Developmental and Educational Psychology for Teachers Developmental and Educational Psychology for Teachers brings together a range of e­ vidence drawn from psychology to answer a number of critical educational questions, from basic questions of readiness – for example, when is a child ready for school, through to more complex matters, such as how does a teacher understand and promote good peer relationships in their classroom? The answers to these and other questions discussed draw on the interplay between a teachers’ craft expertise and their knowledge of evidence and theory from developmental and educational psychology Presenting a range of classic theories and contemporary research to help readers understand what the key issues are for teachers and other professionals, this book aids informed educational decisions in situations such as: •• •• •• •• •• •• inclusion; ability grouping; sex differences; developing creativity; home and peer influences on learning; and developing effective learners Teachers in early years, primary, and secondary settings are routinely faced with questions regarding the development of children This not only relates to the planning and delivery of lessons, but also to the mental and physical well-being of the children and adolescents who they teach The pedagogical features of this book are accessible and clearly presented, including question points that direct the reader’s attention to key issues, activity posts that point the reader to meaningful and relevant research and show the practical applications of material covered, and extension material that gives depth to many of the topics covered This book aims to inform the practice of both in-service and trainee teachers, addressing issues that are relevant to their practice With no other detailed and accessible text presenting this evidence and theory specifically for an audience of practicing and trainee teachers currently on the market, this book will be essential reading to practicing and trainee teachers for early years, primary, and secondary education and other related educational contexts such as educational psychologists, counsellors, ­paediatric and child doctors and nurses Dennis M McInerney is honorary professor at the Australian Catholic University and an honorary professor at the Education University of Hong Kong He is a veteran a­ cademic who has been a primary teacher, secondary teacher, teacher trainer, as well as professor specialising in educational and developmental psychology David W Putwain is professor at the Liverpool John Moores University He started his career as a teacher of psychology, sociology and personal, social and health education, and worked in a number of secondary schools and sixth form colleges in England Developmental and Educational Psychology for Teachers An applied approach Second edition Dennis M McInerney & David W Putwain Second edition published 2017 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 D M McInerney & D W Putwain The right of D M McInerney & D.W Putwain to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe First edition published 2006 by Allen & Unwin British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: McInerney, D M (Dennis M.), 1948- author | Putwain, David, author Title: Developmental and educational psychology for teachers : an applied approach / Dennis McInerney & David Putwain Description: 2nd edition | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa Business, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references Identifiers: LCCN 2016013657| ISBN 9781138947702 (hbk : alk paper) | ISBN 9781138947726 (pbk : alk paper) | ISBN 9781315669953 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Educational psychology | Developmental psychology Classification: LCC LB1051 M398 2017 | DDC 370.15—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016013657 ISBN: 978-1-138-94770-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-94772-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-66995-3 (ebk) Typeset in Giovanni by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK Contents About the authors xv Acknowledgmentsxvii Prefacexix Chapter – Developmental psychology: themes and research1 Introduction1 Studying development Themes in developmental psychology Heredity and environment Physical growth and motor development Cognitive development Conceptions of intelligence and creativity Cognition and information processing Personal and social development Moral development Psychology and the scientific method 10 11 Basic and applied research 13 Research methods 13 Experimental research 14 Quasi-experimental research 14 Correlational research 15 Qualitative research 16 Integrative reviews and meta-analyses 17 General principles of good research 18 Validity in measurement 18 Reliability in measurement 20 vi  Contents Ethics and research 20 Internet resources 21 Chapter – Heredity and environment and special learning needs23 Introduction23 Basis of heredity – a simplified overview 23 Dominant and recessive genes 24 Personality characteristics and genes 27 Sex related characteristics 28 Polygenetic determination 29 Diagnostic tests of the foetus 31 Interactions between heredity and environment 32 Genetic engineering 34 Family studies 34 Twin studies 35 The environment 35 Prenatal Influences 36 The impact of the environment on early development 36 Teratogens37 Maternal diseases and disorders 37 Drugs38 