VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES VU HOAI THU A GRAMMATICAL AND SEMANTIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PROJECTION IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE Major: Contrastive linguistics Code: 9222024 SUMMARY OF Ph.D THESIS IN LINGUISTICS Hà Nội - 2019 The research is done at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences VIETNAM ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES GRADUATE ACADEMY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES Supervisor: Prof Dr Hoang Van Van Reviewer 1: Prof Dr Do Viet Hung Reviewer 2: Prof Dr Hoang Trong Phien Reviewer 3: Vice Prof Dr Pham Hung Viet The dissertation will be defended at the Dissertation Assessment Board of the Academy at Graduate Academy of Social Sciences - Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences at 477 Nguyen Trai Street, Thanh Xuan District, Hanoi At …… on The dissertation can be found at: National Library of Vietnam Library of Graduate Academy of Social Science LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE AUTHOR Vũ Hoài Thu (2017) Projection and its levels in term of Systemic Functional Grammar Lexicography and Encyclopedia Journal, issue (7/2017), p.91-98 Vũ Hoài Thu (2018), A comparison of norminal projection in Vietnamese and English Journal of Social Science Manpower, issue 10 (10/2018), p 84-89 Vũ Hoài Thu (2018), Investigating projection phenomena in clause complexes in the novel Thorn bird Lexicography and Encyclopedia Journal, issue (11/2018), p 122- 126 PREAMBLE Reason for selecting the topic During the communication to exchange information, projection is one of interesting issues of languages It often occurs in articles and narratives How to tranfer projection effectively in translation between two languages and how teach projection well still seems to be a problem for both teachers and learners as well as translators or interpreters There have been some studies related to this issue, but to some extent of our knowledge, no studies have not specialized in contrastive analysis of projection in English and Vietnamese Especially in Vietnamese, Systemic Functional Grammar (including projection) is not popular, so it causes gaps for researchers to carry out father studies With all the reasons mentioned above, we decided to conduct the study with the title: "A grammatical and semantic constrastive analysis of projection in English and Vietnamese" and hope it will complete these “gaps” Purposes, research tasks and materials 2.1 Research purposes of the dissertation The purposes of the dissertation is to investigate the the grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection in English and Vietnamese in the light of Systemic Functional Linguistics in order to find out the similarities and differences of projection between the two languages 2.2 Research missions - To clarify theoretical issues of projection in Systemic Functional Grammar and related issues in traditional grammar - To find out the grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection in different levels: phrases, simple clauses and clause complexes in English and Vietnamese - To find out the similarities and differences in the grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection in English and Vietnamese 2.3 Research materials In English, projection is investigated in the data resouces: 15 articles of New York Times, 15 articles of USA Today and Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone by J.K Rowling In Vietnamese, the data resouces include 15 articles of Nhân Dân, 15 articles of Vietnamnet; Tôi thấy hoa vàng cỏ xanh and Cô gái đến từ hôm qua by Nguyễn Nhật Ánh Research on subjects and scope 3.1 Research subjects Projection above the clause and under the clause in English with reference to Vietnamese is objects of the study 3.2 Research scope Investigating grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection in English and Vietnamese is limited in the following aspects:  Analysing the data for the quantity, rate and grammarical and semantic characteristics of projection above the clause: projection processes, potential projection processes, modes of quoting and reporting  Analysing the data for the quantity, rate and grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection under the clause: verbal groups of projection, circumstances and nominal groups of projection Research methodology The dissertation uses two basic methods: description-analysis synthesis method and compare and contrast method Beside that, some other submethods are also used such as statistics, classification, model… Contribution of the dissertation 5.1 Theoretical meanings of the dissertation The results of the study clarifies the theories related to projection in Systemic Functional Grammar in English and Vietnamese as well as helps other researchers conduct further studies related to this issue 5.2 Practical meanings of the dissertation The results of the dissertation will help teachers of English and Vietnamese as well as translators or interpreters to know thoroughly about the grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection above the clause and under the clause It also helps learners know how to transfer effectively projection in English into Vietnamese and vice versa as well as improve the effect of their communication in both of the languages Moreover, teachers who know projection well will have effective strategies for teaching this issue in each language Especially, it is very useful for reporters or journalists training courses at education services The structure of the dissertation The dissertation consists of three main chapters apart from introduction, conclusion, author’s publications, references and a table of contents: Chapter 1: Overview of research situations and theoretical basic of the topic; Chapter 2: A grammatical and semantic contrastive analysis of projection above the clause in English and Vietnamese; Chapter 3: A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection in the clause in English and in Vietnamese CHAPTER OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH SITUATIONS AND THEORETICAL BASIS OF THE TOPIC 1.1 Overview of research situations 1.1.1 Research situations of equivalent notions of projection before Systemic Functional Grammar In Vietnamese Grammar, Diệp Quang Ban (2008) discusses on compound sentences and mentioned the notion of projection called “xạ ảnh” According to the author, “xạ ảnh” (projection) is to tranfer an event into a locution or an idea like the way to shoot or project an image or an event into a locution or an idea In traditional grammar, this issue is called reported speech, later also including reported thought Florian Coulmas (1986) carries out a study about general issues of languages The author discussed on similarities and differences of directed speech and indirected speech basing on the system of vocabulary and grammar He also discusses chronologically on the third kind – a combination of both directed speech and indirected speech; and listed different notions of the third kind Fillmore (1971, 2001) says that both directed speech and indirected speech are complements of saying