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Tony Keenan is Professor of Human Resource Management at Edinburgh Business School, Heriot-Watt University. Professor Keenan has published many papers on recruitment, managerial stress and the education, training and career development of professional eng
Human Resource Management Tony Keenan is Professor of Human Resource Management at Edinburgh Business School, Heriot-Watt University Professor Keenan has published many papers on recruitment, managerial stress and the education, training and career development of professional engineers He has also acted as consultant to a number of international organisations in these fields He has held the posts of Dean, Director of the Business School and Head of Department Release HM-A2-engb 1/2005 (1014) This Course text is part of the learning content for the Edinburgh Business School postgraduate course in this subject In addition to this printed Course text, you should also have access to the Course website in this subject, which will provide you with more learning content, the Profiler software, and past examination questions and answers The content of this Course Text is updated from time to time, and all changes are reflected in the version of the Text that appears on the accompanying website at www.ebsglobal.net/coursewebsites Most updates are minor, and examination questions will avoid any new or significantly altered material for two years following publication of the relevant material on the website You can check the version of the Course text via the version release number to be found on the front page of the text, and compare this to the version number of the latest PDF version of the text on the website If you are studying this Course as part of a tutored programme, you should contact your Centre for further information on any changes Full terms and conditions that apply to students on any of the Edinburgh Business School courses are available on the website www.ebsglobal.net, and should have been notified to you either by Edinburgh Business School or by the centre or regional partner through whom you purchased your course If this is not the case, please contact Edinburgh Business School at the address below: Edinburgh Business School Heriot-Watt University Edinburgh EH14 4AS United Kingdom Tel + 44 (0) 131 451 3090 Fax + 44 (0) 131 451 3002 Email enquiries@ebs.hw.ac.uk Website www.ebsglobal.net HERIOT-WATT UNIVERSITY Human Resource Management Professor Tony Keenan Professor of Human Resource Management, Edinburgh Business School First published in Great Britain in 1998 c Tony Keenan 1998, 2003, 2005 The right of Professor Tony Keenan to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Release HM-A2-engb 1/2005 (1014) All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the Publishers This book may not be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published, without the prior consent of the Publishers Typesetting and SGML/XML source management by CAPDM Ltd (www.capdm.com) Contents Module The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Module Models of Human Resource Management 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Module HRM Themes Quality Organisational Structures Flexibility Team Working The Learning Organisation Organisational Commitment Culture Summary Strategic and Operational HRM Analysis of Performance Requirements 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Module Defining Characteristics of HRM Models Matching Models Harvard-type Models Summary Key Themes in HRM 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 Module What is Human Resource Management? The Origins and Evolution of HRM Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives of HRM HRM as a Strategic Activity HRM as an Operational Level Activity Summary Specifying Performance Requirements Core Abilities, Skills and Motivational Characteristics Trait Versus Behavioural Indicators of Performance Job Analysis Techniques Job Analysis and Strategic HRM Competencies Performance and Pay Summary Recruitment and Selection 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Selection in Context The Selection Paradigm The Process of Validation The Usefulness of Selection Devices Selection Tools Summary Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School 1/1 1/1 1/2 1/5 1/7 1/9 1/11 2/1 2/1 2/3 2/7 2/12 3/1 3/2 3/2 3/7 3/10 3/15 3/18 3/20 3/23 3/27 3/28 4/1 4/2 4/5 4/7 4/10 4/15 4/16 4/21 4/29 5/1 5/2 5/3 5/6 5/10 5/10 5/22 Contents Module Performance Appraisal and Performance Management 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Module Training and Development 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 Module Training, Development and Strategic HRM Determining Training Needs and Priorities Design of Training Programmes Evaluation of Training Effectiveness The Relationship between Training and Development Methods of Employee Development Development for Employability Summary Careers and Career Management 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Module Determinants of Performance The Performance Appraisal Process Recording Appraisal Information Carrying Out Appraisals Performance Appraisal in Practice Performance Management Summary The Concept of Career Management Individual Perspectives Organisational Perspectives Gender and Careers Summary Employee Relations 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 What is Employee Relations? Philosophical Approaches to Employee Relations The Legal Framework Employee Relations Themes Unions and Collective Representation Grievance and Discipline Health and Well-being Techniques for Increasing Involvement at Work Summary 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/9 6/12 6/15 6/16 6/18 7/1 7/2 7/3 7/6 7/12 7/19 7/20 7/23 7/23 8/1 8/2 8/2 8/9 8/18 8/22 9/1 9/2 9/3 9/6 9/7 9/9 9/13 9/14 9/20 9/24 Appendix Answers to Review Questions A1/1 Appendix Practice Final Examinations and Solutions A2/1 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Module The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management Contents 1.1 What is Human Resource Management? 