NCRP REPORT No 146 APPROACHES TO RISK MANAGEMENT IN REMEDIATION OF RADIOACTIVELY CONTAMINATED SITES N C R P National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements NCRP REPORT No 146 Approaches to Risk Management in Remediation of Radioactively Contaminated Sites Recommendations of the NATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS Issued October 15, 2004 Revised March 1, 2005 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 7910 Woodmont Avenue, Suite 400 / Bethesda, MD 20814 LEGAL NOTICE This Report was prepared by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) The Council strives to provide accurate, complete and useful information in its documents However, neither NCRP, the members of NCRP, other persons contributing to or assisting in the preparation of this Report, nor any person acting on the behalf of any of these parties: (a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information contained in this Report, or that the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this Report may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this Report, under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 701 et seq as amended 42 U.S.C Section 2000e et seq (Title VII) or any other statutory or common law theory governing liability Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Approaches to risk management in remediation of radioactively contaminated sites p cm (NCRP report ; no 146) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-929600-82-7 Radioactive waste sites Risk assessment Risk management I National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements II Series TD898.15.A67 2004 363.72’89 dc22 2004019893 Copyright © National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements 2004 All rights reserved This publication is protected by copyright No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, including photocopying, or utilized by any information storage and retrieval system without written permission from the copyright owner, except for brief quotation in critical articles or reviews [For detailed information on the availability of NCRP publications see page 266.] Preface The issue of dual or multiple regulation by the U.S Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and state agencies of NRC-licensed facilities that are undergoing decommissioning has been a subject of considerable debate and controversy As a step toward developing consistent approaches to decision making by NRC and EPA on the remediation of radiologically contaminated nuclear sites, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) has been requested by NRC to prepare a report that has two primary goals: (1) identify and summarize current practices used by NRC under the License Termination Rule (10 CFR Part 20) and by EPA under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act; and (2) identify, examine and summarize the following aspects of current practices used by NRC and EPA: (a) their historical basis; (b) their commonalities and significant differences; and (c) their current and future implications as they relate to public perception, uncertainty, measurability, and radiation dose and risk estimates This Report addresses the above issues and summarizes both their near- and long-term implications for the decommissioning of regulated radiological facilities To meet the need of various audiences to understand the Report at different levels of detail, the text contains three independent parts: (1) a short Executive Summary that briefly summarizes the purpose of the study and the main conclusions; (2) a longer Extended Summary that provides a complete summary description of the Committee’s work, but without many of the supporting technical details; and (3) the main body of the Report During the course of preparation of this Report, the NCRP Committee benefited from briefings and discussions with several representatives of government and state organizations On January 16, 2003, the Committee held informative discussions with representatives of NRC, EPA and the U.S Department of Energy (DOE) The appreciation of NCRP is extended to the following persons who presented information and answered questions raised by the Committee: Michael A Boyd, Bonnie C Gitlin, Stuart Walker, and iii iv / PREFACE Anthony B Wolbarst (EPA); John T Greeves and Cheryl A Trottier (NRC); and Andrew Wallo, III (DOE) On May 28, 2003, the Committee visited the West Valley Demonstration Project (WVDP) in New York NCRP’s appreciation is extended to the following individuals who briefed the Committee on the WVDP: Paul Piciulo, Director of the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, and Alice C Williams, Director of the WVDP Helpful discussions were also held at the West Valley Site with Barbara A Youngberg of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Dan Sullivan of the DOE West Valley Area Office, and the West Valley Citizens Task Force This Report was prepared by NCRP Scientific Committee 87-5 on Risk Management Analysis for Decommissioned Sites Serving on Scientific Committee 87-5 were: Daniel J Strom, Chairman Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland, Washington Members Lynn R Anspaugh University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah James H Flynn Decision Research Eugene, Oregon F Owen Hoffman SENES Oak