verbs He regards all the elements just after saying verbs as a message which is divided into types: message-content, message-form, category-message and message-type Quirk et al (1985) discuss on equivalent notions of projection called direct speech and indirect speech Moreover, an intermediary of directed speech and indirected speech in traditional grammar, called free directed speech and free indirected speech, is also mentioned The authors make great contribution to extend the notion of directed speech and indirected speech They affirm that speech must be allowed to include unspoken mental activities In the research work of grammar and semantics of Vietnamese saying verbs, Nguyễn Vân Phổ (2011) discuss on directed speech and indirected speech, applying both case grammar of Fillmore and SFG of Halliday Diệp Quang Ban (2001) and Nguyễn Văn Hiệp (2009) regard complex sentences with directed speech and indirected speech as simple sentences that include two equal parts in Vietnamese 1.1.2 Research situations of projection under the light of the FSL theory 1.1.2.1 Research situations of projection in the world Since the 1980s, the theory of SFL in general and projection in specific has been carried out in many applied researches in different languages such as in English, French, Japanese, Chinese, Greek, Spanish, Germany, (cf Anna-Maria & Marina, 2009; Shu-Kun Chen, 2016; Qingshun He & Junhui Wu, 2015; Esther Olayinka Bamigbola, 2015; Jing Fang, 2012; Wang Pin, 2012; Farahman, 2014; Xinxin Zhang & Xueai Zhao, 2016; Malte Rosemeyer, 2012; Vicente López Folgado, 2000; Alexandra Holsting, 2008) The dissertation of Forey (2002), chapter 6, studied the relation between interpersonal metafunction and extended theme in projected clauses Sanggam Siahaan & Tengkun Silvana Sinar (2013) studied how to translate projection processes in Batak Toba (Indonesia) into English Ayako Ochi (2008) researched on ideational projection in Japanese news reporting José Manuel Durán (2008) carried out a research on a correlation between the systems of taxis (paratactic and hypotactic) and projection (locution and idea) in newspaper articles in English and Spanish 1.1.2.2 Research situations of projection in Vietnam Althought SFG has been discussed in a number of studies widely in other languages over the world since 1960, it has just been applied to conduct some studies in Vietnamese such as Cao Xuân Hạo (1991/2004), Phan Thiều (1993), Hồ Lê (1993), Hoàng Văn Vân (1997), Thái Minh Đức (1998), Đỗ Tuấn Minh (2007), Võ Việt Cường (2013), Nguyễn Thị Lan Anh (2014) Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm (2013) Much less studies on project are carried out The research work of Hoàng Văn Vân An Experiential Grammar of the Vietnamese Clause (2002/2005/2012) in both English and Vietnemese discussed on projection processes as an important characteristic to distinguish mental processes and verbal processes with others Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm (2007) compared the logico-sementic relationship in English and Vietanamese clause complexes She found out the differences and similarities, mainly about its presentation Nguyễn Thị Xuân Mỹ (2012), carried out an investigation of projection processes in English and Vietnamese (mental processes and verbal processes), but the findings only focused on the similarities, not the differences of projection processes between the two languages Trần Hồng Vân (2013), carried out a pilot research of applying the theory of SFG to identify projected clauses in president Barack Obama’s speeches during the electoral campaign in Las Vegas Nguyễn Thị Minh Tâm (2013) developed and studied more closely two kinds of clause complexes called “clause complexes of expension” and “clause complexes of projection” This is the first close complete research about realization and operation of projection clause complexes under the light of the SFG theory in Vietnam However, the study only focused on the relationships of clause complexes so projection elements in clauses wasn’t mentioned sufficiently The researches mentioned above haven’t studied closely or completely all kinds of projection in different levels This is a gap for the dissertation to complete 1.2 Theoretical basis 1.2.1 Theory of contrastive analysis According to Lê Quang Thiêm (2008, p 41), “Contrastive analysis helps us determine the similarities and differences of languages in terms of their structure, operation and development” According to Bùi Mạnh Hùng (2008), there are two basic approaches, which depends on the concrete objectives and missions of the study: (i) one-way contrastive analysis and (ii) two-way contrastive analysis 1.2.2 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) The primary source of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) was the work of J.R Firth (1890-1960), a late famous English linguist, who was greatly affected by the linguistic theory of a well-known English anthropologist Brolislaw Malinowski (1844-1942) SFL is an approach to language developed mainly by Halliday It presents versatile relations among language elements in a system, or connections of language elements in different levels 1.2.3 Projection in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) 1.2.3.1 Equivalent notion of sentence (clause) in SFL The clause is many-sided or multidimentional It can be defined and recognised along a number of dimensions: stratification, rank and metafunction (Halliday, 1994, 2012; Martin, 1992; Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004/2014; Hoàng Văn Vân, 2002/2005, 2012) The clause is located at the stratum of lexicalgrammar (system of wording) and presents three metafunctions of languages: (i) Experiential metafuntion; (ii) Interpersonal metafunction; (iii) Textual metafunction 1.2.3.2 Projection in Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) According to Matthiessen et al (2010: 165), projection is one of “two fundamental types of logico-semantic relationships in the system of LOGICO SEMANTIC type which may be manifested ideationally (or interpersonally in projection) between a primary and a secondary member of element that are related as interdependent, in group/phrase complexes, in clauses (as in the system of transitivity and circumstance), in clause complex text of all kinds Projection in the environment of clause complexes sets up one clause as the representation of the linguistic content of another either as ideas in a mental clause of sensing or locutions in a verbal clause of saying” Notion of projection was suggested by Halliday According to him, projection isn’t not only found in a clause complex but also in a clause The connotation of projection in SFG is more complicated than directed and indirected speech in traditional grammar It doesn’t contain verbs of saying and thinking, but also verbs of feeling and emotion  Projection processes According to Hoàng Văn Vân (2002), the term “process” can be used in two senses (narrow and wide) In its narrow sense, it covers all phenomena to which the specification of the time may be attached; i.e., anything that can be expressed by a verb: event, whether physical or not, state or relation In its wider sense, it refers