1/1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 The Origins and Evolution of HRM Business Strategy in an Increasingly Competitive Environment Personnel Management Organisational Behaviour 1/2 1/2 1/3 1/5 1.3 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives of HRM Hard Versus Soft HRM The Nature of Work Motivation and Behaviour Organisational Conditions and Effectiveness 1/5 1/5 1/6 1/6 1.4 HRM as a Strategic Activity 1/7 1.5 HRM as an Operational Level Activity 1/9 1.6 Summary 1/11 Review Questions 1/11 Learning Objectives By • • • • • • • 1.1 the end of this module, you should be able to: understand what is meant by human resource management (HRM) describe the main factors which led to the emergence of HRM as a discipline explain how HRM is related to business strategy, organisational behaviour, and personnel management understand the difference between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ HRM comprehend what is meant by strategic HRM explain what is meant by operational HRM describe the main activities involved in operational HRM What is Human Resource Management? Despite the fact that ideas and techniques derived from human resource management (HRM) have been adopted in a large number of organisations world-wide, the emergence of HRM as a field is a relatively recent phenomenon whose origins can be traced back to the early 1980s Indeed, because HRM is still in Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School 1/1 Module / The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management its formative stages, there are controversies about what exactly is meant by the term itself, about precisely what should and should not be included within the scope of HRM, and even in some instances about the true benefits of some of its proposed approaches and techniques for organisations and the individuals employed in them Because there is no unanimously agreed definition as to what actually constitutes HRM and precisely how it differs from previous approaches to the management of people in organisations, no attempt will be made to provide a comprehensive definition of the term here However, one way to look at HRM is as a set of loosely related ideas, concepts, and techniques held together by the common underlying premise that, within any organisation, maximisation of the utilisation of human resources is crucial to maintain and enhance competitiveness in a world where those who not compete successfully simply not survive According to this view, unless organisations can make full use of the potential of their employees, not only will they perform poorly, but their very existence will be threatened in today’s highly competitive world In order to give the reader an insight into the nature of the field, we will first examine its evolution and development from related fields and activities such as business strategy, personnel management, and organisational behaviour We will then consider the various philosophical strands underpinning HRM thinking and practice Finally, the distinction between strategic and operational level HRM activities will be discussed briefly 1.2 The Origins and Evolution of HRM One of the most important catalysts for the emergence of HRM came from developments in strategic thinking about how businesses would need to adapt and change to survive in the eighties and nineties This in turn led to questions being asked about the role and function of traditional personnel management approaches to the management of people in organisations Although HRM was essentially meant to replace traditional personnel management, the two have much in common and indeed some critics of HRM have questioned the extent to which it really is fundamentally different from its predecessor Finally, many of the theories and findings from the closely related field of organisational behaviour have been utilised by HRM theorists and practitioners and these relationships are discussed briefly below 1.2.1 Business Strategy in an Increasingly Competitive Environment From a Western perspective, the early eighties was a time of much soul searching about the future competitiveness of the Western economies in general, and Western-based companies in particular In brief, the Far East, especially Japan, seemed to have gained significant competitive advantage over the West This was seen as a particularly threatening phenomenon because of a number of other factors, especially the globalisation of markets and the associated intensification of competition world-wide Analysis of the Japanese phenomenon seemed to point towards better utilisation of people resources as a key factor in its success 1/2 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Module / The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management It appeared that a number of Japanese management practices such as the focus on excellence and continual improvement, the provision of an element of autonomy and influence on decisions for employees, the creation of a culture within the organisation of shared commitment to the success of the organisation, and so on, all served to ensure that each individual’s potential to contribute as fully as possible to organisational success was realised This, the argument ran, was what gave Japanese organisations a competitive advantage over their Western counterparts Further impetus to the view that optimisation of human resources is crucial for success came in the form of the highly influential study of high performing US companies carried out by Peters and Waterman (1982) The message from this study largely reinforced that coming from students of Japanese management practice, since once again, the conclusion was that how people are managed is the key to competitive advantage and organisational success Around this time the political climate in the West, particularly in the UK and the USA, was changing in ways which encouraged the development of new thinking about how best to manage organisations This was the era of the socalled enterprise culture with its emphasis on individual entrepreneurial activity as the engine of economic success In the UK in particular, the collectivism espoused by the Trade Union movement was seen as a barrier to economic progress and a millstone around the neck of organisations trying to compete internationally Other key elements of the new culture included the prime place given to market forces and the elevation of the status and role of the consumer in the overall scheme of things A notable change here was the extension of the market-led philosophy and consumerism to the provision of services in the public sector Thus, for example, in education students became ‘clients’ and educational ‘products’ now had to be ‘consumer’, rather than ‘producer’ led All of these politically inspired ideas served to create a climate which encouraged radical new thinking about how best to harness people’s abilities and energies in the face of the perceived imperative for organisations to restore competitive advantage The general view in all of this was that, as far as people management in