Maternal diet 39 Parental age 39 Birth factors and development 40 Deprived postnatal environments 40 Developmental problems in childhood and educational implications 42 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 42 Intellectual disability 44 Autism44 Cerebral palsy 45 Visual impairment and hearing impairment 45 Other disabilities 46 Contents  vii Streaming and ability grouping 47 Inclusion and teaching 47 The importance of early intervention 48 Chapter – Physical and motor development: infancy to late childhood51 Introduction51 Principles of development 52 Orderly and sequential development 52 Developmental milestones 53 Cephalocaudal and proximodistal growth 53 Overview of developmental stages Prenatal development and the newborn 58 59 Infancy60 Early childhood 61 Is there a ‘critical period’ for brain development? 62 Middle and late childhood to puberty 64 Principles of motor development 66 Maturation67 Motivation68 Experience69 Practice69 Individual differences in motor development 69 Motor development norms 70 Sex differences in motor development 70 Chapter – Physical and motor development: puberty to adulthood and developmental health73 Introduction73 Puberty and adolescence 73 Growth spurts and interpersonal comparisons 74 Differences in physical growth, muscle growth, and motor development. 74 Implications for education 75 Multicultural issues 75 viii  Contents Developmental trajectories: early and late maturation 76 Early maturing males 77 Early maturing females 77 Adolescents and body image 81 Eating disorders 82 Bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa 83 Body shape and personality 83 Educational implications of body shape 85 Health issues and the school environment 86 Potential health problems 86 Hearing and sight 87 Dietary deficiencies – undernourishment and obesity 87 Other issues 89 Physical safety and legal requirements 90 Chapter – Cognition and cognitive development: infancy to late childhood91 Introduction91 Continuity and change in cognitive development 91 Jean Piaget 92 Biological model of cognitive development 92 Balance between assimilation and accommodation 93 Operative knowledge 94 Stages of intellectual development 95 Sensorimotor stage 95 Preoperational stage 97 Development of perception, language, reasoning, and problem solving skills 98 Size and shape constancy 99 Classifying objects into sets 100 Perception and judgements of quantity 100 Number concepts and time concepts 101 Concepts of time: past, present, and future 103 Contents  ix Concrete operations stage 104 Seriation and classification 105 Implications of Piaget for education 108 Developmentally appropriate education 108 Social interaction and cognitive development 108 Spiral curriculum and curriculum integration 109 Lev Vygotsky 109 Sociocultural dimensions of learning 109 The importance of cultural context 110 Holistic education 111 Mediating learning 112 Classroom applications of Vygotskian theory 113 Jerome Bruner 113 Concept development 113 The course of cognitive growth 114 Ways of thinking 115 Discovery learning 116 Language development 117 Features of language 118 Theories of language development 118 Interactionist perspective 120 Stages of language acquisition 120 The school connection 121 Chapter – Cognitive development: adolescence to adulthood123 Introduction123 Piaget and adolescent cognition 123 Formal-operations stage 123 Combinatorial logic 124 Propositional thinking 124 Proportional reasoning 124 Hypothetical reasoning 126 322  R eferences Waddington, C H (1957) The strategy of the genes London: Allen & Unwin Wagemans, J., Elder, J H., Kubovy, M., Palmer, S E., Peterson, M A., Singh, M & von der Heydt, R (2012) A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: I Perceptual grouping and figure–ground organization Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1172 Wagner, A D., Maril, A & Schacter, D L (2000) Interactions between forms of memory: When priming hinders new episodic learning Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(2), 52–60 Wahlsten, D (1999) Single-gene influences on brain and behavior Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 599–624 Waldorf, K M A & McAdams, R M (2013) The influence of infection during 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Handbook of motivation at school (pp 247–264) Oxon: Routledge Zimmerman, B J & Kitsantas, A (2005) Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(4), 397–417 Index Abedi, J 158 Aboriginal children 128 abortion 37 abstract thinking 101, 115–116, 123, 126, 153, 155 abuse 198, 209, 243 academic achievement: ADHD 43; big-fish-little-pond effect 247; parental involvement in school 203, 235; peer group influence 237; popular status linked to 220; self-concept 246; self-efficacy 249; self-regulation 248; social skills linked to 241 acceptance 211 accommodation 7, 92, 93–94, 96, 107, 123, 128, 129 acne 76 acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) 38 acting-out behaviour 198, 199, 217 adaptation 7, 93, 94, 128 ADHD see attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adolescence: alienation 10, 240–241; body image 81–86; cognitive development 123–140; early and late maturation 76–79; Erikson’s theory 226–228; health issues 86–89; identity formation 202, 203, 226–232; operative knowledge 94; peer group influence 235–239; personal and social development 223–252; physical development 52, 58, 73–90; play 221; puberty 