to what is known as a ‘state of affairs’ or a ‘representation’ (cf Halliday 1967, Halliday in Kress 1976, Fawcett 1987, Davidse 1992, 1996, Shore 1992, Matthiessen 1995) Projecting processes refer to two minor processes: verbal processes and mental ones Besides, behavioural processes have the potential of projecting another clause  Levels of projection Projection may involve either of the two levels of the content plane of language: projection of meaning (ideas) or projection of wording (locutions)  Modes of projection In paratactic relationship, the projection is presented as a quote; in hypotactic relationship, the projection is presented as a report Besides, the third mode of projection is free indirect speech It combines features of quoting and reporting (Halliday, 2012)  The speech function of the projection Major speech functions of the projection include proposals and propositions Minor speech function may be greetings and exclamations 1.2.4 Types of projection 1.2.4.1 Projection in the clause  Minor projecting clause: Circumstances of projection Circumstances of projection consist of circumstances of angle and matter, using prepositions  Projection under the clause: Nominal groups of embedded projection According to Halliday (1994, 2012) and Halliday & Matthiessen (2004/2014) embedded locutions and ideas can be ‘rankshifted’ to function a qualifier within a nominal group Such instances are still projections, but the projecting element is the noun that is functioning as thing and the clause that it projects serves to define it in exactly the same way that a restrictive relative clause defines the noun that is expended by it  Projection under the clause: Nominal groups of fact There is one other type of projection, where the projected clause is not being projected by a verb or mental process witth sayer or senser, or by a verbal or mental process noun, but it comes, as it were, ready packaged in projected form It is called a fact  Projection under the clause: Verbal groups of projection Verbal groups of projection are generally proposals They are perfective in aspect and have the same subject in both halves 1.2.4.2 Projection above the clause  Projecting clauses Projecting clauses are carried out by a verbal process or a mental one In the verbal process, the projecting clause is verbal (saying); in the mental clause, it is mental (perceptive, cognitive, desiderative and emotive) The position of the projecting clause in a clause complex is initial, middle or final  Projected clauses In a verbal process, the projecting clause is a verbal process clause, and the projected clause presents that which is said (a locution) In a mental process, if the projecting clause is a mental clause (perceptive, cognitive, desiderative and emotive), the projected clause presents that which is thought (an idea) and it can be any processes  Functions of projection above the clause The basic function of projected clauses is to show that the other clause is projected: someone said it or someone thought it (locutions or ideas) The function of projected clauses is to present a locution or an idea  Basic modes of projection above the clause + Quoting In the modes of quoting, projecting clauses are verbal process clauses and projected clauses present that which was said or thought In a quoting nexus the tactic relationship, the type of dependency, is paratactic, the two parts have equal status The projected element is independent and in the original form of what is projected is what is said or what is thought + Reporting It is possible to report a saying by presenting it as a meaning The relationship between the projecting clause and the projected clause is hypotaxis and the idealized function is to represent the sense, or gist This means the speaker is reporting the gist of what was said, and the wording may be quite different from the original Summary of Chapter In this chapter, we have given an overview of typical studies in Vietnam and in the world related to projection of SFG and its equivalent notions in traditional grammar (directed and indirected speech) None of the studies mentioned above goes deeply into all the levels of projection and compares the grammatical and semantic characteristics of projection in English and Vietnamese Therefore, this is a gap for our dissertation to complete Beside clarifing notions of projection, the theoretical basis related to the issue has also presented in detail The connotation of projection of SFG is wider than the notion of directed and indirected speech of traditional grammar Projection is not only above the clause but also in the clause as well as in the phrase CHAPTER A GRAMMATICAL AND SEMANTIC CONTRASTIVE ANAYLIS OF PROJECTION ABOVE CLAUSE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE 2.1 A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection above the clause in English Table 2.1 Quantity of English clause complexes of projection in mental and verbal processes Types The number of English clause complexes of Total projection verbal process Mental process Novels 169 53 222 Newspapers 305 24 329 Total 474 (86%) 77 (14%) 511 (100%) 2.1.1 Projecting clause 2.1.1.1 Grammatical characteristics Grammatical features of projecting clauses are realized through the presentation and the functions The presentation of projecting clauses is realized through its positions in the complexes and punctuation Projecting clauses can be at the three possible positions in the clause complexes: initial, middle and final A projecting clause and a projected clause are seperated by a comma or a colon if the position of the projecting clause is initial, by a comma if it is final and by two commas if it is middle The basic function of projecting clause is to show that the other clause is projected 2.1.1.2 Semantic characteristcs Semantic charateristics (experiential meanings) of projected clauses are reliazed with participants, processes (verbs) and circumstances Projection is presented through two typical processes: verbal processes and mental processes Projection processes are reliazed with the following verbs serving as process in verbal and mental clauses: 10 Projected clauses in Vietnamese are realised through the punctuation and mood In quoting, the projected clause is put at the beginning of the new line following a dash In hypotactic clause complexes of reporting, the binders or are often associated with the projected clause rather than the projecting clause In paratactic clause complexes of reporting, the projecting clause is separated from the projected clause by a comma or a colon and a dash In quoting, the projected clauses have a variety of mood In contrast, mood of the projected clauses in reporting is restricted with the only one of declaration 2.2.2.2 Semantic characteristics Table 2.4 The number and function of projected clauses in Vietnamese The number of projected clauses Types Locutions Ideas Propositions Proposals Propositions Proposals Novels 224 26 59 Newspapers 184 18 50 Total 408 44 109 (71,7%) (7,7%) (19,2%) (1,4%) Total 314 255 569 (100%) The result of the survey shows that the projected clauses that are propositions of locutions are used much more than that of verbal proposals 408 