Ridge, Inc Oak Ridge, Tennessee David C Kocher SENES Oak Ridge, Inc Oak Ridge, Tennessee Paul A Locke Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health Baltimore, Maryland Paul J Merges Environment and Radiation Specialists, Inc Londonville, New York Bruce A Napier Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Richland, Washington Consultant Lauren Zeise Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment Oakland, California NCRP Secretariat E Ivan White, Consultant Cindy L O’Brien, Managing Editor David A Schauer, Executive Director PREFACE / v The Council wishes to express its appreciation to the Committee members for the time and effort devoted to the preparation of this Report NCRP also gratefully acknowledges the financial support provided by the U.S Nuclear Regulatory Commission Thomas S Tenforde President Contents Preface iii Executive Summary Extended Summary Introduction 28 1.1 Purpose and Scope 29 1.2 NCRP Process 30 1.3 Outline of the Report 30 Current Regulatory Guidance and Practice 31 2.1 Principal Governing Laws and Organizational Structure 32 2.1.1 Governing Laws and Organizational Structure of NRC 32 2.1.2 Governing Laws and Organizational Structure of EPA 34 2.1.3 Relationships Between NRC or EPA and the States 37 2.2 Regulations for Remediation of Radioactively Contaminated Sites 38 2.2.1 NRC Regulations 38 2.2.1.1 10 CFR Part 20, Subpart E 39 2.2.1.2 10 CFR Part 40, Appendix A 42 2.2.1.3 Discussion of NRC Regulations 45 2.2.2 EPA Regulations 46 2.2.2.1 Regulations Developed Under CERCLA (Superfund) 46 2.2.2.2 Groundwater Protection Requirements and Drinking Water Standards 51 2.2.3 Comparison of NRC and EPA Regulations 58 2.2.3.1 Regulations Applicable to Most NRC Licensees 59 vii viii / CONTENTS 2.2.3.2 Regulations Applicable to Other NRC Licensees 63 2.2.4 Decision Process in Decommissioning of Contaminated Sites 65 2.2.4.1 NRC’s Decision Process Under the Atomic Energy Act 65 2.2.4.2 EPA’s Decision Process Under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 67 2.2.5 Role of States in Remediation of Licensed Facilities 73 2.2.6 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Impact on Radioactively Contaminated Sites 75 2.3 Methods of Site Characterization and Dose or Risk Assessment 77 2.3.1 EPA Calculation Methods 78 2.3.2 NRC Calculation Methods 87 2.3.3 DOE Methods: The Residual Radiation (RESRAD) Family of Codes 94 Analysis of Regulatory Guidance and Practice 100 3.1 Principal Governing Laws and Organizational Structures 100 3.1.1 Differences in Governing Laws 100 3.1.2 Commonalities in Governing Laws 102 3.1.3 Organizational Structures and Functions 103 3.2 Regulations for Remediation of Radioactively Contaminated Sites 103 3.2.1 Different Approaches to Regulation by NRC and EPA 105 3.2.1.1 Approach to Regulation by NRC 105 3.2.1.2 Approach to Regulation by EPA 108 3.2.1.3 Comparisons of Criteria in Radiation and Chemical Paradigms 110 3.2.2 Commonalities in Approaches to Regulation by NRC and EPA 111 3.2.3 Comparison of NRC and EPA Remediation Standards 113 3.2.4 Discussion of Origins of Different Approaches to Regulation 115 CONTENTS / ix 3.3 Methods of Site Characterization and Dose or Risk Assessment 119 3.3.1 Methods of Site Characterization and Verification 119 3.3.2 Methods of Dose or Risk Assessment 121 3.3.3 Comparison of EPA Preliminary Remediation Goals with NRC Screening Levels 122 3.3.4 Analysis of 239Pu Remediation Levels for 10 Cases 133 3.3.5 Uncertainties in Assessments of Dose or Risk at Contaminated Sites 140 3.3.5.1 Uncertainties in Estimating Concentrations of Radionuclides at Contaminated Sites 141 3.3.5.2 Uncertainties in Estimating External Exposures and Intakes of Radionuclides 143 3.3.5.3 Uncertainties in Estimating Dose 144 3.3.5.4 Uncertainties in Estimating Risk 146 3.3.5.5 Summary of Estimated Uncertainties 149 Practical Decision Making at Specific Sites 152 4.1 Discussion of Case Studies 152 4.1.1 Fernald and Rocky Flats: End-Use Considerations 154 4.1.2 West Valley Demonstration Project: Multiple Regulation of a Complex Site 155 4.1.3 The Johns Hopkins and the Environmental Law Institute Study 156 4.1.4 Paducah, Brookhaven and Fernald: The Importance of Trust 157 4.1.5 Case Studies by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council 160 4.1.6 Observations on Practical Remediations 160 4.1.6.1 Sites May End Up Less Contaminated Than Required 160 4.1.6.2 ALARA May Have Little Impact 162 4.1.6.3 Remediation Worker Protection May Differ Under EPA and NRC 162 x / CONTENTS 4.2 Recurrent Themes Observed in the Case Studies 163 4.2.1 Assumptions About Future Use of Sites, as Well as Assessments of Off-Site Risks, Drive Risk Management Decision Making 163 4.2.2 Public Participation, Input and Acceptance are Critical for Successful Risk Management 164 4.2.3 Distributive and Procedural Fairness 165 4.2.4 Various Approaches are Used Across Sites to Assess and Manage Risks 168 4.2.4.1 Selection of Contaminates of Concern 168 4.2.4.2 Assumptions About Exposure Duration and Site Time Frame 169 4.2.4.3 Establishing Target Remediation Goals (Dose or Risk) 170 4.2.4.4 Risk Management Approaches are Pragmatic 171 4.3 The Role and Scope of Risk Communication 172 4.3.1 A Brief Overview of Risk Communication Development 172 4.3.2 Models for Risk Communication 172 4.3.3 The Status of Risk Communication at NRC and EPA 173 4.3.4 The