organisations was concerned, radical surgery was the order of the day Merely bolting a few new techniques on to an existing system on a piecemeal basis would not be sufficient Rather, a whole new philosophy of how to manage people most effectively was required In what has now become something of a clich´ people were now ‘the organisation’s most important asset’ New and e better ways to organise activities which would harness workers’ commitment and energies would need to be developed Human resource considerations would need to be linked into the design and implementation of overall business strategy in a way that had not been the case in the past Finally, management of people could no longer be the sole prerogative of personnel specialists It would now need to be much more the responsibility of all managers 1.2.2 Personnel Management Traditionally, within large organisations at least, responsibility for human resource matters lay within the personnel function A typical list of personnel manage- Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School 1/3 Module / The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management ment functions carried out in organisations would be very wide and would include advising on activities such as: recruitment and selection, performance appraisal, training and development, payment and pension systems, industrial relations, and so on These are all critically important functions which are capable of being carried out at two levels At an operational level, all of these have to be conducted as a part of the organisation’s everyday activities However, most also have a strategic element, in the sense that they can be integrated into the overall objectives of the organisation Take the example of training At the operational level, the personnel department would be responsible for administering and running courses At a strategic level, a relevant issue might be the question of how much should be invested in training, given the direction in which the organisation is going and what it wants to achieve From an HRM perspective, most, if not all, people management issues should be considered from a strategic as well as an operational perspective A key issue which now arises is the extent to which, in the past, traditional personnel management has operated at a strategic level A number of writers have suggested that the role of personnel in the past in most organisations has been operational and reactive, rather than pro-active and strategic (Torrington, 1995, Hendry, 1995) An example of the reactive nature of personnel management can be seen in the field of industrial relations, an area which greatly pre-occupied personnel managers in the UK in the seventies As Hendry (1995) points out, the majority of personnel managers during that period spent most of their time fire fighting A dispute would arise and personnel’s job would be to react to it and solve the immediate problem What rarely emerged from personnel departments was a strategy for dealing with industrial relations problems To take another example, in the field of training and development, although personnel departments frequently have large training and development budgets and are responsible for running a wide variety of training courses, rarely does one find a coherent strategy linking training to the organisation’s underlying objectives Again personnel’s role is seen as operational, rather than strategic We saw above that there was a view in the eighties that radical changes in the way in which human resources are managed would be needed to increase competitiveness Presumably, personnel managers, with their specialist knowledge, would be well placed to initiate and influence these changes Yet Evans and Cowling (1985) in a study of British personnel managers, found that they were not generally initiators of major change Nor were they given a large role in advising on the form such changes should take In summary, it appears that, historically, personnel management has had only a partial role in the management of people in organisations It has had an essential role at the operational level in, for example, advising on and implementing selection systems, payment methods, training and development programmes, welfare arrangements, and a host of other activities It has had much less impact, however, at the strategic level Thus its role has been seen as specialist and technical, rather than strategic This is seen by many as a key difference between HRM and personnel management and the rise in popularity of HRM can be seen as largely a response to the need for a more all-embracing approach to the management of people in organisations 1/4 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions 15 Which of the following is correct? A Research shows that the PBDI is more valid than the situational interview B Both the PBDI and the situational interview are based on sound psychological principles C Both the PBDI and the situational interview use scoring keys with predetermined answers D The situational interview requires candidates to describe situations they have experienced in the past 16 Which of the following is true of 360-degree appraisal? A It always uses the BARS system B It eliminates the halo effect C People outside of the organisation can contribute to the appraisal D It is only used for setting performance targets 17 Which of the following is correct? A In a learning contract, the organisation makes a formal commitment to a set of learning goals B A learning contract includes a statement as to how learning goals are to be achieved C A learning contract contains a clause about the financial rewards the manager will receive once he has completed the contract D The purpose of learning contracts is to ensure that all employees agree to accept the philosophy of the learning organisation 18 Which of the following is correct? A There is no place for appraisal schemes within performance management systems B Performance management has a shorter time perspective than performance appraisal C Performance management does not concern itself with the management of financial incentives D One of the functions of performance management is to ensure that individual performance is linked to strategic HRM objectives 19 According to Guest (1994), which of the following is true of HRM theories? A B They emphasise individualism C They emphasise collectivism D A2/16 They are not applicable to European countries They have highlighted the inadequacies of the Japanese approach to managing people in organisations Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions 20 Which of