instances of propositions of locution (71,7%) are 9,3 times more than verbal proposals in the corpus 109 instances of mental propositions (19,2%) are 13,6 times more than mental proposals The proposals of ideas are hardly used for both novels and newspapers in the corpus, too This means that in mental and verbal projections the functions of giving and demanding information by making a statement or asking a question are used much more than that of giving and demanding goods-&-services by making an offer or a command 2.3 A grammatical and semantic contrastive analysis of projection above clause in English and Vietnamese 2.3.1 Similarities 2.3.1.1 Similarities in grammar In English and Vietnamese clause complexes of projection (mental and verbal processes), the rate of middle position and final position of projected clauses is nearly equal and it is also significantly less than that of initial position Especially for newspapers, middle position and final position of projected clauses in clause complexes of projection rarely occurs in the corpus In English, in declarative mood the projected clause in the initial position is connected to the projecting clause by the binder that, whereas by or in Vietnamese In many cases, the binders that in English clause complexes of projection and or in Vietnamese clause complexes of projection can be omitted without changing the meaning of the utterance In both of the languages, the instances of quoted verbal projection are much more than that of reported verbal one Beside that reported mental projection is 11 much favour over the quoted mental one, which affirms the correctness of Halliday’s statement (2012) that the function of the paratactic structure is to represent the wording; whereas with the hypotactic the function is to represent the sense, or gist 2.3.1.2 Similarities in semantics In both English and Vietnamese, the projected clause is executed by a verbal process or a mental process or a behaviour one In the clause complex of verbal projection, the projecting clause is a verbal process, and the projected clause has the status of a wording In this case, the projected clause here stands for a wording The phenomenon it represents is a lexicogramatical one, something that is itself a representation or also called metaphenomenon (Halliday, 1994, 2012 and Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004/2014) In both English and Vietnamese, quoted and reported projection are carried out through verbs of saying or mental verbs, but verbs of behaviour are only used for quoted projection No instances of behavioural processes and relational ones in the corpus go with projected clauses in both English and Vietnmese novels and newspapers, which means that for newspapers the projected clauses focus on projecting information itself rather than contextual elements in both of the languages In contrast, the verbal processes account for the highest percentage of instances of projection in the English and Vietnamese corpus (93% and 79,2%) For novels, most of the projection processes (verbs) are used in both of the languages with different frequence This shows that projection is used variously in both of English and Vietnamese Moreover, no verbs involving some additional connotation are found in both English and Vietnamese data of newspapers 2.3.2 Differences 2.3.2.1 Diffirences in grammar In English, the rate of the initial position, the middle position and the final one of projected clauses is nearly equal, whereas in Vietnamese the rate of them is very different at 93,7%; 0,8% and 5,5% in succession The middle position and the final one of projected clauses in the clause complexes in English are more popular than in Vietnamese For quoting, there can be exchanges of the position between the sayer and the process (verb) and vice versa in the English projected clauses, whereas there cannot be in Vietnamese because of its linear order of the words In Vietnamese, the binders or is used in both interrogative mood and declarative mood in reporting projection In contrast, in English the binder that can’t be used to link the projected clause and the projecting clause in the interrogative mood in reporting projection In this case, that has to be replaced by if or whether Moreover, in Vietnamese the binders or can be omitted in both interrogative mood and declarative mood in reporting projection, while in English that can be omitted but if or whether cannot In addition, in English the binder that tends to be associated with projected clauses, whereas in Vietnamese binders or tend to connect closely to projecting clauses 12 Tenses of verbs in English projected clauses are very various, but in Vietnamese tenses of verbs not belong to any grammatical categories (form of Vietnamese verbs cannot be changed to express different time periods) Therefore, the agreement of the subject and the verb in the projecting clause and the projected one is not expressed or is not always made explicit 2.3.2.2 Differences in semantics Table 2.5 Frequency of different projection verbs in English and Vietanmese novels and newspapers Types of verbs General verb say Verbs specific to different speech function Verbs with manner Verbal specifying Process connotation Verbs with additional circumstantial feature Verbs of saying showing ideas Verbs of cognition/ emotion showing Mental ideas Process Verbs of cognition showing locution Verbs of behaviour Behavi showing locution -our Verbs of state and Process mentality showing locution Relatio -nal Adjectives for Process verbal projection Total Frequency in English Nov newspa els % pers % 88 39,6% 221 67,2% Frequency in Vietnamese nov % newspa % els pers 14 4,4% 19 7,5% 22 9,9% 49 14,9% 40 12,5% 108 42,4% 33 14,9% 0% 29 9,0% 0% 2,7% 35 10,6% 16 5,0% 75 29,4% 0,5% 0,3% 11 3,4% 0% 52 23,4% 23 7% 53 16,5% 53 20,8% 0% 0% 0,6% 0% 18 8,1% 0% 138 43,0% 0% 0% 0% 18 5,6% 0% 222 0,9% 100% 329 0% 100% 321 0% 100% 255 0% 100% The result of the survey shows that the general verb say occupies the highest rate (67,2%) in the data of English newspapers This rate is 11,6 times more than that in Vietnamese In English novels, the general verb say also used the most popularly and widely making up 39,6% (88 instances) In contrast, in Vietnamese verbs specific to different speech function account for the highest proportion (42,4%) in newspapers, and verbs of behaviour in novels accounts for the highest 13 rate with 138 instances (43%) This shows that circumstantial elements and behaviours combining saying are preferred in verbal projection in Vietnamese rather than in English Beside projection processes, English projected clauses are carried out by a relational process (but hardly) through an adjective for projection (adjectives of manners, attitudes, emotion and gestures) In Vietnamese, beside verbs of saying, mental verbs and verbs of behaviour with potential of projection, the projected clause can be executed by verbs of state or mentality, especially in verbal processes According to the survey, there is a big difference between the usage of verb say in English and verb nói in Vietnamese (both in the frequency and range) The verb say in English is used more widely and variously than verb nói in