73–81; relationships with parents 232–235; school environment 251–252; self-concept 245–247; selfefficacy 249–251; self-regulation 248; sexuality 239; suicide 241–245 adoption 36 age at parenthood 39–40 aggressiveness 191, 198; Klinefelter syndrome 30; play 221; social skills 241; sociometric testing 220; suicide risk 242, 243 agreeableness 157 AIDS see acquired immune deficiency syndrome Ainsworth, M D S 215 alcohol 39, 60, 241, 243 alienation 10, 238, 240–241; parental 204 Amabile, T M 159 American Eugenics Society 32 amniocentesis 31 anal stage 193, 194, 197, 200 analytic thinking 7, 115 anorexia nervosa 83, 240 anoxia 60 anti-bullying programs 214 antisocial behaviour: family studies 34; Klinefelter syndrome 30; role confusion 226; social skills 10, 241; suicide risk 242, 243; youth culture 227 anxiety: adolescence 224, 229; alienation 240; anxiety disorders 46; body image 81; family support 245; Freudian theory 194–195, 198; regression 196 apathy 229 applied behaviour analysis 133 applied research 13 Aristotle Arnheim, R 159 art 161 Asperger syndrome 45 assessment 18; of creativity 161–162; humanist philosophy 212; prior knowledge 174 assimilation 7, 92, 93–94, 95–96, 107, 123, 128, 129 asynchrony 65, 70, 76 attachment 10, 215–216, 224–225, 245 attention 99, 169, 171, 184 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 42–44 attractiveness 86 Australian Aboriginal children 128 authoritarian parenting 216, 224, 234 authoritative parenting 216, 224, 234 autism 28, 35, 40, 44–45 automaticity 183, 189 automation 165 autonomous morality 256 autonomy 200, 201, 205, 223, 225–226; cultural differences 232, 234; learning 130; parenting styles 216; peer interactions 237 awkwardness 64–65, 70, 76 326  I ndex Bandura, Albert 134, 248, 249 BAS see British Ability Scales Basadur, M 159 basic research 13 Baumrind, D 224 Bebeau, Muriel 275 behavioural genetics 46–47 behavioural problems 42, 44, 45, 46, 89, 217 behaviourism 2, 118, 132–134 belongingness 208, 209, 211, 241 big-fish-little-pond effect 247 ‘big-five’ personality traits 157 Binet, Alfred 4, 92, 142, 147–148 Binnewies, C 159 biological model of cognitive development 92–93 bipolar disorder 28, 35 birthing 40 body image 65, 81–86, 196 body shape 83–86 boredom 199 boys: body image 81, 83; cognitive development 138–139; early and late maturation 77–78, 79; eating disorders 83; Freudian theory 193; initiative and guilt 202; mental health problems 243; motor skills 63–64, 70–71; physical development 60–61, 62; puberty 73–74, 76; suicide 241–242; see also sex differences brain development 61–62, 67, 91, 99 Bransford, J D 188 break times 71–72 breakfast programs 208 British Ability Scales (BAS) 150–151 British Educational Research Association 20–21 British Psychological Association 20–21 Bronfenbrenner, Urie Bruner, Jerome 6, 7, 113–117 bulimia nervosa 83 bullying 76, 198–199, 209, 213–214, 228 canalisation 5, 23 care, morality of 270–271 caring 275–276 CAT see Cognitive Abilities Test catch-growth 40 categorisation 114, 189 Cattell, James centration 102, 104 cephalocaudal development/growth 6, 53–57 cerebral palsy 40, 41, 45, 60 ‘chalk and talk’ approaches 117 child-centred education 212 childbirth 40 Chomsky, Noam 119 chorion biopsy 31 chromosomes 23–24, 27, 28; chromosomal abnormalities 29–30, 60 chunking 173, 176, 189 classical conditioning 132, 133 classification: to help learning 178, 179; of objects 100, 105 client-centred counselling 206 clinical method cliques 217, 238, 239 coding 114, 178, 190 cognition 6, 9; definition of 91; distributed 138; environmental influences 5; situated 137–138; structure of the intellect model 144 Cognitive Abilities Test (CAT) 150–151 cognitive development 4, 6–8; adolescence 123–140; Bruner 113–117; concrete operations stage 95, 104–105, 106, 107, 255; continuity and change 91–92; cranial growth 61; cultural issues 128; formal operational stage 95, 123–128; infancy to late childhood 91–121; information processing 165–166; language development 117–121; moral reasoning 274; Piaget 1, 7, 92–109, 123–130, 141; play 106–108, 221; preoperational stage 95, 97–104, 106, 107, 255; sensorimotor stage 95–97, 106, 107; sex differences 138–139, 140; social interaction 108–109; visual impairment 45; Vygotsky 7, 109–113, 131–132, 141; see also intelligence cognitive learning theories 134, 137 colour blindness 28 combinatorial logic 124 Combs, M L 241 competence 237 componential intelligence 150 comprehension 153, 173 computers 167, 172 concept formation 95 concept mapping 178–180, 181 conceptualisation 114 concrete operations stage 7, 95, 104–105, 106, 107, 255 concurrent validity evidence 19 conditioning 132, 133 conflict 222, 233–234 connectedness 206, 223, 224, 225 conscience 192, 193, 264, 265, 269 conscientiousness 157 conscious mind 191–192 conservation tasks 101, 102, 104, 105, 127, 129 I ndex  327 construct validity evidence 19 constructive play 106–107 constructivism 7, 92, 129, 131, 231, 275 content validity evidence 19 contextual intelligence 150 continuity 2, 91–92 conventional morality 258, 262, 263–264 conventional rules 267–268 convergent thinking 144, 156 cooperation 221, 222, 256, 257, 270 correlational research 13, 15–16 counting 101 cranial growth 61, 91 creativity 130, 156–163; assessment of 161–162; definitions of 157; environmental influences 33; intelligence relationship 163; personality characteristics 157–158; as a product 160–161; as way of thinking 158–160 crisis counselling 