Social Context for Risk Messages 175 Implications of Regulatory Guidance and Practice 179 5.1 Site Characterization and Measurability of Residual Radionuclides 180 5.2 Estimation of Dose or Risk 182 5.3 Uncertainty in Site Characterization and Dose or Risk Assessment 184 5.4 Final Decision-Making Authorities 185 5.5 Consistency of Policies Within NRC and EPA 186 5.6 Comparability of Basic Protection Criteria 187 5.7 Focus of Disagreements Between NRC and EPA 189 5.8 Language of Risk Management 190 5.9 Public Perception 193 5.10 Impacts on the States 194 Conclusions 197 NCRP Publications Information on NCRP publications may be obtained from the NCRP website (http://www.ncrponline.org) or by telephone (800-229-2652, ext 25) and fax (301-907-8768) The address is: NCRP Publications 7910 Woodmont Avenue Suite 400 Bethesda, MD 20814-3095 Abstracts of NCRP reports published since 1980, abstracts of all NCRP commentaries, and the text of all NCRP statements are available at the NCRP website Currently available publications are listed below NCRP Reports No 22 25 27 30 32 35 36 37 38 40 41 Title Control and Removal of Radioactive Contamination in Laboratories (1951) Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and Maximum Permissible Concentrations of Radionuclides in Air and in Water for Occupational Exposure (1959) [includes Addendum issued in August 1963] Measurement of Absorbed Dose of Neutrons, and of Mixtures of Neutrons and Gamma Rays (1961) Stopping Powers for Use with Cavity Chambers (1961) Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials (1964) Radiation Protection in Educational Institutions (1966) Dental X-Ray Protection (1970) Radiation Protection in Veterinary Medicine (1970) Precautions in the Management of Patients Who Have Received Therapeutic Amounts of Radionuclides (1970) Protection Against Neutron Radiation (1971) Protection Against Radiation from Brachytherapy Sources (1972) Specification of Gamma-Ray Brachytherapy Sources (1974) 266 NCRP PUBLICATIONS 42 44 46 47 49 50 52 54 55 57 58 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 68 69 70 72 73 74 75 77 / 267 Radiological Factors Affecting Decision-Making in a Nuclear Attack (1974) Krypton-85 in the Atmosphere—Accumulation, Biological Significance, and Control Technology (1975) Alpha-Emitting Particles in Lungs (1975) Tritium Measurement Techniques (1976) Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Medical Use of X Rays and Gamma Rays of Energies Up to 10 MeV (1976) Environmental Radiation Measurements (1976) Cesium-137 from the Environment to Man: Metabolism and Dose (1977) Medical Radiation Exposure of Pregnant and Potentially Pregnant Women (1977) Protection of the Thyroid Gland in the Event of Releases of Radioiodine (1977) Instrumentation and Monitoring Methods for Radiation Protection (1978) A Handbook of Radioactivity Measurements Procedures, 2nd ed (1985) Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Radiocerium Relevant to Radiation Protection Guidelines (1978) Radiation Safety Training Criteria for Industrial Radiography (1978) Tritium in the Environment (1979) Tritium and Other Radionuclide Labeled Organic Compounds Incorporated in Genetic Material (1979) Influence of Dose and Its Distribution in Time on Dose-Response Relationships for Low-LET Radiations (1980) Management of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides (1980) Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields—Properties, Quantities and Units, Biophysical Interaction, and Measurements (1981) Radiation Protection in Pediatric Radiology (1981) Dosimetry of X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Beams for Radiation Therapy in the Energy Range 10 keV to 50 MeV (1981) Nuclear Medicine—Factors Influencing the Choice and Use of Radionuclides in Diagnosis and Therapy (1982) Radiation Protection and Measurement for Low-Voltage Neutron Generators (1983) Protection in Nuclear Medicine and Ultrasound Diagnostic Procedures in Children (1983) Biological Effects of Ultrasound: Mechanisms and Clinical Implications (1983) Iodine-129: Evaluation of Releases from Nuclear Power Generation (1983) Exposures from the Uranium Series with Emphasis on Radon and Its Daughters (1984) 268 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS 78 Evaluation of Occupational and Environmental Exposures to Radon and Radon Daughters in the United States (1984) 79 Neutron Contamination from Medical Electron Accelerators (1984) 80 Induction of Thyroid Cancer by Ionizing Radiation (1985) 81 Carbon-14 in the Environment (1985) 82 SI Units in Radiation Protection and Measurements (1985) 83 The Experimental Basis for Absorbed-Dose Calculations in Medical Uses of Radionuclides (1985) 84 General Concepts for the Dosimetry of Internally Deposited Radionuclides (1985) 85 Mammography—A User’s Guide (1986) 86 Biological Effects and Exposure Criteria for Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields (1986) 87 Use of Bioassay Procedures for Assessment of Internal Radionuclide Deposition (1987) 88 Radiation Alarms and Access Control Systems (1986) 89 Genetic Effects from Internally Deposited Radionuclides (1987) 90 Neptunium: Radiation Protection Guidelines (1988) 92 Public Radiation Exposure from Nuclear Power Generation in the United States (1987) 93 Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States (1987) 94 Exposure of the