Vietnamese Summary of Chapter In this chapter, we have analysed and compared projection above the clause in English and Vietnamese The result of the survey indicates that there are similarities and diffrences in use of projection in both of the languages Projection above the clause in both of the languages is realised through the constiuent claused: projecting clauses and projected clauses, and has similaries of the realisation and operation However, in fact there are differences of using projection For grammatical features, it is common that the subject – sayer and the verb – projecting process of the projecting clause are inverted just in English, not in Vietnamese Moreover, the binders between the projecting clause and the projected clause in Engish are more complitcated than in Vietnamese For sementic features, beside verbs of saying, verbs of mental and verbs of behaviours with projecting potentials, English adjectives of manners or emotion can be used for projection, although in a limitation, whereas in Vietnamese, projection can be executed through verbs of state or mentality CHAPTER A GRAMMATICAL AND SEMANTIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF PROJECTION IN THE CLAUSE IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE 3.1 A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection in the clause in English 3.1.1 Minor projecting clauses: Circumstances of projection Under the light of the theory of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), prepositional phrases of projection include circumstances of matter and angle Table 3.1 The number of circumstances of matter and angle in English Types The number of circumstances Total Matter Angle Novels 14 19 Newspapers 10 25 35 Total 24 (44,4%) 30 (55,6%) 54 (100%) 3.1.1 Grammatical characteristics 14 Grammatical characteristics of prepositional phrases of projection (circumstances of matter and angle) are realized through the position, markers and grammar functions in the complexes The basic realisation of circumstances of angle including for myself, for me for him/her, to me (với tôi), … is found at a low rate in the data source On the contrary, the complecated ones such as in my opinion (theo quan điểm tôi), in…eyes, according to are very popular Beside circumstances of angle, the ones of matter are found at the lower rate They takes the roles of verbiage in verbal processes or phenomenon in mental processes They are realized through prepositions such as of, about, for For circumstances of angle, their positions in the clause is initial or final, but the position of circumstances of matter is always final, after mental or verbal processes For syntax functions, circumstances of angle are adverbial, but circumstances of matter are complement in the clause According to the theory of SFG, the structure of declarative mood in English includes subject + finite + predicator + complement + Adjunct The adjunct conflates the circumstance in experiential meanings of the clause 3.1.1.2 Semantic characteristics Circumstances of angle are equivalent to minor verbal or mental clauses Circumstances of matter correspond to a verbiage in verbal processes or a phenomenon in mental processes 3.1.2 Projection below the clause: nominal groups with embedded projection Table 3.2 The number of nominal groups with embedded projection in English The number of nominal groups with embedded Types projection Total Locution Idea Propositions Proposals Propositions Proposals Novels 21 29 Newspapers 18 14 15 52 Total 22 (27,2%) 35 (43,2%) 19 (23,5%) 81 (6,2%) (100%) 3.1.2.1 Grammatical characteristics Grammatical characteristics of nominal groups with embedded projection are realized through the presentation, positions and syntax functions The projected element of nominal groups with embedded projection can be a clause or a group of words (phrase) The realization of nominal groups with embedded projection as qualifiers (Post-modifiers) is presented below (1) Propositions: (a) Stating: projected clause either (i) finite, that + indirect indicative; or (ii) nonfinite, of + imperfective 15 (b) Questioning: projected clause either (i) finite, if/whether or WH- + indirect indicative; or (ii) non-finite, whether or WH- + to + imperfective (2) Proposals: (a) Offering (including suggesting): projected clause either (i) non-finite, to + perfective or of + imperfective, or (ii) finite, future indirect indicative (b) Commanding: projected clause either (i) non-finite, to + perfective, or (ii) finite, modulated or future indirect indicative Besides that the projected element of nominal groups with embedded projection is a clause, it can be a group of words with markers or binders such as on, of, about,… 3.1.2.2 Semantic characteristics In nominal groups with embedded projection, the noun is the name of a locution or an idea They are defined or expanded with a clause or a group of words as a post-modifier Nouns that project belong to clearly defined classes, verbal process nouns (locutions) and mental process nouns (ideas) as the head of the nominal groups 3.1.3 Projection below the clause: Nominal groups of fact For the structure, a fact noun serves as the head/thing of a nominal group with a projected clause or a noun of projection as postmodifier/ qualifier There are four sub-classes of fact noun: cases, chances, proofs and needs Furthermore, a fact can appear as a nominalization with the function of a head Beside the two forms of fact in the data, it may be projected impersonally, either by a relational process or by an impersonal mental or verbal process The fact noun can be initial as a subject or behind the verb as a complement or as an adjunct 3.1.3.2 Semantic characteristics There are four sub-classes of fact noun: (1) cases, (2) chances,(3) proofs and (4) needs The speech functional subcategories of nominal groups of fact are propositions and proposals Nouns of fact serves as Head/Thing of the nominal group that can turn projecting a personal opinion into projection an objective reality This means that the opinion of the writer is hidden According to Halliday (2012), a fact is a kind of idea: one that has been so fully semanticized that is no longer explicitly projected, but it is already wrapped and packaged to take its place in linguistic structure 3.1.4 Verbal groups of projection Table 3.4 The number of verbal groups of projection in English The number of verbal groups of projection Types Locution Idea Propositions Proposals Propositions Proposals Novels 12 Newspapers 13 22 Total (0%) 15 (30%) (2%) 34 (68%) Total 15 35 50 (100%) 16 3.1.4.1 Grammatical characteristics The grammatical characteristics of verbal groups of projection are realised through their realization, positions, and grammatical functions The structure of a hypotactic verbal group complex consists of two constituent verbs with unequal status, one serving as the dominant element and the remainder as dependent ones The dominant verb – a verbal process or a mental process is connected with the next one by the binder to, or sometimes by no binder A hypotactic verbal group complex of projection often stands after the subject and has function as a predicator of a clause The binder to is an obligatory element