the following is correct? A The underlying assumption of behaviour modelling training (BMT) is that people learn from observing the behaviour of another person B According to Bandura, rewards are essential if learning is to take place C For maximum learning to take place trainers should set goals which are very easy for trainees to achieve D Feedback should not be given to trainees about where they are going wrong, but should focus exclusively on reinforcing what they are doing correctly 21 When evaluating training programmes, which of the following can be assessed using Kirkpatrick’s trainee reactions criteria? A External validity B Trainees’ views about the value of the programme C How much trainees learned during the programme D Changes in trainee behaviour back in the workplace 22 Which of the following has influenced the trend in recent years for careers to become shorter? A Bureaucratic forms of organisation B A belief in some organisations that younger workers contribute more than older ones C Self-managed teams D Development for employability schemes 23 Which of the following correctly describes a difference between employee development and career management? A There is greater onus on the employee to take responsibility for his own development, whereas the organisation has more responsibility for career management B The time perspective of career management is longer C Career management, unlike employee development, is concerned with the whole person D Career management can only occur in large organisations 24 Which of the following represents a sound reason for promoting from within? A It creates diversity B Some senior jobs may require the person to have a large number of organisational competencies C It creates functional flexibility D It creates culture change Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School A2/17 Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions 25 Which of the following statements accurately reflects available research evidence? A There are clear sex differences in commitment and this explains why women are less successful than men B Women who not have families consistently show higher levels of commitment than men C Most studies showing sex differences in commitment are difficult to interpret in terms of career success because of confounding factors D The number of women in managerial roles is decreasing Section B: Essay Questions Each question is worth 25 points What are the defining characteristics of the different models of HRM? How would you describe the original Harvard model of Beer et al in terms of these characteristics? Under what conditions is the interview a useful method of selection? Describe the main methods of job analysis What are the advantages and limitations of each of them? A2/18 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions Answers to Section A: Multiple Choice Questions D see Section 1.1 B see Section 2.3.2 D see Section 3.8.1 C see Section 3.5.1 C see Section 3.7.1 B see Section 4.1.2 B see Section 2.2.3 A see Section 4.6.1 B see Section 4.4.1 10 C see Section 5.3.2 11 D see Section 5.5.3 12 D see Section 5.5.4 13 D see Section 3.4.1 14 A see Section 6.5.1 15 B see Section 5.5.3 16 C see Section 6.4.1 17 B see Section 7.6.3 18 D see Section 6.5.2 19 B see Section 1.4 20 A see Section 7.3.2 21 B see Section 7.4.1 22 B see Section 8.2.2 23 B see Section 8.1 24 B see Section 8.3.1 25 C see Section 8.4.4 Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School A2/19 Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions Answers to Section B: Essay Questions There are a number of models of the HRM process in existence However, they can be broadly defined as belonging to one of two types First of all, there are several matching models, of which the most well known is the one put forward by Fombrun and colleagues Second, there are several variants of what has become known as the Harvard model, originally proposed by Beer et al There are at least six defining characteristics which distinguish the various models from each other First, although all of the major models address strategic aspects of HRM, some are exclusively concerned with strategic considerations while others also consider operational and implementation issues In addition, while all models have something to say about the relationship between strategic HRM and overall business strategy, the nature of the relationship which is presumed to exist between the two differs markedly from one model to another The models also vary in the extent to which they are prescriptive in the sense of offering mangers advice on how things ought to be done Some are highly prescriptive, whereas others are more analytical, insofar as they are more concerned with understanding structures and processes than in making specific recommendations Perhaps the most important single differentiating feature amongst the various models is the extent to which they take a ‘hard’ versus ‘soft’ approach to HRM The hard approach puts considerable emphasis on the resources side of HRM Bottom line profit is seen as the major consideration, and people are seen as no different from any other resource in this respect Soft HRM on the other hand, emphasises the human rather than the resource side of the equation People are in this sense a unique resource and the key to competitive advantage is to realise their potential fully so that their contribution to the organisation can be maximised Another important differentiating factor amongst the various models is the role assigned to line managers in the implementation of HRM Some models propose that, because effective management of people is so critical to organisational success, all managers must take responsibility for HRM matters Others make little mention of any special HR role for managers outside of the HR function Some models represent a radical departure from personnel management as traditionally practised For example, some of the proposals put forward by certain of the matching models seem a far cry from traditional personnel management At the other extreme, some models look like not much more than personnel management dressed up in new clothes Finally, there is the extent to which the models adopt a unitarist or pluralist perspective The unitarist viewpoint assumes that there are only a few legitimate stakeholders in the organisation, principally the shareholders and top management Pluralist approaches assume a much wider community of A2/20 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions legitimate stakeholders, including for example ordinary employees, labour unions, and even the