Population in the United States and Canada from Natural Background Radiation (1987) 95 Radiation Exposure of the U.S Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources (1987) 96 Comparative Carcinogenicity of Ionizing Radiation and Chemicals (1989) 97 Measurement of Radon and Radon Daughters in Air (1988) 99 Quality Assurance for Diagnostic Imaging (1988) 100 Exposure of the U.S Population from Diagnostic Medical Radiation (1989) 101 Exposure of the U.S Population from Occupational Radiation (1989) 102 Medical X-Ray, Electron Beam and Gamma-Ray Protection for Energies Up to 50 MeV (Equipment Design, Performance and Use) (1989) 103 Control of Radon in Houses (1989) 104 The Relative Biological Effectiveness of Radiations of Different Quality (1990) 105 Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel (1989) 106 Limit for Exposure to “Hot Particles” on the Skin (1989) 107 Implementation of the Principle of As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) for Medical and Dental Personnel (1990) NCRP PUBLICATIONS / 269 108 Conceptual Basis for Calculations of Absorbed-Dose Distributions (1991) 109 Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Aquatic Organisms (1991) 110 Some Aspects of Strontium Radiobiology (1991) 111 Developing Radiation Emergency Plans for Academic, Medical or Industrial Facilities (1991) 112 Calibration of Survey Instruments Used in Radiation Protection for the Assessment of Ionizing Radiation Fields and Radioactive Surface Contamination (1991) 113 Exposure Criteria for Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound: I Criteria Based on Thermal Mechanisms (1992) 114 Maintaining Radiation Protection Records (1992) 115 Risk Estimates for Radiation Protection (1993) 116 Limitation of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation (1993) 117 Research Needs for Radiation Protection (1993) 118 Radiation Protection in the Mineral Extraction Industry (1993) 119 A Practical Guide to the Determination of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields (1993) 120 Dose Control at Nuclear Power Plants (1994) 121 Principles and Application of Collective Dose in Radiation Protection (1995) 122 Use of Personal Monitors to Estimate Effective Dose Equivalent and Effective Dose to Workers for External Exposure to Low-LET Radiation (1995) 123 Screening Models for Releases of Radionuclides to Atmosphere, Surface Water, and Ground (1996) 124 Sources and Magnitude of Occupational and Public Exposures from Nuclear Medicine Procedures (1996) 125 Deposition, Retention and Dosimetry of Inhaled Radioactive Substances (1997) 126 Uncertainties in Fatal Cancer Risk Estimates Used in Radiation Protection (1997) 127 Operational Radiation Safety Program (1998) 128 Radionuclide Exposure of the Embryo/Fetus (1998) 129 Recommended Screening Limits for Contaminated Surface Soil and Review of Factors Relevant to Site-Specific Studies (1999) 130 Biological Effects and Exposure Limits for “Hot Particles” (1999) 131 Scientific Basis for Evaluating the Risks to Populations from Space Applications of Plutonium (2001) 132 Radiation Protection Guidance for Activities in Low-Earth Orbit (2000) 133 Radiation Protection for Procedures Performed Outside the Radiology Department (2000) 134 Operational Radiation Safety Training (2000) 135 Liver Cancer Risk from Internally-Deposited Radionuclides (2001) 136 Evaluation of the Linear-Nonthreshold Dose-Response Model for Ionizing Radiation (2001) 270 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS 137 Fluence-Based and Microdosimetric Event-Based Methods for Radiation Protection in Space (2001) 138 Management of Terrorist Events Involving Radioactive Material (2001) 139 Risk-Based Classification of Radioactive and Hazardous Chemical Wastes (2002) 140 Exposure Criteria for Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound: II Criteria Based on all Known Mechanisms (2002) 141 Managing Potentially Radioactive Scrap Metal (2002) 142 Operational Radiation Safety Program for Astronauts in Low-Earth Orbit: A Basic Framework (2002) 143 Management Techniques for Laboratories and Other Small Institutional Generators to Minimize Off-Site Disposal of Low-Level Radioactive Waste (2003) 144 Radiation Protection for Particle Accelerator Facilities (2003) 145 Radiation Protection in Dentistry (2003) 146 Approaches to Risk Management in Remediation of Radioactively Contaminated Sites (2004) Binders for NCRP reports are available Two sizes make it possible to collect into small binders the “old series” of reports (NCRP Reports Nos 8–30) and into large binders the more recent publications (NCRP Reports Nos 32–146) Each binder will accommodate from five to seven reports The binders carry the identification “NCRP Reports” and come with label holders which permit the user to attach labels showing the reports contained in each binder The following bound sets of NCRP reports are also available: Volume I NCRP Reports Nos 8, 22 Volume II NCRP Reports Nos 23, 25, 27, 30 Volume III NCRP Reports Nos 32, 35, 36, 37 Volume IV NCRP Reports Nos 38, 40, 41 Volume V NCRP Reports Nos 42, 44, 46 Volume VI NCRP Reports Nos 47, 49, 50, 51 Volume VII NCRP Reports Nos 52, 53, 54, 55, 57 Volume VIII NCRP Report No 58 Volume IX NCRP Reports Nos 59, 60, 61, 62, 63 Volume X NCRP Reports Nos 64, 65, 66, 67 Volume XI NCRP Reports Nos 68, 69, 70, 71, 72 Volume XII NCRP