between two constituent verbs if the second verb is in perfective aspect It does not exist if the second verb is in imperfective aspect 3.1.4.2 Semantic characteristics Function of a hypotactic verbal group complex of projection is to project propositions or proposals The time reference of projecting verb is different from that of the second verb (the projected one) In other words, the two constituent elements of a hypotactic verbal group complex of projection have distinct time references 3.2 A grammatical and semantic analysis of projection in the clause in Vietnamese 3.2.1 Minor projecting clauses: Circumstances of projection 3.2.1.1 Grammatical characteristics Grammatical charateristics of an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase are realised through the realisation, positions, and grammatical functions Instances of the simple realisation of circumstances of angle in Vietnamese are prepositions such as theo (tôi), theo ý (anh), với … The more complicated ones – preposition complexes such as dẫn lời…, (con) mắt (tôi)… also occur in the corpus, althought at the limitted rate In Vietnamese, circumstances of matter are typically realised as a prepositional phrase with common prepositions such as về, đến, … In fact, these prepositions are sometimes not compulsory in the circumstances of matter in verbal processes beacause their absence does not make any change in the meaning of the clause Circumstances of angle can be initial in the clause and seperated from the main clause by a comma, or final (at the end of the clause); whereas circumstances of matter is only after verbs of saying or mental verbs Unlike circumstances of angle, that of matter is hardly initial Grammatical function of circumstances of angle is to work as an adverbial group, and that of circumstances of matter is a complement in a sentence of traditional gramar or an adjunct of Systemic Functional Grammar 17 3.2.1.2 Semantics characteristics According to Hoàng Văn Vân (2002/2005), a circumstance of angle actually construes the meaning of saying in a verbal clause complex or sensing in a mental clause complex and it generally answers the question Theo ai/cái gì/ Theo quan điểm ai? (Đối với ai/ Với gì?) (According to who/what/In whose opinion?) A circumstance of angle generally shows the subjective source of information through the prepositional complexes such as Theo quan điểm tôi, Trong mắt tôi, or the objective one through the prepositional phrases such as Theo số liệu thống kê Liên hợp quốc, Dưới mắt thằng Tường, Characteristic of a circumstantial of matter is that there is always a strong collocation of this type of circumstance with verbal processes and certain mental processes (mainly cognitive) It works as a verbiage of the verbal process or a phenomenon of the mental process It generally answers the question (what about?) 3.2.2 Projection below the clause: Nominal groups with embedded projection 3.2.2.1 Grammatical charateristics Grammatical characteristics of nominal groups with embedded projection is realised through the realisation, positions and grammatical functions The projected element of nominal groups with embedded projection can be a clause or a group of words (phrase) The binders or are used to link a noun of projection and a embedded projection clause, while a noun of projection is connected with a embedded projection phrase by the binders or In Vietnamese, the binders or tend to relate to the noun of projection rather than the embedded projection clause, and the binders or associate with a embedded projection phrase functioning as a qualifier in a nominal group rather than the noun of projection However, in many cases the binders or can be omitted without changing the meaning of the clause, even they may be replaced by a comma In Vietnamese, nominal groups with embedded projection can be initial and either works as a head or a thing (more rarely) to function a subject of a clause, or stand after a verb working as a complement (more popolar) 3.2.2.2 Semantic charateristics Nominal groups with embedded projection consist of a noun of projection, the name of a locution or an idea, and the clause or phrase that it projects The noun of projection can be a verbal process noun (locutions) or a mental process noun (ideas) It may be defined by a projected clause or a projected phrase functioning as a thing or a qualifier A noun of projection of nominal groups with embedded projection generally projects a proposition which is an exchange of information or a proposal which is an exchange of goods-&-services 3.2.3 Projection below the clause: Nominal groups of fact 18 3.2.3.1 Grammatical characteristics A nominal group of fact has a verbal or mental process noun (locution or idea) as its head There are four subclasses of fact noun (1) cases, (2) chances,(3) proofs and (4) needs A fact noun serves as the head or thing of a nominal group with a projected clause or a projected phrase as postmodifer or qualifier with or without requiring a binder such as or A projected phrase serving as the postmodifier or qualifier generally requires the binder của, to be connected with the fact noun Moreover, a fact clause in a nominal group without a fact noun can appear in embedded form as a nominalization on its own functioning as a head of the clause 3.2.3.2 Semantic characteristics A fact is an impersonal projection, but it is possible for a fact to enter into a mental or a verbal process clause without being projected by it In Vietnamese, the most used fact nouns belong to the first class – that of case (nouns of simple fact) which relate to ordinary non-modalization propositions, especially in newspapers According to Nguyễn Văn Hiệp (2009:359), nominalised affairs are backward and are reputed to be supposed/ hypothesised events, not at the speaking time 3.2.4 Projection under the clause: Verbal groups of projection 3.2.4.1 Grammatical characteristics Grammatical characteristics of verbal groups of projection are realised through the realisation, the positions, the order of words, and the grammatical functions Structures of verbal groups of projection consits of a verb of saying or a mental verb as a head and another verb of different processes Verbal groups of projection generally stand after a subject and have a function of verbial In Vietnamese, verbal groups of projection not require a binder, but the verbs are put in a linear order 3.2.4.2 Semantic characteristics In verbal groups of projection, the verb of saying or mental verb as a head often generally projects the other verb standing after it However, the time reference of the two verbs are not at the same time The time reference of the verb of saying or mental verb is different from that of the verb being projected by it In verbal groups of projection, the second verb is a projected element that can be a proposition or a proposal 3.3 A grammatical and semantic contrastive analysis of projection in the clause in English and Vietnamese 3.3.1 Similarities 19 3.3.1.1 Grammatical characteristics  Circumstances of projection The configuration of a circumstance of projection consits of a preposition as a centre element and an expansion for it For the function, circumstances of matter in