wider community The original Harvard model typifies the soft approach to HRM, with people being viewed as the unique resource which makes the crucial difference between the success and failure of an organisation Partly because of this emphasis on the importance of people, it advocates that all managers should have a responsibility for HRM As far as the relationship between business strategy and HRM strategy is concerned, unlike some other models, it regards general strategy as only one of a number of inputs into the process of HRM strategy formulation The model is not particularly prescriptive in its orientation Thus, for example, the model talks in terms of HR choices, rather than advocating the one best way to things The Harvard model is closer to personnel management than some others This can be seen in its emphasis on taking the needs of all employees into account and in its inclusion of the trade unions as legitimate stakeholders in the organisation Following on from the last point, the Harvard model is notable for its pluralist approach Thus, not only does it recognise the legitimacy of employees’ and unions’ interests, it also takes into account the views of other groups outside the organisation such as government and the wider community The usefulness of any selection device, including the interview, can be assessed with reference to the four criteria suggested by Muchinsky The first of these, validity, is the most important Validity, which is expressed as a correlation coefficient, is an estimate of how well the selection device predicts job performance Unless a technique has some validity, it will not be of any use in selection, no matter how well it appears to match up to the other three criteria Fairness is also an important criterion against which to evaluate a selection tool To meet this requirement there must be no unfair discrimination against individuals The third factor is cost, with inexpensive selection methods being preferred to expensive ones, other things being equal Finally, a selection device has wide applicability when it can be used for a large number of different types of job, which Muchinsky sees as an advantage Before considering the results of studies of the interview, it is worth pointing out that there is a wide variety of different types of selection interview and not all are likely to be equally useful For example, interviews can vary in terms of their duration, the type of person carrying out the interview, the interpersonal atmosphere created, the focus of the interview, and the degree of structure of the interview Research has shown that the last of these, structure, is critical as far as the usefulness of the interview is concerned Early research on the interview, before the advent of the structured interview, indicated that the interview had low or even negligible validity However, the picture changed dramatically with the increasing use of structured interviews This is most clearly seen from the results of the various meta analyses which were carried out in the late 1980s and early 1990s For example, Weisner and Cranshaw reported validity coefficients of around Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School A2/21 Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions 60 for structured interviews, compared to values of around 20 – 37 for unstructured ones Both Huffcutt and Arthur, and McDaniel, also reported, in separate studies, very acceptable validities for interviews – provided they were structured The question which now arises is ‘What exactly is a structured interview?’ A structured interview has four main characteristics First of all it should be built around a thorough competency/behaviourally-based job analysis, so that the interviewer knows precisely what she is looking for Second, all questions must be job related and must be consistently asked of every candidate Broadly speaking, two types of job related questions have been used The first type, which are used in what has been called the PBDI (Janz), asks candidates about specific events which have happened to them in the past The events must, of course, be related to the required competencies Thus if ability to meet deadlines was a competency, then questions focusing on meeting deadlines in the past would be asked This approach is based on the well established psychological principle that past behaviour predicts future behaviour The second type of job related question asks candidates how they would deal with a series of carefully selected job situations This is known as the situational interview (Latham), and it is based on the principle that people actually what they say they will To date we not have enough evidence to say which of these two approaches is the more valid The third characteristic of some types of structured interview is the use of a fixed list of questions along with the alternative answers which could be given by candidates to each question This third characteristic only really applies to the situational interview, at least as far as the provision of alternative answers is concerned Finally, in structured interviews, interviewers are provided with behaviour based rating scales against which candidates are assessed, usually on a number of dimensions Turning to Muchinsky’s third criterion of fairness, we not have a clear cut answer to this question at the present time (Arvey) Most interviews require significant amounts of expensive management time and in this sense the interview can be described as a fairly costly method of selection On the other hand, interviews have wide applicability, being appropriate for almost any kind of job In conclusion, while historically interviews appeared to be of little real use in selection, the advent of the structured interview has caused their value to be re-assessed It now appears that, provided a structured format is used, interviews are indeed a useful method of selection Job analysis aims to provide a comprehensive and valid list of what is required for effective performance of a particular job or set of jobs Blum and Naylor list nine main methods of job analysis The first of these, questionnaires, involves asking job holders to indicate the extent to which a series of statements applies to their job Questionnaire methods have the advantage, from the point of view of the analyst’s time, that they can be administered to large groups of employees simultaneously In this sense they are most useful when there are many job holders available to complete A2/22 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions the questionnaires When this is the case, and when the information