Reports Nos 73, 74, 75, 76 Volume XIII NCRP Reports Nos 77, 78, 79, 80 Volume XIV NCRP Reports Nos 81, 82, 83, 84, 85 Volume XV NCRP Reports Nos 86, 87, 88, 89 Volume XVI NCRP Reports Nos 90, 91, 92, 93 Volume XVII NCRP Reports Nos 94, 95, 96, 97 Volume XVIII NCRP Reports Nos 98, 99, 100 Volume XIX NCRP Reports Nos 101, 102, 103, 104 NCRP PUBLICATIONS / 271 Volume XX NCRP Reports Nos 105, 106, 107, 108 Volume XXI NCRP Reports Nos 109, 110, 111 Volume XXII NCRP Reports Nos 112, 113, 114 Volume XXIII NCRP Reports Nos 115, 116, 117, 118 Volume XXIV NCRP Reports Nos 119, 120, 121, 122 Volume XXV NCRP Report No 123I and 123II Volume XXVI NCRP Reports Nos 124, 125, 126, 127 Volume XXVII NCRP Reports Nos 128, 129, 130 Volume XXVIII NCRP Reports Nos 131, 132, 133 Volume XXIX NCRP Reports Nos 134, 135, 136, 137 Volume XXX NCRP Reports Nos 138, 139 Volume XXXI NCRP Report No 140 (Titles of the individual reports contained in each volume are given previously.) NCRP Commentaries No 10 11 12 13 14 Title Krypton-85 in the Atmosphere—With Specific Reference to the Public Health Significance of the Proposed Controlled Release at Three Mile Island (1980) Guidelines for the Release of Waste Water from Nuclear Facilities with Special Reference to the Public Health Significance of the Proposed Release of Treated Waste Waters at Three Mile Island (1987) Review of the Publication, Living Without Landfills (1989) Radon Exposure of the U.S Population—Status of the Problem (1991) Misadministration of Radioactive Material in Medicine—Scientific Background (1991) Uncertainty in NCRP Screening Models Relating to Atmospheric Transport, Deposition and Uptake by Humans (1993) Considerations Regarding the Unintended Radiation Exposure of the Embryo, Fetus or Nursing Child (1994) Advising the Public about Radiation Emergencies: A Document for Public Comment (1994) Dose Limits for Individuals Who Receive Exposure from Radionuclide Therapy Patients (1995) Radiation Exposure and High-Altitude Flight (1995) An Introduction to Efficacy in Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine (Justification of Medical Radiation Exposure) (1995) A Guide for Uncertainty Analysis in Dose and Risk Assessments Related to Environmental Contamination (1996) 272 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS 15 16 17 18 Evaluating the Reliability of Biokinetic and Dosimetric Models and Parameters Used to Assess Individual Doses for Risk Assessment Purposes (1998) Screening of Humans for Security Purposes Using Ionizing Radiation Scanning Systems (2003) Pulsed Fast Neutron Analysis System Used in Security Surveillance (2003) Biological Effects of Modulated Radiofrequency Fields (2003) Proceedings of the Annual Meeting No 10 11 Title Perceptions of Risk, Proceedings of the Fifteenth Annual Meeting held on March 14-15, 1979 (including Taylor Lecture No 3) (1980) Critical Issues in Setting Radiation Dose Limits, Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting held on April 8-9, 1981 (including Taylor Lecture No 5) (1982) Radiation Protection and New Medical Diagnostic Approaches, Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting held on April 6-7, 1982 (including Taylor Lecture No 6) (1983) Environmental Radioactivity, Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting held on April 6-7, 1983 (including Taylor Lecture No 7) (1983) Some Issues Important in Developing Basic Radiation Protection Recommendations, Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting held on April 4-5, 1984 (including Taylor Lecture No 8) (1985) Radioactive Waste, Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting held on April 3-4, 1985 (including Taylor Lecture No 9)(1986) Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiations and Ultrasound, Proceedings of the Twenty-second Annual Meeting held on April 2-3, 1986 (including Taylor Lecture No 10) (1988) New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Its Implications for Risk Estimates, Proceedings of the Twenty-third Annual Meeting held on April 8-9, 1987 (including Taylor Lecture No 11) (1988) Radon, Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting held on March 30-31, 1988 (including Taylor Lecture No 12) (1989) Radiation Protection Today—The NCRP at Sixty Years, Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting held on April 5-6, 1989 (including Taylor Lecture No 13) (1990) NCRP PUBLICATIONS 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 / 273 Health and Ecological Implications of Radioactively Contaminated Environments, Proceedings of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting held on April 4-5, 1990 (including Taylor Lecture No 14) (1991) Genes, Cancer and Radiation Protection, Proceedings of the Twenty-seventh Annual Meeting held on April 3-4, 1991 (including Taylor Lecture No 15) (1992) Radiation Protection in Medicine, Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting held on April 1-2, 1992 (including Taylor Lecture No 16) (1993) Radiation Science and Societal Decision Making, Proceedings of the Twenty-ninth Annual Meeting held on April 7-8, 1993 (including Taylor Lecture No 17) (1994) Extremely-Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: Issues in Biological Effects and Public Health, Proceedings of the Thirtieth Annual Meeting held on April 6-7, 1994 (not published) Environmental Dose Reconstruction and Risk