation’. The context of situation can be specified in terms of possible values for three variables – the field (the activity which the language is part of), the tenor (the social actors involved and the relation between them), and the mode (the part language plays in the activity) corresponding respectively the ideational, interpersonal and textual macrofunctions. More specifically, the macrofunctions covers ideational function (language in the construction and representation of experience in the world, the interpersonal function (language in the enactment of social relations and the constructions of social identities) and the textual function (language in the specifically semiotic – textual –form of productive practice). In SFL, lexicogrammar is seen as functionally grounded, shaped by the social functions it serves, and in particular built around the intersection of the ‘macrofunctions’ of language. Corresponding to these three macrofunctions are three major networks of grammatical system which are transitivity, mood and modality, and information – including theme – rheme and given-new. Fairclough and Chouliaraki (1999: 140) state that: “Every clause in the text (as well as lower and higher-level grammatical units) is seen as grammatically constituted simultaneously as semiotic production (textual function) which constructs the world (ideational function) while enacting social relations between its 10 . degree transformation in language and discourse. As a matter of fact, language is seen as an important part of modern social life and social analysis is. critical approaches In ‘An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in Education’ James Paul Gee emphasizes that ‘in fact critical discourse analysis argues