244 criterion validity evidence 19 cross-sectional designs 12, 13 crowds 238, 239 Crozier, G 235 cultural issues: adolescence 234; body shape 86; cognitive development 128; eating disorders 89; identity formation 231–232; intelligence tests 152–153; learning 110; morality 253, 271; parenting styles 234–235; physical development 72, 75; suicide 242 Culture Fair Intelligence Test 152 curriculum 52, 53, 103; caring behaviour 276; moral values 274; spiral 109, 115–116 curriculum-based suicide prevention programs 244 cyberbullying 209, 213 cybernetics 167 Darwin, Charles 3–4 data collection 17 Davies, J 235 deductive thinking 102 defence mechanisms 195–197, 198 Defining Issues Test (DIT) 272–273 delinquency: ADHD 43–44; family support programs 244; Klinefelter syndrome 30; parental control linked to 226; peer group influence 233, 237; role confusion 228; social skills 10, 241; suicide risk 244 denial 196 depression 35, 229; alienation 240; family support 245; girls 270; obesity 88; suicide risk 244 deprivation-rebound hypothesis 72 deprived postnatal environments 40–41 despair 200, 201, 227 development, study of 2–4 developmental milestones 53, 68 developmentally appropriate education 108 diagnostic tests 31–32 diet 39, 80, 82, 87, 88; see also malnutrition; nutrition differentiation of motor movements 66, 96 direct instruction 133 disabilities 29, 40, 41, 42–46, 48 discovery learning 116–117 disinhibition 134 displacement 198 distributed cognition 138 distributed practice 184 DIT see Defining Issues Test divergent thinking 8–9, 144, 156, 157, 162 diversity 81 divorce 217 dizygotic twins 35 Dolmans, D H 174 domain theory 11, 267–269 dominant genes 24, 25, 27–28 Down syndrome 29–30, 34, 41, 60, 70 Dreikurs, - 212, 213 drugs see substance abuse duty of care 90 early intervention 48, 70 eating disorders 82–83, 89, 270 Eccles, J S 252 ecological model ectomorphs 84, 85–86 ego 192; anxiety 194–195; defence mechanisms 195–196, 198; ego integrity 200, 201, 227 egocentrism 104, 256, 262, 265 elaboration 162, 189 Electra crisis 193 emotional development 197, 215–220, 221 emotional intelligence 156 emotions 91–92; adolescence 74, 223; environmental influences 5; physiognomic perception 98; self-efficacy 249–250 empathy 211, 276 enactive stage 7, 114–115 encoding 9, 166; classification 178; computer models 167; experts 187; meaningfulness 172; mnemonics 177, 178, 186; non-meaningful material 175; question generation 173; remembering 172 endomorphs 84, 85–86 engagement 250, 251 328  I ndex English 188 engrossment 275–276 environment 5–6, 23, 32–36, 49; behavioural genetics 46–47; body shape and personality 85; compensating for genetics 41; creativity 160; deprived postnatal environments 40–41; inclusive education 47–48; physical development 52; Piaget 92; prenatal influences 36–41; school 251–252 environmentalist position 3, 32, 118–119 equilibrium 7, 93, 94, 107 Erikson, Erik 9, 10, 199–203, 205, 223, 226–228, 231 erogenous zones 193 esteem needs 208, 210, 211 ethics 20–21 ethnic groups 232, 235, 242 eugenic sterilisation 33 evaluation 18, 144 expectations 86 experience 6, 69, 99 experiential intelligence 150 experimental research 13, 14, 16 exploration 202–203 Exploratory Talk 136 extroversion 157 face validity evidence 19 factor analysis 19 fairness 191, 256, 263 family 10, 191; adolescence 224; Erikson’s theory 201; family studies 34–35; family support programs 244–245; Freudian theory 193; influence on social and emotional development 217; parental involvement in school 203–205, 234, 235; self-esteem 210; see also parenting fantasy 196, 198, 199 Farver, J M 108 fear 46 feedback 182, 251 Feist, G J 157–158 fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) 39, 60 fetal development 59 fetoscopy 31 figure and ground 170–171 filing cabinet analogy 93–94 fine motor skills 56, 57, 62, 64, 67, 69–70 fixation 196 flexibility 162 fluency 161–162 Flynn, James 155 foetal testing 31–32 forgetting 185–186 formal operational stage 7, 95, 123–128 four-component framework of moral education 275 ‘Frames of Mind’ 144, 145 frames of reference 245–246 Freud, Sigmund 4, 9, 10, 191–199, 205; anxiety 194–195; classroom applications 198–199; continuity 2; current status of theory 197; parenting practices 228; psychosexual stages 192, 193–194, 197, 199–200; qualitative research 17 friendships 218, 220, 237–239; see also peer groups games 106, 107, 203 Gardner, Howard 8, 144, 145–147 Gelade, G A 159 Gelman, R 101 gender see sex differences generativity 200, 201, 227 genes 24–26; behavioural genetics 46–47; body shape and personality 85; personality characteristics 27–28 genetics 5–6, 23–32; ADHD 43; behavioural 46–47; diagnostic tests of the foetus 31–32; environment compensating for 41; genetic counselling 34; genetic diseases 60; genetic engineering 34; motor development 70; personality characteristics 27–28; physical development 52; polygenetic determination 29; sex-related characteristics 28; see also heredity genital herpes 38 genital stage 193–194, 200 genotype 5, 24, 32, 35, 38 Gesell, Arnold Gilligan, Carol 11, 269–271 Ginott, - 212, 213 girls: body image 83; care perspective 270; cognitive development 138–139; early and late maturation 78; eating disorders 82, 83; Freudian theory 193; initiative and guilt 202; mental health problems 243; motor skills 63–64, 70–71; physical development 60–61, 62, 65; puberty 73–74, 76; suicide 241–242; see also sex differences Glasser, - 212, 213 goals 