Implications, Proceedings of the Thirty-first Annual Meeting held on April 12-13, 1995 (including Taylor Lecture No 19) (1996) Implications of New Data on Radiation Cancer Risk, Proceedings of the Thirty-second Annual Meeting held on April 3-4, 1996 (including Taylor Lecture No 20) (1997) The Effects of Pre- and Postconception Exposure to Radiation, Proceedings of the Thirty-third Annual Meeting held on April 2-3, 1997, Teratology 59, 181–317 (1999) Cosmic Radiation Exposure of Airline Crews, Passengers and Astronauts, Proceedings of the Thirty-fourth Annual Meeting held on April 1-2, 1998, Health Phys 79, 466–613 (2000) Radiation Protection in Medicine: Contemporary Issues, Proceedings of the Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting held on April 7-8, 1999 (including Taylor Lecture No 23) (1999) Ionizing Radiation Science and Protection in the 21st Century, Proceedings of the Thirty-sixth Annual Meeting held on April 5-6, 2000, Health Phys 80, 317–402 (2001) Fallout from Atmospheric Nuclear Tests—Impact on Science and Society, Proceedings of the Thirty-seventh Annual Meeting held on April 4-5, 2001, Health Phys 82, 573–748 (2002) Where the New Biology Meets Epidemiology: Impact on Radiation Risk Estimates, Proceedings of the Thirty-eighth Annual Meeting held on April 10-11, 2002, Health Phys 85, 1–108 (2003) Radiation Protection at the Beginning of the 21st Century–A Look Forward, Proceedings of the Thirty-ninth Annual Meeting held on April 9–10, 2003, Health Phys 87, 237–319 (2004) 274 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS Lauriston S Taylor Lectures No 10 11 12 13 14 15 Title The Squares of the Natural Numbers in Radiation Protection by Herbert M Parker (1977) Why be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates? by Sir Edward Pochin (1978) Radiation Protection—Concepts and Trade Offs by Hymer L Friedell (1979) [available also in Perceptions of Risk, see above] From “Quantity of Radiation” and “Dose” to “Exposure” and “Absorbed Dose”—An Historical Review by Harold O Wyckoff (1980) How Well Can We Assess Genetic Risk? Not Very by James F Crow (1981) [available also in Critical Issues in Setting Radiation Dose Limits, see above] Ethics, Trade-offs and Medical Radiation by Eugene L Saenger (1982) [available also in Radiation Protection and New Medical Diagnostic Approaches, see above] The Human Environment—Past, Present and Future by Merril Eisenbud (1983) [available also in Environmental Radioactivity, see above] Limitation and Assessment in Radiation Protection by Harald H Rossi (1984) [available also in Some Issues Important in Developing Basic Radiation Protection Recommendations, see above] Truth (and Beauty) in Radiation Measurement by John H Harley (1985) [available also in Radioactive Waste, see above] Biological Effects of Non-ionizing Radiations: Cellular Properties and Interactions by Herman P Schwan (1987) [available also in Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiations and Ultrasound, see above] How to be Quantitative about Radiation Risk Estimates by Seymour Jablon (1988) [available also in New Dosimetry at Hiroshima and Nagasaki and its Implications for Risk Estimates, see above] How Safe is Safe Enough? by Bo Lindell (1988) [available also in Radon, see above] Radiobiology and Radiation Protection: The Past Century and Prospects for the Future by Arthur C Upton (1989) [available also in Radiation Protection Today, see above] Radiation Protection and the Internal Emitter Saga by J Newell Stannard (1990) [available also in Health and Ecological Implications of Radioactively Contaminated Environments, see above] When is a Dose Not a Dose? by Victor P Bond (1992) [available also in Genes, Cancer and Radiation Protection, see above] NCRP PUBLICATIONS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 / 275 Dose and Risk in Diagnostic Radiology: How Big? How Little? by Edward W Webster (1992) [available also in Radiation Protection in Medicine, see above] Science, Radiation Protection and the NCRP by Warren K Sinclair (1993) [available also in Radiation Science and Societal Decision Making, see above] Mice, Myths and Men by R.J Michael Fry (1995) Certainty and Uncertainty in Radiation Research by Albrecht M Kellerer Health Phys 69, 446–453 (1995) 70 Years of Radiation Genetics: Fruit Flies, Mice and Humans by Seymour Abrahamson Health Phys 71, 624–633 (1996) Radionuclides in the Body: Meeting the Challenge by William J Bair Health Phys 73, 423–432 (1997) From Chimney Sweeps to Astronauts: Cancer Risks in the Work Place by Eric J Hall Health Phys 75, 357–366 (1998) Back to Background: Natural Radiation and Radioactivity Exposed by Naomi H Harley Health Phys 79, 121–128 (2000) Administered Radioactivity: Unde Venimus Quoque Imus by S James Adelstein Health Phys 80, 317–324 (2001) Assuring the Safety of Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound by Wesley L Nyborg Health Phys 82, 578–587 (2002) Developing Mechanistic Data for Incorporation into Cancer and Genetic Risk Assessments: Old Problems and New Approaches by R Julian Preston Health Phys 85, 4–12 (2003) The Evolution of Radiation Protection–From Erythema to Genetic Risks to Risks of Cancer to ? by Charles B Meinhold, Health Phys 87, 240–248 (2004) Symposium Proceedings No Title The Control of Exposure of the Public to Ionizing Radiation in the Event of Accident or Attack, Proceedings