both english and Vietnamese are related to verbal and mental clauses In turn, it is the circumstantial equivelant of the verbiage that is described, referred to, narrated, etc or the phenomenon The position of a circumstance of angle is often initial, sometimes final functioning as an adjunct in a clause  Nominal groups with embedded projection In both Enlish and Vietnamese, projetion nouns are followed by an embedded projection clause or a projected noun phrase as a qualifier or a post-modifier within nominal groups of embedded projection There are also binders in this type of projection in the two languages Nominal groups of embedded projection can function as a subject or complement of the clause  Nominal groups of fact In English and Vietnamese, the nouns of fact are accompanied by embedded projection clause or a projected noun phrase as a qualifier or a post-modifier Moreover, they can refer to a nomalisation as the head of the clause  Verbal groups of projection In both of the two languages, verbal groups of projection generally have a verb of saying or a mental verb as a centre element of it The front verb projects the action of the following verb The verbal groups of projection generally stand after the subject and function as a predicator of the clause 3.3.1.2 Charateristics of sementics  Circumstances of projection For sementics, circumstances of angle in English and Vietnamese project someone’s opinion or view In other words, they show the source of information Therefore, they can be objective (from outside factors), or subjective (from the speaker’s view)  Nominal groups with embedded projection In both English and Vietnamese, nouns that project belong to either verbal process nouns (locutions) or mental process nouns (ideas) They generally project a proposition which is an exchange of information or a proposal which is an exchange of goods-&-services In newspapers, nominal groups with embedded projection seem to be used more widely than in novels in both of the two languages  Nominal groups of fact 20 In Englishand Vietnamese, it is possible for a fact to enter into a mental process without being projected by it It seems to be ready packaged in projected form A fact can be appear only in embedded form: either as qualifier to a fact noun or as a nomalisation on its own There are four sub-classes of fact noun: (1) cases, (2) chances,(3) proofs and (4) needs The embedded projection clause qualifying a fact noun are objectified (Halliday, 2012) Therefore, fact functions as a participant and enter as constituents into the structure of other clauses  Verbal groups of projection In verbal groups of projection, the front verb (generally a verbal process or a mental process) projects a proposition (information) or a proposal (offering and commanding) that is realised by the following verb 3.3.2 Differences 3.3.2.1 Grammatical characteristics  Circumstances of projection In Vietnamese, the preposition of circumstances of matter can be omitted Its absence in circumstances of matter related to verbal processes seems not to change the meaning of the clause in Vietnamese However, the prepostions of, about, are obligatory binders as fixed constituents in English circumstances of matter  Nominal groups with embedded projection In Vietnamese, the binders or are used to link the noun of projection and the projected clause In many cases, they can be omitted without changing the meaning of the clause However, in English the binder that cannot be omitted because it is an obligatory element of grammatical structure of these cases In Vietnamese, tenses are not very obvious Vietnamese belongs to type of the isolating language, so the notions of being finite, non-finite, perfective and imperfective cannot be applied for the embedded clauses that are projected by a verbal process noun or a mental process noun  Nominal groups of fact The sub-class of fact nouns related to propositions with indications, which are equivalent to caused modalities, tends to be used more widely in English, but hardly in Vietnamese The reason is that in Vietnamese the expression trường hợp (it may be the case that) is impossible and unnatural A fact may be projected impersonally, either by a relative process or by an impersonal mental or verbal process This type of projetcion is available in English but not in Vietnamese corpus This shows that it is hardly or not used in Vietnamese There are some projection clause complexes without the subject such as nghe nói là, nghe đồn in Vietnamse In these cases, the subject is omitted 21 or hinden (generally the subject I or we), but they cannot be a fact projected impersonally (or impersonal projection)  Verbal groups of projection The binder in verbal groups of projection generally is that, but there are no binders in Vietnamese Instead of the binder that, the linear word order is used Verbal groups of projection which have a mental verb as the centre projecting proposals (goods-&- services) tend to be used widely in English newspapers than in Vietnamese In contrast, they seem to be used more commonly in Vietnamese novels than in English 3.3.2.2 Sementic characteristics Nominal groups of fact, verbal groups of projection and circumstances of projection seem to have no differences of sementic characteristics in both English and Vietnamese In English, nominal groups with embedded projection corresponding with propositions and proposals of ideas tend to be used more widespreadly than in Vietnamese The instances of propositions of locution can be found in both English newspapers and novels, but they only appear in Vietnamese newspapers Summary of Chapter In summary, in this chapter we have done a survey and analylised projecion in and below the clause in both of the languages: English and Vietnamese Thanks to the results of the survey, we have found that projetcion appear in both of the levels of projection in the corpus of English and Vietnamese: in the simple clause and below the clause (word phrases) with the features of similarities and differences CONCLUSION In this dissertation, we have carried out a grammatical and semantic contrastive analysis of projection in English and Vietnamese basing on the framework of projection in SFL developed by Halliday and his students in order to find out the similarities and differences of projection in English and Vietnamese It has provided an overall view of projection in the light of SFG basing on the data in English and Vietnamese It has showed the following findings: The study systemized and clarified theoretical issues about projection, which provides a workframe of projectition at different levels: abover the clause, in the clause and below the clause This makes the comparing and contrasting grammatical and sementic chracteristics of projection clearer For projection above the clause, the study found out and clarify the similarities and differences of grammatical and semantic characteristics of projecting clauses and projected clauses Similarities of projection above the clause 22 First, in both English and Vietnamese it is realised through the constituent clauses, namely: a projecting clause and a projected clause A projecting clause has a function showing that the other