250 Gordon, - 212, 213 grandparents 203–204 gross motor skills 56, 57, 62, 64, 67, 69 grounded theory 17 group intelligence tests 150–151, 154 growth charts 52, 54–55 growth spurts 74 I ndex  329 Guilford, J P 143–144, 161–162 guilt 195, 200–202, 203, 226, 256 haemophilia 26, 28–29, 34 Hall, Granville Halpern, D F 139 Harry, B 152–153 Head Start 41 health 80–81, 86–89 hearing impairment 45–46, 86, 87, 169 hereditarian position 3, 32–33 heredity 5–6, 23–32, 49; ADHD 43; behavioural genetics 46–47; diagnostic tests of the foetus 31–32; environment compensating for genetics 41; interactions with environment 32–36; personality characteristics 27–28; polygenetic determination 29; sex-related characteristics 28; see also genetics herpes 38 heteronomous morality 255–256 heterozygosity 24 hierarchy of needs 207–211 high-ability students 247, 248 history 181 holistic education 7, 111 homosexuality 243 homozygosity 24 Human Betterment Foundation 33 Human Genome Project 32, 34 humanism 205–212, 275 hyperactivity 42 hypothesis testing 4, 11, 123–124 hypothetical reasoning 126 hypothetico-deductive reasoning 124 iconic stage 7, 114–115 id 192, 194–195 identification 198 identity 131; adolescence 203, 223, 224, 226–232, 238; Erikson’s theory 200, 201, 202; friendship groups 218; group 239; humanistic psychology 206; identity achieved 231; identity crisis 228–229; identity diffusion 229–230; identity foreclosure 228–229, 230; identity moratorium 230 imagery: mental 176, 190; mnemonic 176–178 immanent justice 256 impulsivity 42 inattention 42, 43 inclusive education 29, 46, 47–48, 89 independence 191, 203, 205; adolescence 223, 224, 225–226; cultural differences 234; parenting styles 216 industry 200, 201, 202, 228 infant marasmus 40 inferiority 200, 201, 202, 226 informal knowledge 174–175 information processing 1, 9, 134, 165–190; classification 178, 179; classroom applications 189–190; components 168–169; computer models 167; concept mapping 178–180; cybernetics 167; experts and novices 187–188; networking 179; remembering and forgetting 172, 181–187; self-efficacy 251; strategies to help learning 173–178, 180–181; visual 100 information technology 107–108 inhibition 134 initiative 200–202, 203 integration of motor movements 66, 96 integrative reviews 17–18 integrity 200, 201, 227 intellectual disability 44, 45, 46, 151 intellectual skills 160 intelligence 8–9, 141–156; autistic students 44–45; creativity relationship 163; emotional intelligence 156; environmental influences 5, 23, 33; genetic factors 28, 35, 46–47; increase in 155; multiple intelligences 145–147; one and two factor theories 142–143; physical attractiveness associated with 86; Piaget 92; primary mental abilities 143; psychometrics 141–142, 143, 147–149; Sternberg’s triarchic theory 149–150; structure of the intellect model 143–144; twin studies 35; validity in measurement 19; see also cognitive development intelligence quotient (IQ) 28, 148, 151, 152–154, 155, 163 intelligence tests 8–9, 92–93, 141, 147–149; Binet-Simon 142, 148, 151; group tests 150–151, 154; increase in intelligence 155; multiple intelligences 147; non-verbal 152; primary mental abilities 143; sex differences 139; Stanford-Binet 148, 150; variables influencing IQ 152–154; Wechsler tests 148–149, 150 inter-rater reliability 20 interactionist perspective 120 interdependence 223, 232 interference effects 186 internal consistency reliability 20 Internet resources 21–22 interpersonal relationships 215, 223, 224, 275 intersexuality 30 interview method 266–267 intimacy 200, 201, 227, 238, 270 intuitive thinking 7, 115 investigation, period of 203 330  I ndex IQ see intelligence quotient isolation 78, 200, 201, 209, 218, 220, 227 longitudinal designs 12, 13 Luria, Alexander James, William Jung, Carl 4, 17 justice perspective 270–271 Mahapatra, M 271 Maintaining Norms schema 272–273 Malina, R M 76 malnutrition: adolescence 87; anorexia nervosa 83; brain development 62; deprived postnatal environments 40; impact on cognitive development 91; physical development 52; prenatal development 39, 60 Marcia, James 223, 229–230, 231 Marsh, Herb 247 Martin, Andrew 250 Maslow, Abraham 9, 10, 207–211 massed practice 184 mastery learning 182, 184, 249 masturbation 194, 196 maternal diseases 37–38, 60 maternal testing 31 maths 136, 137, 181; informal knowledge 174–175; intelligence tests 153; multiple intelligences 147; sex differences in achievement levels 139; transfer of learning 188 maturation 6, 67; adolescence 76–79; perceptual development 99; secular trend 80–81 McCartney, K 47 McNeil, N M 174–175 meaningful material 165, 172, 175 meaninglessness 240, 241 measurement 18–20 media 82, 155, 233, 239, 243 mediated learning 7, 112 meiosis 24 memory 9, 110, 168–169, 190; brain development 62; cognitive development 166; information overload 165; intelligence tests 143, 148, 153; mnemonics 176–178; non-meaningful material 175; remembering and forgetting 172, 181–187; sex differences 139; structure of the intellect model 143, 144; units of information 176; whole and part learning 182–183; working 9, 165, 168, 169, 176, 180 menstruation 78, 83 mental age 148 mental health problems 243–244 mental imagery 176, 190 mesomorphs 84, 85 meta-analyses 17–18 metacognition 8, 135–137, 251 metalearning 8, 135, 251 migrants 48, 204, 233, 276 keyword method 176, 190 Klinefelter syndrome 30, 34, 60 Klingner, J 152–153 knowledge: assimilation and accommodation 7; creativity and 