AUTHORS Francisco Borrero • Frances Scelsi Hess • Juno Hsu Gerhard Kunze • Stephen A Leslie • Stephen Letro Michael Manga • Len Sharp • Theodore Snow • Dinah Zike National Geographic (t, c)Getty Images, (b)Paul Chesley/Getty Images About the Photo: The lava photo on the cover was taken in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park on the big island of Hawaii The lava in the photo is flowing from active vents on the flank of Kilauea volcano When lava flows into the sea, sulfuric acid in the lava mixes with chlorine in the water to form a mist of water vapor and hydrochloric acid Copyright © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database retrieval system, without prior written permission of the publisher The National Geographic features were designed and developed by the National Geographic’s Children’s Books and Education Division Copyright © National Geographic The name “National Geographic” and the Yellow Border Rectangle are trademarks of National Geographic and their use, without prior written permission, is strictly prohibited Send all inquires to: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 8787 Orion Place Columbus, OH 43240-4027 ISBN-13: 978-0-07-874636-9 ISBN-10: 0-07-874636-1 Printed in the United States of America 10 071/043 12 11 10 09 08 07 Student Guide Reading for Information xxii Scavenger Hunt xxv Unit Earth Science The Nature of Science Mapping Our World 28 Unit Composition of Earth 56 Matter and Change 58 Minerals 84 Igneous Rocks 110 Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks 132 Unit Surface Processes on Earth 160 10 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil 162 Mass Movements, Wind, and Glaciers 192 Surface Water 222 Groundwater 250 Unit The Dynamic Earth 464 17 18 19 20 Plate Tectonics .466 Volcanism 498 Earthquakes 526 Mountain Building 560 Unit Geologic Time 586 21 Fossils and the Rock Record 588 22 The Precambrian Earth 618 23 The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras 646 Unit Resources and the Environment 674 24 Earth Resources 676 25 Energy Resources 706 26 Human Impact on Resources 732 Unit Beyond Earth 760 Unit The Atmosphere and the Oceans 278 11 12 13 14 15 16 Atmosphere 280 Meteorology 312 The Nature of Storms 342 Climate 374 Earth’s Oceans 404 The Marine Environment 436 27 28 29 30 The Sun-Earth-Moon System 762 Our Solar System 794 Stars 828 Galaxies and the Universe 860 National Geographic Expeditions 890 Student Resources 940 Skillbuilder Handbook 941 Reference Handbook 954 English/Spanish Glossary .966 Index 1004 Credits 1027 Contents in Brief iii Dr Frances Scelsi Hess teaches Earth science at Cooperstown High School in New York She received her BS and MS in science from the State University at Oneonta, and her EdD from Columbia University Dr Hess is a Fellow of the Science Teachers Association of New York State, and has received numerous teaching awards, including the Phi Delta Kappa Reed Travel Scholarship to Australia and New Zealand Dr Chia Hui (Juno) Hsu currently works as a project scientist at University of California, Irvine She holds a BS in physics and Earth science from National Taiwan Normal University, an MS in atmospheric sciences from National Taiwan University, and a PhD in atmospheric sciences from Massachusetts Institute of Technology Before beginning her graduate work, Dr Hsu taught 9th-grade Earth science Her research interests include the dynamics of monsoons, climate regime shifts, and modeling global-scale atmospheric chemistry Dr Gerhard Kunze is professor emeritus of geology at the University of Akron in Ohio He has a BS in science and a PhD in geophysics from Penn State University He was an NRC research associate at Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas from 1973–1974 In 1990, Dr Kunze was awarded a senior Fulbright scholarship to teach geophysics at the Institute of Geophysics, a department of the University of Kiel in Germany Dr Stephen A Leslie is an associate professor of geology in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Arkansas in Little Rock His areas of research include paleontology, stratigraphy, and the evolution of early life on Earth He has