is in an appropriate format, valuable statistical analysis can be carried out on the data One drawback of this approach is the time it takes to construct the questionnaire Also, important features of the job may be left out of the questionnaire inadvertently Finally, questionnaires are not well suited for use with job holders who have had little formal education Checklists have much in common with questionnaires, except that in this case the employee selects only those items, from a large list of statements, which apply to his particular job This avoids the potential problem with questionnaires that job holders, in a misguided attempt to be helpful, might provide ratings for activities which are not actually part of their job Apart from this, the advantages and limitations of checklists are similar to those of questionnaires Interviews carried out on a one-to-one basis have the advantage that they provide a rich source of qualitative information about the job Also, it is the job holders themselves – rather than the analyst – who provide the list of relevant activities Since they inevitably know the job more intimately than the analyst, this has the advantage that important aspects of the job are unlikely to be missed Interviews can also be conducted with others who know the job well, such as immediate supervisors A major drawback of this approach is its time-consuming nature for all concerned Also, because the data generated is qualitative, categorising it can be problematic Depending on the type of job, much can be learned by observing individuals actually carrying it out This would typically be followed up with a series of interviews with job holders A clear advantage of this approach is the fact that it is based on actual job behaviour, rather than on what people say they Once again, however, we are talking about a very time-consuming procedure In addition, it is clearly a method which cannot be applied to all jobs For example, how much could be learned about the job of novelist simply by watching as person typing material into a word processor? Group interview methods involve discussing the job with individuals in groups This is clearly more economical in terms of the analyst’s time It also has the benefit that one person’s responses can suggest sides to another On the other hand, some individuals may dominate the group, leading to biased information Aside from these considerations, the benefits and drawbacks of this method are similar to those listed above for one-to-one interviews The conference method typically uses brainstorming techniques to obtain lists of job tasks and associated behaviours from groups of experts who are thoroughly familiar with the job in question Questionnaires can also be incorporated into this method, with items being derived from the brainstorming exercise This combination of two techniques is a strength of this approach Work diaries are particularly valuable in situations where the analyst suspects that there are important features of the job which are so routine that Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School A2/23 Appendix / Practice Final Examinations and Solutions they may go unnoticed when the techniques we have described so far are used By asking job holders to keep a daily record of all of the tasks they carry out, a very comprehensive record of work tasks can be built up This of course can be very time-consuming, not just for those who keep the diaries, but also for the analyst who has the job of reading and analysing them Depending on the nature of the job, it may be possible for the analyst herself to carry out part, or even all, of the job This can be valuable for highlighting aspects of the job which the person doing the job is no longer aware of because of the length of time for which he has been doing it A clear limitation of this method is the fact that it is only feasible for certain kinds of job The critical incident technique requires respondents, who might be job holders or their superiors, to describe specific behavioural events which have actually occurred in the job in question, and which are critically important aspects of the job Examples of particularly successful and unsuccessful ways in which the events were tackled may also be requested The major strength of this method is its focus on real events which exemplify excellent and poor performance in job situations which are particularly important However, this focus on extreme events brings with it the risk that more everyday events, which might still be important, are overlooked Also, because it concentrates on past events, the method is not well suited to the identification of future-oriented performance requirements Finally, if there is a need to obtain as comprehensive as possible an analysis of the job, the analyst will often use a combination of these methods A2/24 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Index ability tests 5/4, 5/6, 5/9–10, 5/18, 5/19 action learning 7/22 Adams, J.S 4/22 adaptation 4/15 affective commitment 3/21 after between design 7/19 after within design 7/17–18 Alliger, G.M 7/16 Annette, J 7/7 Anthony, P.D 3/27 application forms 5/11 appointment decisions 5/5 appraisal systems 1/10, 2/6, 6/3–16 behaviour focused appraisal 6/9 interviews 6/4, 6/14–15 limitations of 6/15–16 measuring effectiveness of 6/16, 6/16–17 personnel involved 6/12–13 process-oriented 6/8–9 promotion potential identification 6/6, 6/15, 6/16 purposes and outcomes 6/5–6 recording information 6/9–12 results-oriented 6/6–8 and reward allocation 6/6, 6/15 360-degree appraisals 6/13, 6/16 and training and development needs 1/10, 6/5, 6/6, 6/15 aptitude tests 5/18 Arvey, R.D 5/17 assessment centres 5/20–22, 6/6 AT & T Corporation 5/21 Atkinson, J 3/11 attitude development 7/11 attitudinal qualities 4/16 autonomous work groups 3/15 Bandura, A 7/9 Barrick, M.R 5/19 BARS (behaviourally anchored rating scales) 6/11–12 Beason, G 5/13, 5/13 Beer, M 2/1, 2/7–9 before after within and between design 7/19 before after within design 7/18–19 behaviour and work motivation 1/6 behaviour focused appraisal 6/9 Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School behaviour observation scales (BOS) 6/11–12 behaviour performance indicators 4/9–10 behavioural change 7/14–15 behavioural competencies 4/18–20 behavioural repertoires 4/9, 4/10 behaviourally anchored rating scales (BARS ) 6/11–12 behaviour-modelling training (BMT) 7/9 Belt, J.A 5/13, 5/13 Bevan, S 6/18 biodata 5/11–12 Blum, L 4/10 Blyton, P 3/10 BMT (behaviour-modelling training) 7/9 BOS (behaviour observation scales) 6/11–12 Boxall, P.F 2/6, 2/11 Boyatzis, R 