160; information processing 187; intelligence tests 151; moral development 258; operative 94–95; prior 172, 174–175, 182; students’ knowledge structures 171; transfer of learning 189 Kohlberg, Lawrence 11, 17, 254, 258–266, 269, 271, 272, 274 Kuhn, D 17 laissez-faire parenting 216 language: cognitive development 97, 98, 113, 117–121; features of 118; language problems 43–44, 45; multiple intelligences 147; nominal realism 98–99; sex differences in achievement levels 139; skills learnt through play 222; symbolic play 107; transfer of learning 188; ‘whole language’ approach 111 latency 193, 194, 200 law of effect 132–133 learning: behavioural theories 132–134; Bruner 115, 116–117; as constructive process 129–130; discovery 116–117; information processing 9, 165, 167; intelligence tests 151; mediated 7, 112; metacognition 8, 135–137; motivation for 252; Piaget compared with Vygotsky 113; proactive facilitation 187; self-efficacy 249; self-regulation 248; situated 137–138; social cognitive theory 134; sociocultural dimensions of 109–110; strategies to help 173–178, 180–181; transfer of 187, 188–189; Vygotsky 7; whole and part 182–183; zone of proximal development 111 learning difficulties 43, 48; see also intellectual disability legal requirements 90 legal rules 253, 273 Let’s Think 135–136 Libido 192 listening 121 literature reviews 12 logical reasoning 104, 105, 108–109, 129, 148 long-term goals 250 long-term memory 9, 165, 166, 168–169, 172, 174, 182, 187 I ndex  331 milestones 53, 68 Miller, George 165 Miller, J C 271 minority groups 152–153, 232, 235 mistrust 200, 201, 228 mnemonics 176–178, 181, 186 modelling: caring behaviour 276; information processing 166; interpersonal skills 212; language development 118–119, 120; learning strategies 181; peer 218; selfefficacy 251; social cognitive theory 134 monozygotic twins 35 mood disorders 28 moral actions 268–269 moral anxiety 195, 198 moral development 10–11, 253–276; adolescence 74; classroom applications 274–275; cultural issues 271; Defining Issues Test 272–273; gender differences 269– 271; Kohlberg’s stage theory 258–266; Piaget’s stage theory 255–257; Turiel’s domain theory 267–269 moral realism 255–256 morality of care 270–271 morality of cooperation 256, 257 morality of reciprocity 256 motivation 6, 46, 251; ADHD 43; adolescence 226; belongingness 209; creativity 157–158, 160; decline in motivation for learning 252; discovery learning 116; intelligence tests 153; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 210–211; mental health problems 243; motor development 68–69; novelty 130; perceptual development 99; positive play experiences 221; selfconcept 245; self-efficacy 249, 250; self-regulation 248 motivational displacement 275–276 motor development 6, 36, 51–52; adolescence 74; cultural issues 72; developmental milestones 53; fine motor skills 56, 57, 62, 64, 67, 69–70; gross motor skills 56, 57, 62, 64, 67, 69; individual differences 69–71; infancy 60; middle to late childhood 65; milestones 68; neonatal 59–60; perceptual development 99–100; principles of 66–69; sex differences 63–64, 70–71; see also physical development multicultural issues: multiethnic diversity 81; physical development 72, 75; see also cultural issues multiple intelligences 8, 145–147 muscles 67 mutations 31–32, 40 myelinisation 39, 61–62 Narvaez, Darcia 275 nativist approach 3, 119–120 nature-nurture debate needs: Freudian theory 192; Maslow’s hierarchy of 207–211 negative reinforcement 133 neglect 40, 91, 228, 243 neo-Kohlbergian approaches 11, 272–273 neonatal development 58, 59–60 nervous system 61 networking 179 neurological maturation 67 neurotic anxiety 195, 198 niche-picking 47 Noddings, Nel 275–276 nominal realism 98–99 non-verbal intelligence tests 152 normlessness 240 norms: Maintaining Norms schema 272–273; moral 264; motor development 56, 70; physical development 52–53 novelty 130, 161 Noyes, Alfred 35 Nucci, L P 267 number concepts 101 nutrition 39, 40, 80, 82, 155; see also malnutrition obesity 82, 87–89, 240 object permanence 96, 97 obsessional-compulsive behaviour 198 Oedipal crisis 193 Ohly, S 159 Olweus, Dan 214 ontogenetic development 35–37 open education 211–212 openness 157, 160 operant conditioning 133 operative knowledge 94–95 oral stage 193, 194, 197, 200 originality 161–162 overlearning 183, 190 parental age 39–40 parenting 40–41, 48–49; adolescence 224–226, 232–235; attachment 215; early maturing females 78; Erikson’s theory 228; Freudian theory 193, 197, 228; humanistic psychology 207; influence on antisocial behaviour 241; influence on cognitive development 97; involvement in school 203–205, 234, 235; motor development 70; obesity 88; parental self-efficacy 205; styles 10, 216, 224–225, 234–235; suicide risk 243; support programmes 41; see also family Parten, - 221 332  I ndex Pavlov, Ivan 132 peer groups 78, 202, 217–218; adolescence 224, 233, 235–239; identity formation 226; peer modelling 218; sociometric testing 218–220 peg-type mnemonics 177 perception 45, 104; cognitive development 98, 99–100, 128; figure and ground 170–171; motor development 67 permissive parenting 224 personal best goals 250 personal development 9–10, 191–215; adolescence 74, 76, 223–252; Erikson 199–203; Freud 191–199; humanism 205–212; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 207– 211; play 221–222; Rogers 206–207 personal identity see identity Personal Interests schema 272 personality 4, 191; body shape and 83–85; creativity 