a BS in geology from Bowling Green State University, an MS in geology from the University of Idaho, and a PhD in geology from The Ohio State University iv About the Authors (t to b)Courtesy of Francisco Borrero, (2)Courtesy of Frances Scelsi Hess, (3)Courtesy of Juno Hsu, (4)Courtesy of Gerhard Kunze, (5)Courtesy of Stephen Leslie Dr Francisco Borrero is a high school Earth science and Spanish teacher at Cincinnati Country Day School and a research associate and Adjunct Curator of Mollusks at Cincinnati Museum Center in Cincinnati, Ohio He has taught Earth science and Spanish for over 20 years Dr Borrero holds a BS in zoology from Universidad del Valle, Colombia, and MS and PhD degrees in biological sciences from the University of South Carolina at Columbia Dr Borrero’s research examines the relationship between physical habitat characteristics and the diversity and distribution of natural populations of mollusks (t to b)Courtesy of Stephen Letro, (2)Courtesy of Michael Manga, (3)Courtesy of Theodore Snow, (4)Courtesy of Dinah Zike Stephen Letro has been a meteorologist for the National Weather Service, the media, and private industry since 1971 He currently serves as the Meteorologist-in-Charge of the National Weather Service office in Jacksonville, Florida He received his BS in meteorology from Florida State University with an emphasis on tropical meteorology He is a member of the National Hurricane Center’s Hurricane Liaison Team, and has received numerous awards, including an award for his role in restructuring the National Weather Service Dr Michael Manga is a professor of Earth and planetary science at U.C Berkeley He has a BS in geophysics from McGill University and a PhD in Earth science from Harvard University His areas of research include volcanology, the internal evolution and dynamics of planets, and hydrogeology He is a MacArthur Fellow, and has received the Donath medal from the Geological Society of America and the Macelwane medal from the American Geophysical Union Len Sharp taught Earth Science at Liverpool High School, New York, for 30 years He has a BS in secondary education and an MS in science education from Syracuse University Mr Sharp was president of the Science Teachers Association of New York from1991–1992, and president of the National Earth Science Teachers Association from 1992–1994 He was a Presidential Awardee in 1995, and received the 2005 Distinguished Teacher Award from NSTA and the 2006 NAGT—Eastern Section, Outstanding Earth Science Teacher Dr Theodore Snow is a professor of astronomy at the University of Colorado He has a BA from Yale University, and an MS and PhD from the University of Washington Dr Snow is a founder and former director of the Center for Astrophysics and Space Astronomy at the University of Colorado Dr Snow led instrument development programs for space-based telescopes, and is now a member of the Science Team for an ultraviolet spectrograph to be installed aboard the Hubble Space Telescope in early 2008 Dinah Zike is an international curriculum consultant and inventor who has developed educational products and three-dimensional, interactive graphic organizers for over 30 years As president and founder of Dinah-Might Adventures, L.P., Dinah is the author of more than 100 award-winning educational publications, including The Big Book of Science Dinah has a BS and an MS in educational curriculum and instruction from Texas A&M University Dinah Zike’s Foldables are an exclusive feature of McGraw-Hill textbooks National Geographic, founded in 1888 for the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge, is the world’s largest nonprofit scientific and educational organization The Children’s Books and Education Division of National Geographic supports National Geographic’s mission by developing innovative educational programs National Geographic’s Visualizing and Expeditions features are exclusive components of Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe Visit author biographies at glencoe.com About About the the Authors Authors v v Teacher Advisory Board The Teacher Advisory Board gave the editorial and design team feedback on the content and design of the Student