4/18 brainstorming 4/13 bureaucratic organisations 3/7–8 business strategy 1/2–3, 1/8, 2/3, 2/3 Callanan and Greenhaus career stage model 8/5–6 Campbell, D.T 7/17 Campbell, J.P 7/15 career management 1/10 career anchors 8/3–4 choice and decisions Holland’s theory 8/2–3 Schein’s theory 8/3–4 coaching 8/12–13 concept of 8/2 counselling 8/13 development centres 8/10–11 development workshops 8/13 educational programmes 8/14 employee expectations 8/8–9 fast track schemes 8/11–12 future for careers 8/17–18 mentoring 8/12–13, 8/20 organisation’s responsibility 8/9–10 psychological contract 8/8–9, 8/14–17 stages of careers 8/5–6 work role transitions 8/6–8 workbooks 8/13 change programmes 3/5, 3/26–27, 4/15 checklists I/1 Index for job analysis 4/11 for recording appraisal information 6/9–10 coaching 7/22–23, 8/12 cognitive ability tests 5/18 commitment and de-layering 3/8–9 gender differences 8/21 Harvard philosophy 2/8 and recruitment 5/2 and the psychological contract 8/15 and total quality management 3/5 and work motivation 1/6, 7/2 communication programmes 3/26 competencies 4/16–21 behavioural 4/18–20 Management Charter Initiative (MCI) 4/17–18 organisational 4/21 competitiveness 1/2 compliance 3/20 comprehension 7/10 concurrent validity 5/7 conference method 4/13 continuance commitment 3/21 continuous improvement 3/5 contracting 8/17 core abilities 4/5–7, 4/18, 4/20 core characteristics 4/9 core workers 3/11–12, 5/2 corporate culture 3/24 correlation coefficients 5/7–8 cost reduction 2/5 costs of interviews 5/17 of psychometric tests 5/17–20 and quality 3/2 and recruitment 5/10 sunk costs 3/21 counselling and careers 8/13 Cowling, A 1/4 CRAMP taxonomy 7/10–12 critical incident method 4/14 cross-functional teams 3/16 culture 3/23–27 change programmes 1/6, 3/5, 3/26–27 corporate culture 3/24 definition 3/24–25 and performance 3/25 and quality 3/4 customer satisfaction 3/3 Deal, T.E 3/24 de-centralisation 1/7, 3/9–10 I/2 decision-making teams 3/17 de-layering 3/8–9, 3/17 Deming, W.E 3/2 Devanna, M.A 2/3–4, 2/6 development centres 6/6, 6/17, 7/20, 8/10–11 development for employability 7/23 development workshops 8/13 disciplinary procedure 9/13–14 discrimination 5/10 diversification of work roles 4/15–16 downsizing 8/15 dress codes 3/24 educational opportunities 8/14 employee development 7/20–23 action learning 7/22 coaching 7/22 development centres 7/20 development for employability 7/23 learning contract 7/21 mentoring 7/22 purpose of 7/2 self-development 7/21 and training programmes 7/19–20 work experience 7/21 employee relations 9/2–24 collectivist v individualist approach 9/5 definition 9/2 legal framework 9/6–7 philosophical approach 9/3–6 pluralist approach 9/4 radical approach 9/4 unitarist approach 9/4 employee representation 9/9–12 unions 9/9–12 employees career expectations 8/8–9 involvement techniques 3/5, 3/22, 3/23 motivation 1/5, 1/6, 3/23, 4/5–7, 6/2 relationships 3/23 role behaviour 2/4 Employers’ Labour Use Strategies 3/12 empowerment 3/17, 7/2 end-results 4/2–3, 6/6–9, 7/15 enterprise culture 1/3 Evans, A 1/4 experimental designs 7/16–19 fairness 5/10, 5/12, 5/17, 5/20 fast track career management 8/11–12 feedback 6/2–3, 8/16 financial flexibility 3/13, 3/17 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Index Flanagan, J.C 4/14 flexible working arrangements 3/5, 3/10–14 advantages/disadvantages 3/13 definition 2/9 evaluation of 3/12–13 Flexible Firm 3/11–12 forms of flexibility 3/10–11 task flexibility 1/7 flexitime arrangements 3/11 Fombrun, C.J 2/1, 2/1, 2/3–4, 2/6 Ford, R.C 3/21 functional flexibility 3/10, 3/17, 3/18, 4/15 Gerhart, B 4/23 glass ceilings 8/19 globalisation 1/2, 8/7 goal setting 6/5, 6/8, 6/14, 7/10 graduate recruitment 5/3, 5/13, 5/21 grandfather appraisals 6/12 Greenhaus and Callanan career stage model 8/5–6 grievance procedure 9/13–14 group interviews 4/12 Guest, D.E 1/8, 1/9, 3/9, 3/22 HRM model 2/9–10, 3/4 Gutek, B.A 8/19, 8/21 Hakim, C 3/12 Hales, C.P 7/8 halo effect 6/10 hard HRM 1/5–6 Harvard models 2/1, 2/7–11 Beer model 2/7–9 evaluation of 2/11 Guest model 2/9–10, 3/4 Pettigrew approach 2/10 Hawthorne studies 3/15 health and well-being at work 9/14–20 lifestyle programmes 9/20 maximisation 9/18–20 organisational culture 9/20 physical aspect 9/16–17 psychological aspect 9/17–18 Hendry, C 1/4, 2/5, 2/10 Herriot, P 1/10, 8/15, 8/16, 8/17 hierarchical task analysis (HTA) 7/7–8 hierarchies 3/7, 3/8 ’high flyers’ 8/11 Hill, S 3/6 Holland, J.L 8/2–3 home-work conflicts 8/20 Honey, P 7/12 Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School human resource management definition 1/1–2 origins and evolution 1/2 Hunter, J.E 5/9, 5/12, 5/15, 6/7 Hunter, R.F 5/9, 5/12, 5/15 incentive schemes 3/22 individual ability 6/2 individual development 6/17 individual level training needs 7/4 industrial relations 1/4, 1/9 information provision 3/22 innovation 2/4 international teams 3/16 inter-rater reliability 5/6 interviews appraisal 6/4, 6/14–15 costs 5/17 group 4/12 one-to-one 4/11–12 recruitment 5/14–17 and training needs analysis 7/5 involvement techniques 3/5, 3/20, 3/22, 3/23, 9/20–24 communication 9/21 consultation 9/21 participation 9/22 success 9/23–24 Jackson, S.E 2/4 Janack, E.A 7/16 Janz, T 5/16, 5/16 Japanese management practices 1/2–3 job analysis 4/10–14 checklists 4/11 conference method 4/13 critical incident method 4/14 group interviews 4/12 observation 4/12 one-to-one interviews 4/11–12 and performance 4/16 questionnaires 4/11, 4/13 and recruitment 5/4 and strategic HRM 4/15–16 work diaries 4/13 work participation 4/14 job involvement 3/20 job roles 1/10, 3/10 Juran, J.M 3/2 Keenan, A 4/20, 5/11, 5/13, 5/21 Kennedy, A 3/24 I/3 Index Kirkpatrick, D.L 7/13–16 Latham, G.P 5/16, 6/5 leadership 3/26, 4/9, 7/19 learning 7/8–12, 7/14, 7/21 learning organisations 3/18–20, 5/3 Legge, K 3/3, 3/12, 3/12, 3/18 Locke, E.A 6/5 Long, P 6/4, 6/5, 6/6, 6/7, 6/8, 6/13, 6/19 loyalty 8/15 McBer model 4/18–19, 4/20 McGee, G.W 3/21 Makin, P.J 5/13, 5/21 management by objectives (MBO) 6/7–8 Management Charter Initiative (MCI) 4/17–18 management style 8/22 managerial roles 7/8 Matching HRM models 2/1, 2/3–7 evaluation of 2/6 Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna 2/3–4 Schuler group 2/4–6 memory training 7/11 mentoring 6/18, 8/12, 8/20 meta analysis of selection tools 5/8–10 Mintzberg, H 7/8 models of HRM defining characteristics 2/1–2 Harvard models 2/1, 2/7–11 Matching models 2/1, 2/3–7 Morris, J 3/10 motivation 1/5, 1/6, 3/23, 4/5–7, 6/2 Mount, M.K 5/19 Muchinsky, P 5/10, 5/13 Mumford, A 7/12 Naylor, J.C 4/10 needs analysis 7/5 needs identification 7/3–4 Newell, S 5/17 Nicholson, N 8/7, 8/8 numerical