157– 158, 160; early and late maturation 77; environmental influences 5, 33; Erikson’s theory 199, 228; Freudian theory 192, 193, 194, 197; genetic factors 27–28, 35, 46–47; intelligence tests 151, 153; play and personality development 221–222; Rogers’ theory 206–207 personality disorders 196 perspective taking 256 phallic stage 193, 194, 197, 200 phenomenalistic causality 98 phenomenological field 206 phenotype 5, 24, 32, 34 phenylketonuria (PKU) 25–26, 41 phylogenetic development 35, 36 physical attractiveness 86 physical development 4, 6, 36, 51–66; adolescence 58, 73–90; adulthood 58, 62; cephalocaudal and proximodistal 53–57; cultural issues 72; deprived postnatal environments 40; developmental milestones 53, 68; early childhood 58, 61–62; heredity 5; infancy 58, 60–61; middle and late childhood 58, 64–66; neonatal 58, 59–60; orderly and sequential development 52–53; prenatal 58, 59; secular trend in 80–81; see also motor development physical education 63, 65, 69, 75, 90 physiognomic perception 98, 104 physiological needs 208–209 physique 83–86 Piaget, Jean 1, 4, 6, 7, 92–109; compared with Vygotsky 113; concrete operations stage 104–105; criticisms of Piagetian tests 127; current status of Piaget’s theory 128–130; formal operational stage 123–128; implications for education 108–109; information processing 166; language development 117; mental capacity 8, 141; moral development 11, 254, 255–257, 274; play 106–108; preoperational stage 97–104; sensorimotor stage 95–97; social interaction 121 Picasso, Pablo 159, 160–161 Piffer, D 161 play 44, 106–108, 202–203, 221–222 playground activity 71–72 pleasure principle 192, 195 polygenetic determination 29 popularity 218–220 pornography 196 positive reinforcement 133 positive teaching 133 positivistic research 17 postconventional morality 258, 262, 264–265, 266, 271, 273 power 206 powerlessness 240 PQ4R approach 173 practice 6, 69; distributed 184; learning strategies 181; massed 184; remembering 182; repetition 183 practice play 106, 107 preconscious mind 192 preconventional morality 262, 263 predictive validity evidence 19 pregnancy 31, 36–41, 60 prenatal development 36–41, 58, 59 preoperational stage 7, 95, 97–104, 106, 107, 255 primacy effect 184, 185 primary circular reactions 95, 96 primary mental abilities 143 prior knowledge 172, 174–175, 182 proactive facilitation 187 proactive interference 186 problem solving 98, 107; abstract 155; discovery learning 116; metacognition 135; multiple intelligences 147; play 222; suicide prevention programs 244 programmed instruction 133 projection 196, 198, 199 proportional reasoning 105, 124, 125 propositional thinking 124, 125 proximodistal development/growth 6, 53–57 psychology 2–3; research designs 12–18; scientific method 11–12 psychometrics 8, 141–142, 143, 147–149 psychosexual stages 192, 193–194, 197, 199–200 psychosocial stages 10, 199–203 puberty 58, 73–81, 239 pubescence 73–74 punishment 256, 262, 263 I ndex  333 qualitative changes qualitative research 16–17 quantitative changes quantitative research 13–16 quantity 100, 105 quasi-experimental research 13, 14–15, 16 question generation 173 Rogers, Carl 9, 10, 206–207, 211 role confusion 200, 201, 202, 226, 228 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques rules 253, 254, 274; cliques 217; conventional 267–268; Kohlberg’s stage theory 262, 263–265; Piaget’s theory of moral development 255, 256 Runco, M A 157, 160–161 randomisation 15 rationalisation 196, 198, 199 rationality 91–92, 269 Raven Progressive Matrices 152, 155 reaction formation 196 reading 100, 121, 171, 173 Reading Edge 135–136 realistic anxiety 195, 198 realness 211 recency effect 184, 185 receptivity 275–276 recess timing 71–72 recessive genes 24–26, 27–28 reciprocity 256, 263, 265, 276 Reeve, J 237 reflexes 59–60 regression 196, 198, 199 reinforcement 203, 256; behaviourism 133; language development 118–119, 120; moral values 274; peer groups 218; social cognitive theory 134 relatedness 237 reliability 20 religion 253 repetition 183, 190 representational images 176 representational thinking 97 repression 195–196 research designs 12–18 research ethics 20–21 rest breaks 184 Rest, James 275 retention 9, 165, 166; classification 178; remembering and forgetting 172, 182, 186; serial position effect 184–185; summarisation 173 retrieval 165, 166; classification 178; computer models 167; experts 187; mnemonics 177, 178; nonmeaningful material 175; remembering and forgetting 172, 186 retroactive interference 186 reverse thinking 102, 105 Rigby, K 213 Roeser, R W 252 safety needs 208, 209, 211 safety requirements 90 scaffolding 108, 110, 111, 113 Scarr, S 47 schemas 7, 130, 165, 174; moral 272–273; Piaget’s stage theory 94, 95–97 schizophrenia 28, 35 school refusal 199, 228 Schwartz, D L 188 science 136, 139, 147, 174 scientific method 4, 11–12, 15 secondary circular reactions 95, 96 secular trend 80–81 Selden, Stephen 33 self 4; Freudian theory 193; moral 254; pubertal development 73; see also identity self-absorption 200, 201, 227 self-actualisation 206, 208, 209, 210, 211 self-assurance 79 self-concept 10, 69; adolescence 76, 223, 245–247; body image/body shape 81, 85; girls 270; validity in measurement 19 self-doubt 203, 229 self-efficacy 10, 205, 223, 248, 249–251, 252 self-esteem 87, 245; adolescence 225, 226; bullies 214; emotional intelligence 156; Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 208, 210, 211; obesity 88; social skills 