Edition We thank these teachers for their hard work and creative suggestions Francisco Borrero Cincinnati Country Day High School Cincinnati, OH Bill Brown Grandview Heights High School Columbus, OH Carmen S Dixon East Knox High School Howard, OH Jane Karabaic Steubenville City Schools Steubenville, OH Joel Heuberger Waite High School Toledo, OH Terry Stephens Edgewood High School Trenton, OH Reviewers Each teacher reviewed selected chapters of Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe, and provided feedback and suggestions for improving the effectiveness of the instruction vi Mark Brazo Lincoln High School Portland, OR Carolyn C Elliot South Iredell High School Statesville, NC Michael J Passow White Plains Middle School White Plains, NY Gayle R Dawson Blackman High School Murfreesboro, TN Sandra Forster-Terrell Atherton High School Louisville, KY Jeremy Richardson Lewis and Clark High School Spokane, WA William Dicks Northville High School Northville, MI Carol L Jarocha Northville High School Northville, MI Angela Jones Rizzo AC Flora High School Columbia, SC Alvin Echeverria Del Sol High School Las Vegas, NV Steve Kluge Fox Lane High School Bedford, NY Terry A Stephens Edgewood High School Trenton, OH Wendy Elkins Blue Valley Northwest High School Overland Park, KS Sussan Nwabunachi Oladipo Wells Academy High School Chicago, IL Reviewers Content Consultants Content consultants each reviewed selected chapters of Science Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe for content accuracy and clarity Anastasia Chopelas, PhD Research Professor of Earth and Space Sciences University of Washington Seattle, WA Diane Clayton, PhD University of California at Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, CA Sarah Gille, PhD Associate Professor Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering University of California San Diego San Diego, CA Alan Gishlick, PhD National Center for Science Education Oakland, CA Janet Herman, PhD Professor and Director of Program of Interdisciplinary Research in Contaminant Hydrogeology University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA David Ho, PhD Storke-Doherty Lecturer & Doherty Associate Research Scientist Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory Columbia University New York, NY Jose Miguel Hurtado, PhD Associate Professor of Geology University of Texas at El Paso El Paso, TX Monika Kress, PhD Assistant Professor of Physics and Astronomy San Jose State University San Jose, CA Amy Leventer, PhD Associate Professor of Geology Colgate University Hamilton, NY Amala Mahadevan, PhD Associate Research Professor Department of Earth Sciences Boston University Boston, MA Nathan Niemi, PhD Assistant Professor of Geological Sciences University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI Anne Raymond, PhD Professor of Geology and Geophysics Texas A&M University College Station, TX Consultants & Teacher Advisory Board Consultants vii vii Your book is divided into chapters that are organized around Themes, Big Ideas, and Main Ideas of Earth Science Student Guide Reading for Information xxii Scavenger Hunt xxv THEMES are overarching concepts used throughout the entire book that help you tie what you learn together They help you see the connections among major ideas and concepts Unit BIG Ideas appear in each chapter and help you focus on topics within the themes The Big Ideas are broken down even further into Main Ideas Chapter MAIN Ideas draw you into more specific details about Earth science All the Main Ideas of a chapter add up to the chapter’s Big Idea Earth Science The Nature of Science Section Earth Science Section Methods of Scientists 10 Section Communication in Science 17 Chapter Mapping Our World 28 THEMES Change Structures Geologic Time Systems Scientific Inquiry Section Latitude and Longitude 30 Section Types of Maps 34 Section Remote Sensing 41 Unit Composition of Earth 56 Chapter Matter and Change 58 BIG Idea one per chapter Section Matter 60 Section Combining Matter 66 Section States of Matter 73 Chapter Minerals 84 MAIN Idea Section What is a mineral? 86 Section Types of Minerals 96 one per section Chapter Igneous Rocks 110 Section What are igneous rocks? 