clause in the complex is projected in the two basic modes: quoting and reporting A projected clause can be information (propositions) or goods and services (proposals) and can be of any kind of clause moods Second, positions of the projected clauses can be initial, middle or final in the clause complexes of projection Projected clauses and projecting clauses are connected by a binder Third, projected clauses are realised by verbal processes, mental processes or behavioural processes Fourth, there are similarities of usage level of projection above the clause in newspapers and novels in both English and Vietnamese Quoted projection generally correspond with novel while reporting projection correspond with newspapers due to their specific function of information Differences of projection above the clause First, subject-verb inversion is only used in English, not in Vietnamese; the binders between projecting clauses and projected clauses in English are used in more complicated way than in Vietnamese Second, in verbal processes the general verb say in English are used more popularly and widely than the verb nói in Vietnamese It is used to exchange information or goods and services in various cases In contrast, in Vietnamese verbs specific to different speech function are generally used to carry out projection Third, in Vietnamese mental processes of cognition are used to project locutions, which does not appear in English Fourth, while in English a projected clause can be realised through a relational process with an adjective for projection, in Vietnamese a verb showing state or mentality is used for projection For projection in the clause, the study found out and clarify the similarities and differences of grammatical and sementic characteristics of projection corresponding to the clause (prepositional phrases of projection) and projection below the clause (nominal groups with embedded projection, nominal groups of fact and verbal groups of projection) Similarities of projection in the clause: For circumstances (prepositional phrases of projection), they consist of a preposition as a centre element and its expansion Prepositions in English and Vietnamese belong to both of the two forms: single words and word complexes For the sementic characteristics, circumstances of matter generally correspond to the verbiage (something that is described, referred to, narrated, etc) in verbal processes or the phenomenon in mental processes A circumstance of angle generally shows the source of information, either subjective or objective In both English and Vietnamese, nominal groups with embedded projection consist of an embedded clause or a word complex as a qualifier or post-modifier 23 In English and Vietnamese, nominal groups of embedded projection consits of a verbal process noun or a mental process nouns as its head and an embedded clause or a projected groups of words as its post-modifier or qualifier In English the binder that is used to connect a noun of projection with an embedded clause, while in Vietnamese the binders in proportion are or Moreover, the noun of projection in both of the two languages generally presents a verbal process (locution) or an mental process (idea) The projected element of nominal groups of embedded projection function as exchanges of information or goods and services For nominal groups of fact, in both English and Vietnamese it appears in an embedded form and function as a qualifier or post-modifier for a noun of fact (maily subclass of case - nouns of simple fact) Furthermore, it can be an embedded clause as a nominalization on its own For their semantic characteristic, nominal groups of fact seem to be ready packaged in projected form and have been so fully semanticized that are no longer explicitly projected Proposals belonging to the sub-class of case - nouns of simple fact – seem to be used widely and popularly in both of the languages, but the nouns of fact functioning as propositions (questions) and proposals (offering) are used in limitation in English and Vietnamese For verbal groups of projection, they generally consist of a verb of saying or a mental verb as a centre element projecting a proposition (information) or a proposal (offers and commands) The time reference of the verb of saying or the mental verb and the projected verb is not the same Differences of projection in the clause For verbal groups of projection, in Vietnamese the preposition in the circumstances of matter can be omitted in verbal processes, which does not make any changes of the clause meaning However, in English, the prepositions of/ about/ are always made explicit For nominal groups with embedded projection, There are some differences: First, in Vietnamese in many cases, the binders or linking the noun of projection and the projected clause can be omitted without any changes of the meaning of the clause In contrast, in English the binder that can be absent because it is not a compulsory element of the grammar structure of the clause in these cases Second, in English projection is used more variously and widely than in Vietnamese because in English nominal groups with embedded projection, an embedded clause correspoding with a mental proposition and a mental proposal seems to be used much more than in Vietnamese For nominal groups of fact, the subclass of fact noun as proofs relating to propositions with indication, which are equivalent to caused modalities, tends to be used in a majority in English, but hardly ever in Vietnamese Moreover, impersonal projection of fact appears popularly in English, but it can hardly ever be found out in Vietnamese corpus It is supposed that this subkind of projection is not or hardly ever used in Vietnamese Some clause complexes without the main subject such as nghe nói là, nghe đồn are not 24 supposed to be impersonal projection in Vietnamese In fact, the subject is omitted in this case For verbal group complexes of projection, in English the binder to is used to link the verb of saying or the mental verb and the projected verb, but in Vietnamese instead of the binder, the constituent verbs of a verbal group of projection are put in a linear word order Verbal groups of projection with a mental verb as the main element projecting goods and services (proposals) tend to be used in English newspapers much more than in Vietnamese Criteria for complexes of verbal groups of projection include (1) proposals, (2) imperfectives, and (3) the same subject for both projected element and a verbal process or a mental process However, the second one cannot be applied for Vietnamese ... Today and Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone by J.K Rowling In Vietnamese, the data resouces include 15 articles of Nhân Dân, 15 articles of Vietnamnet; Tôi thấy hoa vàng cỏ xanh and Cô gái đến... capable of putting out a signal (Halliday 1994, 2012; Halliday & Matthiessen 2004/2014; Eggins, 1994/ 2004; Hoàng Văn Vân 2002/2005, 2012) Projection circumstances include two main types: matter and... conscious being Rather, it can be anything that is capable of putting out a signal There is always a strong collocation of circumstances of matter with verbal processes and certain mental ones In other