241; suicide prevention programs 244 self-knowledge 206 self-regulation 10, 134, 135, 223, 248, 251–252 senses 99, 168, 169 sensorimotor stage 7, 95–97, 106, 107 sensory receptors 168 serial position effect 184–185 seriation 105 sex differences: cognitive development 138–139, 140; mental health problems 243; moral development 269–271; motor skills 70–71; physical development 53, 60–61, 62, 65, 73, 75; playground activity 72; puberty 73–74; self-regulation 248; sports activities 63–64; suicide 241–242; see also boys; girls sex education 53 334  I ndex sex-related genetic characteristics 28 sex stereotyping 61, 63–64, 139, 202 sexism 64, 71, 202 sexual behaviour 216, 237, 239 sexuality 81, 192, 239, 243 Shakespeare, William shame 200, 201 shaping 133 Sheldon, William 84–85 short-term goals 250 short-term memory see working memory Shweder, R A 266–267, 271 siblings 215–216 Siegal, Michael 127 Siegler, R S 103 sign language 46, 119–120 Simon, Theophile 92, 142, 147, 148 single-parent homes 217 situated learning 137–138 size and shape constancy 99 skills: discovery learning 116; emotional intelligence 156; environmental influences 33; intellectual 160; modelling by teachers 212; successful intelligence 149–150; thinking 137; transfer of learning 188; see also fine motor skills; gross motor skills Skinner, Burrhus F 2, 4, 133 Slaby, D A 241 Smith, P K 213 smoking 38–39, 134 sociability 35, 47, 215 social cognitive theory 118, 134, 248 social constructivism 7, 231, 275 social context 112 social conventions 267–268 social development 9–10, 62, 191, 215–220; adolescence 74, 223, 224, 240–241; play 221–222; Vygotsky 131 social estrangement 240, 241 social frames of reference 245–246 social identity 231–232 social interaction 7, 44, 108–109, 130; cognitive development 129; in the family 191; language development 121; mediated learning 112; moral understanding 268–269; play 221, 222 social media 235–236, 239 social persuasion 249, 250 social skills 8, 40, 66, 71, 203; adolescence 241; early maturing males 79; emotional intelligence 156; healthy diet linked to 87; influence of parenting styles on 216; physical attractiveness associated with 86; play 222 socialisation 7, 77, 109, 131, 197, 254, 268 sociocultural dimensions of learning 109–110, 131–132 sociometric testing 218–220 Sonnentag, S 159 Spearman, Charles 142 special education 29, 43 speech disorders 46 spiral curriculum 109, 115–116 sport 63–64, 69, 75, 90 SQ3R approach 173 St Augustine stability 157 stage theory of moral development 258–266 Stanford-Binet intelligence test 148, 150 stereotyping: body shape 85–86; sex 61, 63–64, 139, 202 sterilisation 33 Stern, William 148 Sternberg, Robert 8, 149–150, 160 storage of information 167, 175, 187 story grammar training 173 streaming 48, 247 stress 198–199, 224, 243 structuralism 7, 92 structure of the intellect model 143–144 substance abuse: ADHD 43–44; family support programs 244; peer group influence 233, 237; poor social skills 241; prenatal development 38–39, 60; role confusion 226, 228; suicide risk 243, 244 successful intelligence 149–150 suicide 240, 241–245 summarisation 173 superego 192, 193, 194–195 support programmes 41 Sure Start centres 41 symbolic play 106, 107 symbolic stage 7, 114–115 teachers, importance of 217, 228 technology 107–108, 212 telephone crisis counselling 244 temperament: environmental influences 5, 23; genetic factors 28; physique and 85 teratogens 37–38 Terman, Lewis M 32–33 tertiary circular reactions 95, 96 test-retest reliability 20 Thanatos 192 theory 4, 11–12 ‘think-alouds’ 181 thinking skills 137 I ndex  335 thinking styles 160 Thinking Together 135–136 Thorndike, Edward 4, 32–33, 132 Thurstone, L L 143 time concepts 103 toilet training 193, 194 tools 110 Torrance, Paul 157, 162 toys 69 transfer of learning 187, 188–189 triarchic theory of intelligence 8, 149–150 trust 200, 201, 202, 228 Tryon, R C 34 Turiel, Elliot 11, 267–269 Turner syndrome 30 twins 24, 35, 43, 46 ultrasound 31 unconscious mind 192 undernourishment see malnutrition validity 18–19 values: adolescent identity crisis 228–229; adolescentparent conflicts 233; cross-cultural differences 232; moral 268, 271, 272, 274; open education 211; parental 239; postconventional morality 264 vicarious experiences 249, 250 visual impairment 45, 86, 87, 169 vocabulary 120–121, 148, 153 Vygotsky, Lev S 4, 6, 7, 109–113, 131–132; caring 275; identity formation 231; intelligence 8, 141; language development 117; qualitative research 17; social interaction 121 Wallas, G 159 Walters, R H 134 Watson, John B 2, 4, 32, 132 ways of thinking 115–116 Wechsler, David 149 Wechsler tests 148–149, 150 Wentzel, K R 237 whole and part learning 182–183 Wimbarti S 108 words 98–99 working memory 9, 165, 168, 169, 176, 180 Zimmerman, B J 134 zone of proximal development 7, 111, 112, 131, 141, 275 .. .Developmental and Educational Psychology for Teachers Developmental and Educational Psychology for Teachers brings together a range of e­ vidence drawn from psychology to answer... social and health education, and worked in a number of secondary schools and sixth form colleges in England Developmental and Educational Psychology for Teachers An applied approach Second edition. .. 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: THEMES AND RESEARCH resulting from both genetic defects and environmental forces and draws out implications of these for teachers and other professionals Physical growth and motor