112 Section Classification of Igneous Rocks 118 viii Table of Contents Contents Chapter Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks 132 Section Formation of Sedimentary Rocks 134 Section Types of Sedimentary Rocks 141 Section Metamorphic Rocks 145 Unit The Atmosphere and the Oceans 278 Chapter 11 Atmosphere 280 Unit Surface Processes on Earth 160 Section Atmospheric Basics 282 Section Properties of the Atmosphere 289 Section Clouds and Precipitation 297 Chapter 12 Chapter Meteorology 312 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil 162 Section Weathering 164 Section Erosion and Deposition 171 Section Soil 176 Section Section Section Section Chapter Chapter 13 Mass Movements, Wind, and Glaciers 192 The Nature of Storms 342 The Causes of Weather Weather Systems Gathering Weather Data Weather Analysis and Prediction Section Mass Movements 194 Section Wind 201 Section Glaciers 207 Section Section Section Section Chapter Chapter 14 Surface Water 222 Climate 374 Section Surface Water Movement 224 Section Stream Development 232 Section Lakes and Freshwater Wetlands 238 Section Section Section Section Chapter 10 Thunderstorms Severe Thunderstorms Tropical Storms Recurrent Weather 314 318 324 329 Defining Climate Climate Classification Climatic Changes Impact of Human Activities 344 350 355 361 376 381 387 393 Groundwater 250 Chapter 15 Section Movement and Storage of Groundwater 252 Section Groundwater Weathering and Deposition 259 Section Groundwater Supply 263 Earth’s Oceans 404 Section An Overview of Oceans 406 Section Seawater 413 Section Ocean Movements 421 Table of Contents ix Contents Chapter 16 The Marine Environment 436 Section Shoreline Features 438 Section Seafloor Features 447 Unit Geologic Time 586 Chapter 21 Fossils and the Rock Record 588 Unit The Dynamic Earth 464 Chapter 17 Section Section Section Section The Rock Record Relative-Age Dating Absolute-Age Dating Fossil Remains 590 595 601 606 Plate Tectonics 466 Section Section Section Section Drifting Continents Seafloor Spreading Plate Boundaries Causes of Plate Motions 468 473 480 486 Chapter 18 Volcanism 498 Section Volcanoes 500 Section Eruptions 508 Section Intrusive Activity 514 Chapter 19 Earthquakes 526 Section Section Section Section Forces Within Earth Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior Measuring and Locating Earthquakes Earthquakes and Society 528 534 539 545 Chapter 20 Mountain Building 560 Section Crust-Mantle Relationships 562 Section Orogeny 567 Section Other Types of Mountain Building 574 Chapter 22 The Precambrian Earth 618 Section Early Earth Section Formation of the Crust and Continents Section Formation of the Atmosphere and Oceans Section Early Life on Earth Table of Contents 623 628 633 Chapter 23 The Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic Eras 646 Section The Paleozoic Era 648 Section The Mesozoic Era 655 Section The Cenozoic Era 660 Unit Resources and the Environment 674 Chapter 24 Earth Resources 676 Section Section Section Section x 620 Natural Resources Resources from Earth’s Crust Air Resources Water Resources 678 682 687 693 Contents Chapter 25 Energy Resources 706 Section Conventional Energy Resources 708 Section Alternative Energy Resources 714 Section Conservation of Energy Resources 720 Chapter 26 Human Impact on Resources 732 Section Populations and the Use of Natural Resources Section Human Impact on Land Resources Section Human Impact on Air Resources Section Human Impact on Water Resources eXpeditions! National Geographic Expeditions are referenced within the units and chapters at point of use, to support or extend chapter content Student Resources Skillbuilder Handbook 940 734 737 743 748 Unit Beyond Earth 760 Chapter 27 The Sun-Earth-Moon System 762 Section Tools of Astronomy 764 Section The Moon 770 Section The Sun-Earth-Moon System 775 Problem-Solving Skills Make Comparisons Analyze Information Synthesize Information Take Notes and Outline Understand Cause and Effect Read a Time Line Analyze Media Sources Use Graphic Organizers Debate Skills 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 Math Skills Measure in SI Convert Temperature