flexibility 3/10, 3/12 objective setting 6/5, 6/8, 6/14, 7/10 observation of job incumbents 4/12 Ogbonna, E 3/27 one-to-one interviews 4/11–12 operational level HRM 1/9–11 organisational behaviour (OB) 1/5, 2/6, 2/7 organisational commitment 3/20–23 affective commitment 3/21 and compliance 3/20 I/4 continuance commitment 3/21–22 determinants of 3/22–23 and motivation 3/23 nature of 3/20–22 and performance 3/23 related concepts 3/20–21 organisational competencies 4/21 organisational level training needs 7/3–4 organisational structure 3/5, 3/7–10 bureaucratic 3/7–8 de-centralisation 3/9–10 de-layering 3/8–9, 3/17 outsourcing 1/6, 3/11 part-time working 1/6, 3/12, 3/12 passive learning 7/10 Patterned Behaviour Description Interview 5/16–17 pay 4/24 and job evaluation 4/26 meaning and the individual 4/21–23 meaning and the organisation 4/23–24 and performance 4/27–29 pay bargaining 1/7 pay systems 3/9 and appraisals 6/5, 6/6, 6/15 incentive schemes 3/22 performance related pay (PRP) 3/13 piece work 3/13 wage flexibility 3/11 Pedler, M 3/19 performance behavioural indicators 4/9–10 and culture 3/25 determinants of 6/2 and job analysis 4/16, 6/3 and organisational commitment 3/23 and pay 4/21–29 requirements 2/4–6 group 4/4 individual 4/4–5 organisational 4/3–4 specifying 4/2–3 reviewing past performance 6/5 trait approach 4/7–9 performance management systems 6/16–17 performance related pay (PRP) 3/13 peripheral workers 3/11, 3/12, 5/2 personal development 8/8 personality and appraisal systems 6/8 and career choice 8/2–3 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Index gender differences 8/21–22 tests 5/19, 5/19 trait approach to performance 4/7–9 personnel changes 3/26 personnel management 1/3–4, 1/5 Peters, T.J 1/3 Pettigrew, A 2/10 physical-motor tests 5/18 piece work 3/13 Porter, M.J 2/4 predictive validity 5/7 privatisation 1/10 problem-solving teams 3/16 procedural learning 7/11 processes 4/2 process-oriented appraisal systems 6/7, 6/8–9 product superiority 3/2 production teams 3/16 productivity 6/7 promotion potential identification 6/6, 6/15, 6/16 psychological contract 8/8–9, 8/14–16 psychometric tests 5/17–20 public sector organisations 3/3 quality 1/8, 2/5, 2/9, 3/2–6 as organisational culture 3/4 costs 3/2 customer satisfaction 3/3–4 product superiority 3/2 in the Guest Model 3/4 total quality management 3/4–6 quality of working life (QWL) 3/15 questionnaires 4/11, 4/13, 5/12 race discrimination 5/10 Ragins, B.R 8/20 rating scales 6/9, 6/10–11 realistic job preview (RJP) 8/7 reference reports 5/12–14 reflex learning 7/10 resource provision 6/3 responsibility 3/18 results-oriented appraisal systems 6/7–8 Revans, R.N 7/22 reward allocation 3/27, 6/6, 6/15 rewards aid learning 7/9 Robertson, I.T 5/13, 5/21 Rogers, R 6/7 role development 8/8 Rowe, K.H 6/14 Saville & Holdsworth 4/11 Human Resource Management Edinburgh Business School Schein, E.H 3/24, 3/24, 3/26, 8/3–4 Schmidt, N 5/9, 5/19 Schuler, R.S 2/4–6, 2/6 selection matrix 5/4 selection paradigm model 5/3 selection tools ability tests 5/4, 5/6, 5/9, 5/18, 5/19 applicability 5/10, 5/17, 5/20 application forms 5/11 appointment decisions 5/5 assessment centres 5/20–22 biodata 5/11–12 choice of tool 5/4 fairness 5/10, 5/12, 5/17, 5/20 importance of selection 5/2 interviews 5/14–17 and job analysis 5/4 meta analysis 5/8–10 personality tests 5/19, 5/19 psychometric tests 5/17–20 reference reports 5/12–14 reliability of 5/6, 5/7–8 selection and strategic HRM 5/2–3 self-selection 5/2 simulations 5/4, 5/20, 5/21 situation-specific 5/9 usefulness of 5/10 validation procedures 5/5–8 self-appraisals 6/13 self-development 7/21, 8/2 self-managed teams 3/15, 3/16 self-selection 5/2 sensory-motor tests 5/18 sex discrimination 5/10 Shackleton, V 5/17 shared values 3/24, 3/25 simulations 5/4, 5/20, 5/21 situational factors 2/7 situational interviews 5/16–17 skill deficits 6/2 skills 1/8, 2/7, 4/5–7, 4/18, 4/20, 7/3 Smith, M 5/13 social networks 8/20 soft HRM 1/6 source traits 4/7 Sparrow, P.R 4/17 Spencer, L.M and S.M 4/20 stakeholder interests 2/7 Stanley, J.C 7/17 Stewart, R 7/8 strategic competency model 4/21 I/5 Index strategy business strategy 1/2–3, 1/7–9, 2/3, 2/3 competitive advantage 1/5 formulation and implementation 3/19 and role of HRM 1/7–9 and training programmes 1/4 stress 3/8 structured interviews 5/15–16 succession planning 6/18 Sundstrom, E 8/20 sunk costs 3/21 Super, D.E 8/5 target setting 6/5, 6/7, 6/14, 7/10 task flexibility 1/7 team working 1/7, 1/10, 3/5, 3/15–18 autonomous work groups 3/15 benefits 3/17 consequences for individuals 3/17–18 self-managed teams 3/15, 3/16 types of team 3/16–17 temporal flexibility 3/11, 3/12 test-retest reliability 5/6 Thomson, M 6/18 360-degree appraisals 6/13, 6/16 Tichy, N.M 2/3–4, 2/6 Torrington, D 1/4 total quality management 3/4–6 trade unions 1/7, 2/6 trainee reactions 7/13 training programmes 7/2–20 and appraisals 1/10, 6/5, 6/6, 6/15 content 7/7–8 designing 7/6–12 effectiveness evaluation criteria 7/13–16 experimental designs 7/16–19 external consultants 7/6 learning process 7/8–12 I/6 needs analysis system 7/5 needs identification 7/3–4 priority determination 7/5–6 purpose of 7/2 and strategic HRM 7/2–3 and strategy 1/4 systematic evaluation 7/13 and types of learner 7/12 trait approach to performance 4/7–9 Tranberg, M 8/3 value systems 3/24, 3/25 vertical segregation 8/19 wage flexibility 3/11 Waterman, R.H 1/3 weighted checklists 6/9 West, M.A 8/7, 8/8 Wilkinson, A 3/6 Wilkinson, B 3/27 within group design 7/17 women’s careers 8/18–22 choice process 8/19 opportunities 8/19–20 performance difference between sexes 8/21–22 work diaries 4/13 work experience 7/21 work groups 3/15 work involvement 3/20 work organisation 1/7, 8/14–16 work participation 4/14 Work Profiling System 4/11 work roles 3/19, 4/15 training needs 7/4 transitions 8/6–8 work systems 3/22 workbooks for career management 8/13 workforce capability 2/3 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management ... Solutions A2/1 Edinburgh Business School Human Resource Management Module The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management Contents 1.1 What is Human Resource Management? 1/1 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3... School Human Resource Management Module / The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management 1.2.3 Organisational Behaviour The mission of HRM is to maximise the utilisation of human resources... Business School Human Resource Management Module / The Origins and Nature of Human Resource Management ance appraisal and performance management, training and development, and career management,