of a Symposium held April 27-29, 1981 (1982) Radioactive and Mixed Waste—Risk as a Basis for Waste Classification, Proceedings of a Symposium held November 9, 1994 (1995) Acceptability of Risk from Radiation—Application to Human Space Flight, Proceedings of a Symposium held May 29, 1996 (1997) 21st Century Biodosimetry: Quantifying the Past and Predicting the Future, Proceedings of a Symposium held February 22, 2001, Radiat Prot Dosim 97(1), (2001) 276 / NCRP PUBLICATIONS National Conference on Dose Reduction in CT, with an Emphasis on Pediatric Patients, Summary of a Symposium held November 6-7, 2002, Am J Roentgenol 181(2), 321–339 (2003) NCRP Statements No Title “Blood Counts, Statement of the National Committee on Radiation Protection,” Radiology 63, 428 (1954) “Statements on Maximum Permissible Dose from Television Receivers and Maximum Permissible Dose to the Skin of the Whole Body,” Am J Roentgenol., Radium Ther and Nucl Med 84, 152 (1960) and Radiology 75, 122 (1960) X-Ray Protection Standards for Home Television Receivers, Interim Statement of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (1968) Specification of Units of Natural Uranium and Natural Thorium, Statement of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (1973) NCRP Statement on Dose Limit for Neutrons (1980) Control of Air Emissions of Radionuclides (1984) The Probability That a Particular Malignancy May Have Been Caused by a Specified Irradiation (1992) The Application of ALARA for Occupational Exposures (1999) Extension of the Skin Dose Limit for Hot Particles to Other External Sources of Skin Irradiation (2001) Other Documents The following documents of the NCRP were published outside of the NCRP report, commentary and statement series: Somatic Radiation Dose for the General Population, Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, May 1959, Science 131 (3399), February 19, 1960, 482–486 Dose Effect Modifying Factors in Radiation Protection, Report of Subcommittee M-4 (Relative Biological Effectiveness) of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Report BNL 50073 (T-471) (1967) Brookhaven National Laboratory (National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia) Index Decommissioning plan 34, 44, 204, 206, 208, 214 Dose 40, 50, 54–56, 59, 61, 62, 64, 96, 112–114, 141, 149, 182–184, 187–190, 195, 198, 199 annual dose criterion 40, 50, 54–56, 59, 61, 62, 64, 96, 112–114, 141, 149, 182–184, 187–190, 195, 198, 199 Dose assessment 39–41, 44, 46, 59–62, 65, 66, 89, 105–108, 110–115, 118, 123, 140, 161, 162, 166, 171, 172, 181, 183, 184, 187, 189–193, 198, 199, 201, 202, 205–208, 220, 221, 223, 226, 234, 236, 237, 268, 276 as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) 40, 41, 44, 46, 59, 60, 61, 65, 105–108, 110–115, 118, 140, 161, 162, 166, 171, 172, 184, 189–193, 198, 201, 202, 205, 208, 220, 221, 223, 226, 236, 268, 276 total effective dose equivalent (TEDE) 39–41, 59–62, 65, 66, 89, 106, 107, 113, 123, 181, 183, 184, 187, 189, 190, 198, 199, 205–207, 234, 237 Drinking water standards 46–49, 51, 53, 55–62, 64, 72, 74, 109, 113, 114, 182, 190, 195, 198, 239, 248 Agreement State 37, 61, 195, 226 Annual dose criterion 40, 50, 54–56, 59, 61, 62, 64, 96, 112–114, 141, 149, 182–184, 187–190, 195, 198, 199 Applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements (ARAR) 50, 64, 69–73, 80, 119, 181, 236, 239, 244 As low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) 40, 41, 44, 46, 59, 60, 61, 65, 105–108, 110–115, 118, 140, 161, 162, 166, 171, 172, 184, 189–193, 198, 201, 202, 205, 208, 220, 221, 223, 226, 236, 268, 276 Atomic Energy Act (AEA) 32–37, 47, 51, 61, 65, 73, 100–103, 105, 108, 110, 111, 115, 116, 186, 190, 196–198, 200, 212, 215, 226, 227, 236, 238 Chemical paradigm 106, 108–111, 113, 115, 191, 192, 198 Clean Air Act (CAA) 35, 36, 101, 109, 110, 116, 186, 236, 238 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) 29, 34, 38, 46–51, 59, 61–65, 67, 68, 72–77, 79, 81, 100–103, 109–113, 115, 119, 120, 154, 171, 172, 175, 180, 181, 185, 187, 189–192, 194–198, 200, 203, 210–215, 228, 234, 236, 238, 239, 241–244, 248, 249 EPA Radionuclide Preliminary Remediation Goals for Superfund Electronic Calculator (PRG) 80–84, 122, 132, 224, 236, 254 DandD code 87, 89, 91–93, 123, 124, 126, 128, 130, 236 277 278 / INDEX Exposure scenarios 31, 44, 45, 81, 84, 87, 88, 138, 163, 170, 182, 184 Harmonization 29, 104, 119, 161, 247, 253, 254 EPA Radiation Advisory Committee 29, 104, 119 risk harmonization 104, 161, 247, 253, 254 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments 230, 233 Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables (HEAST) 50, 86, 123, 220, 221, 224, 236, 246 Land use assumptions 183 License termination 28, 30, 31, 34, 38–42, 45, 60, 61, 65–67, 89, 95, 103, 143, 153, 163, 173, 186, 195, 197, 203–209, 212–214, 236, 251, 252, 255 License Termination Rule (LTR) 28–30, 38–42, 44–46, 49, 58–63, 65, 73, 87, 94, 103, 104, 107, 112–114, 155, 181, 187, 189, 194, 198, 201, 236 Lifetime cancer risk 47–50, 53, 59, 60, 64, 72, 78, 109, 111, 140, 141, 149, 168, 181–184, 187–191, 195, 198, 199, 201 Methods for characterization and remediation ARAR (see Applicable or relevant and appropriate requirements) DandD code (see same) HEAST (see Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables) MARSSIM (see Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual) PRG (see EPA Radionuclide Preliminary Remediation Goals for Superfund Electronic Calculator) RESRAD (see Residual radioactivity computer code) Multi-Agency Radiation Survey and Site Investigation Manual (MARSSIM) 77, 119–121, 224, 236, 252 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 33, 65, 67, 69, 101, 102, 193, 194, 197, 200, 236, 251 National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan [National Contingency Plan (NCP)] 29, 46–51, 59–63, 68, 69, 72, 74, 103, 109, 112–114, 172, 181, 185, 187, 189, 190, 192, 198, 201, 236 Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER) 37, 48, 77, 78, 119, 120, 180, 186, 187, 236, 239, 241–244, 248, 249 Public concerns 8, 29, 30, 32, 38, 67, 68–75, 89, 102, 104, 111, 112, 152–154, 156–159, 161, 165–167, 176–179, 187, 192, 193, 194, 197, 200–202, 247, 253, 254 decision process for remediation 68–75 public perception 29, 179, 193, 194 risk harmonization 104, 161, 247, 253, 254 stakeholders 28, 30, 32, 38, 67, 73, 89, 102, 111, 112, 152–154, 156–159, 165–167, 176–178, 187, 192, 193, 197, 200–202 Radiation paradigm 105, 106, 108, 110, 111, 115, 191, 192, 198 Radium 36, 42–46, 48, 53, 54, 56, 58, 63, 64, 85, 114, 181, 217, 232, 242, 261, 264 Radon 43, 44, 49, 51, 53, 62, 78, 96–98, 114, 118, 227, 232, 250, 260, 267, 268, 271, 272, 274 INDEX Regulations and laws AEA (see Atomic Energy Act) CAA (see Clean Air Act) CERCLA (see Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (see same) LTR (see License Termination Rule) NEPA (see National Environmental Policy Act) NCP (see National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan) Reorganization Plan No (see same) SDWA (see Safe Drinking Water Act) TSCA (see Toxic Substances Control Act) UMTRA (see Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act) Remediation 28–51, 53, 55, 57–75, 77–79, 94, 100, 102–105, 107, 109–115, 117, 119, 120, 122, 123, 132, 138, 141, 143, 152–156, 158–163, 168–172, 175, 178–182, 185–187, 189–203, 213, 228, 229, 233, 236, 239, 241, 243, 244, 249, 270 Reorganization Plan No 34, 256 Residual radioactivity computer code (RESRAD) 83, 89, 91, 94–97, 99, 114, 115, 121, 123, 124, 126, 128, 130, 219, 220, 221–224, 236, 238, 247, 248, 256 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 34–36, 38, 48, 51, 74–79, 81, 100–102, 109, 117, 118, 154, 156, 164, 170, 171, 186, 196, 197, 200, 210, 215, 216, 230, 233, 234, 236, 241, 243, 253 Risk assessment 29, 50, 64, 72, 77, 79, 80, 81, 85, 87, 100, 119, 121, / 279 141, 150, 153, 160, 168, 171, 172, 184, 194, 200, 231, 233, 238, 239, 241–243, 250, 259, 272 communication 30, 153, 159, 172–175, 177, 178, 200, 244, 249, 253, 260 harmonization 104, 161, 247, 253, 254 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 34–36, 38, 46, 55, 56, 79, 100, 101, 108–110, 116, 118, 192, 236, 254 Scenario 84, 87, 88–92, 107, 121, 122, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 143–145, 150, 181, 183, 187, 189, 199, 219, 220, 222, 224, 230 Site characterization 31, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 95, 97, 99, 100, 104, 119, 121, 125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 135, 137, 139, 141–143, 145, 147, 149, 151, 179, 180, 181, 184, 194, 199, 201, 202 Stakeholders 28, 30, 32, 38, 67, 73, 89, 102, 111, 112, 152–154, 156–159, 165–167, 176–178, 187, 192, 193, 197, 200–202 States 37, 61, 73, 74, 195, 226 Agreement State 37, 61, 195, 226 role in remediation 73, 74 Thorium 33, 34, 36, 38, 42, 44, 45, 48, 51, 54, 62–65, 85, 114, 181, 182, 217, 232 Total effective dose equivalent (TEDE) 39–41, 59–62, 65, 66, 89, 106, 107, 113, 123, 181, 183, 184, 187, 189, 190, 198, 199, 205–207, 234, 237 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) 34, 77, 117, 231, 234, 237, 255 280 / INDEX Uncertainties 87, 113, 140, 141, 142–151, 181, 184, 199, 201, 250, 260, 269 Uranium 33, 34, 36–39, 42, 44, 45, 47, 51, 53, 56, 58, 63–66, 85, 102, 112, 114, 133, 137, 158, 170, 181, 204, 217, 218, 227, 231, 234, 237, 239, 240, 245, 250, 251, 255, 260, 267, 276 Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act (UMTRA) 33, 34, 36, 42, 137, 169, 256 Water 28, 31, 34, 36, 39, 46–49, 51, 53, 54, 55–65, 72, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 84, 90–93, 95, 96, 98, 103, 104, 109, 113, 114, 121, 132, 138, 143, 151, 164, 170, 171, 182, 186, 189, 190, 195, 198, 201, 202, 205, 223, 230, 231, 233, 236, 239, 248 drinking water standards 46–49, 51, 53, 55–62, 64, 72, 74, 109, 113, 114, 182, 190, 195, 198, 239, 248 groundwater 28, 31, 34, 36, 39, 47, 51, 54, 59, 60, 61–65, 72, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 84, 90–93, 95, 96, 98, 103, 104, 109, 113, 114, 121, 132, 138, 143, 151, 164, 170, 171, 182, 186, 189, 190, 195, 198, 201, 202, 205, 223, 230, 231, 233, 236, 239 ... consistent approaches to decision making in remediation of radioactively contaminated sites In analyzing current guidance and practice on remediation of radioactively contaminated sites, NCRP considered... statutory or common law theory governing liability Library of Congress Cataloging -in- Publication Data Approaches to risk management in remediation of radioactively contaminated sites p cm (NCRP. . .NCRP REPORT No 146 Approaches to Risk Management in Remediation of Radioactively Contaminated Sites Recommendations of the NATIONAL COUNCIL ON RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASUREMENTS Issued October