Make and Use Tables Make and Use Graphs 950 950 951 951 Reference Handbook 954 Chapter 28 Our Solar System 794 Section Section Section Section Formation of the Solar System The Inner Planets The Outer Planets Other Solar System Objects 796 804 811 816 Chapter 29 Safety in the Laboratory Physiographic Map of Earth Topographic Symbols Weather Map Symbols Periodic Table of the Elements Relative Humidity Minerals Rocks Solar System Charts 954 956 958 959 960 961 962 964 965 Stars 828 Glossary/Glosario 966 Section The Sun 830 Section Measuring the Stars 837 Section Stellar Evolution 847 Index 1004 Credits 1027 Chapter 30 Galaxies and the Universe 860 Section The Milky Way Galaxy 862 Section Other Galaxies in the Universe 869 Section Cosmology 878 Table of Contents xi LAUNCH Lab Start off each chapter with a hands-on introduction to the subject matter Chapter Chapter xii Why is precise communication important? 12 How does a cold air mass form? 313 Can you make an accurate map? 29 13 Why does lighting form? 343 What fortified cereals contain? 59 14 How can you model cloud cover? 375 What shapes minerals form? 85 15 How are minerals identified? 111 How much of Earth’s surface is covered by water? 405 What happened here? 133 16 Where does chalk form? 437 How does change relate to surface area? 163 17 Is California moving? 467 How does water affect sediments on slopes? 193 18 What makes magma rise? 499 19 What can cause an earthquake? 527 How does water infiltrate? 223 20 How does crust displace mantle? 561 10 How is water stored underground? 251 21 How are fossils made? 589 11 What causes cloud formation? 281 22 How liquids of different densities model early Earth? 619 23 How is oil stored in rocks? 647 24 What natural resources you use in your classroom? 677 25 Can you identify sources of energy? 707 26 What resources are used in classroom items? 733 27 How can the Sun-Earth-Moon system be modeled? 763 28 What can be learned from space missions? 795 29 How can you observe sunspots? 829 30 How big is the Milky Way? 861 Launch Labs David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit Labs Data Analysis lab Build your analytical skills using actual data from real scientific sources Chapter Chapter Make and Use Graphs: How can graphs help interpret data? 18 19 Interpret the Data: How can you find an earthquake’s epicenter? 543 Make and Use a Table: What information should you include in a mineral identification chart? 94 20 Make and Use a Graph: Can you get a rebound? 565 23 Interpret the Data: How can you determine a soil’s texture? 182 Interpret the Table: Can you find the time? 652 24 Interpret the Data: How much radioactivity is in ice cores? 208 Interpret Graphs: What is the rate of deforestation in the Amazon? 688 25 13 Interpret the Table: How can you calculate a heat wave? 364 Make and Use Graphs: What proportion of energy resource types are used to heat homes? 722 14 Interpret the Data: What is the temperature in Phoenix, Arizona? 377 26 Interpret the Data: Are you breathing cleaner air? 746 15 Graph Data: When does the tide come in? 423 29 Interpret Data: Can you identify elements in a star? 835 18 Interpret the Graph: How zones of volcanism relate to lava production? 501 Problem-Solving lab Use math-based skill activities that often require data interpretation and graphing Calculate Gradients: How can you analyze changes in elevation? 37 16 Interpret Graphs: How surface elevations compare? 449 Interpret Scientific Illustrations: How compounds form? 70 17 Interpret Scientific Illustrations: How you estimate mineral composition? 122 Interpret Scientific Illustrations: How does plate motion change along a transform boundary? 484 21 Interpret Scientific Illustrations: Which metamorphic minerals will form? 148 Interpret the Diagram: How you interpret the relative ages of rock layers? 599 22 Interpret the Graph: How sediments move in a stream? 227 Calculate Profits: How you calculate mining profits? 630 27 Interpret Scientific Illustrations: How can you predict how a solar eclipse will look to an observer at various positions? 782 28 Apply Kepler’s Third Law: How well the orbits of the planets conform to Kepler’s third law? 807 30 Make and Use Graphs: How was the Hubble Constant derived? 874 10 Make a Topographic Profile: How does water level vary in an artesian well? 264 11 Interpret the Graph: How you calculate relative humidity? 294 12 Interpret a Scientific Illustration: How you analyze a weather map? 330 Data Analysis Labs and Problem-Solving Labs xiii Labs Practice scientific methods and hone your lab skills with these quick activities Chapter Chapter xiv Determine the Relationship Between Variables: How the rates of heat absorption and release vary between soil and water? 12 16 Measure Sediment Settling Rates: How fast sediment grains sink? 453 Locate Places on Earth: How can you locate specific places on Earth with latitude and longitude? 32 17 Model Ocean-Basin Formation: How did a divergent boundary form the South Atlantic Ocean? 481 Identify Elements: What elements are in your classroom? 62 18 Model a Caldera: How calderas form? 505 19 Make a Map: How is a seismic-intensity map made? 541 Recognize Cleavage and Fracture: How is cleavage used? 92 20 Model Isostatic Rebound: How can isostatic rebound be measured? 564 Compare Igneous Rocks: How igneous rocks differ? 115 21 Determine Relative Age: How is relative age determined? 597 Model Sediment Layering: How layers form in sedimentary rocks? 136 22 Model Red Bed Formation: Why are red beds red? 631 Model Erosion: How rocks erode? 172 23 Model Glacial Deposition: How glaciers deposit different types of rocks and sediments? 210 Model Continental Shelf Area: How does shelf area change when continents collide? 653 24 Determine the Hardness of Water: How easily are soap suds produced? 695 Model Lake Formation: How surface materials determine where lakes form? 240 25 Model Oil Migration: How does oil move through layers of porous rocks? 712 10 Model an Artesian Well: How does an artesian well form? 265 26 11 Investigate Dew Formation: How does dew form? 295 Model Nutrient Loss: How does soil lose nutrients when subjected to farming, stripmining, or development? 740 27 12 Compare the Angles of Sunlight to Earth: What is the relationship between the angle of sunlight and amount of heating? 315 Predict the Sun’s Summer Solstice Position: How can the Sun’s position during the summer solstice be determined at specific latitudes? 776 13 Model Flood Conditions: How can mild rains cause floods? 362 28 Explore Eccentricity: How is eccentricity of an ellipse calculated? 801 14 Model the Greenhouse Effect: How does the atmosphere trap radiation? 394 29 Model Parallax: How does parallax angle change with distance? 843 15 Model Seawater: What is the chemical composition of seawater? 416 30 Model Expansion: What does uniform expansion look like? 873 MiniLabs Labs Apply the skills you developed in Launch Labs, Data Analysis Labs, ProblemSolving Labs, and MiniLabs in these chapter-ending, real-world labs Chapter Measurement and SI Units 21 Mapping: Use a Topographic Map 48 Precipitate Salts 77 Design Your Own: Make a Field Guide For Minerals 103 Chapter 17 Model Plate Boundaries and Isochrons 490 18 Internet: Predict the Safety of a Volcano 519 19 Relate Epicenters and Plate Tectonics 553 20 Mapping: Make a Map Profile 578 Design Your Own: Model Crystal Formation 125 21 Design Your Own: Interpret History-Shaping Events 611 Interpret Changes in Rocks 153 22 Mapping: Map Continental Growth 639 Model Mineral Weathering 185 23 Solving Dinosaur Fossil Puzzles 667 Mapping: Map a Landslide 214 24 Predict the Velocity of a Stream 243 Design Your Own: Monitor Daily Water Usage 699 10 Mapping: Track Groundwater Pollution 270 25 Design Your Own: Design an EnergyEfficient Building 725 11 Interpret Pressure-Temperature Relationships 305 26 Mapping: Pinpoint a Source Of Pollution 752 12 Mapping: Interpret a Weather Map 334 27 Mapping: Determine Relative Ages of Lunar Features 786 13 Internet: Track a Tropical Cyclone 367 28 14 Design Your Own: Identify a Microclimate 397 Design Your Own: Model the Solar System 821 29 Identify Stellar Spectral Lines 853 15 Model Water Masses 429 30 Internet: Classify Galaxies 883 16 Mapping: Identify Coastal Landforms 456 GeoLabs xv Explore today’s world of Earth science Go along on an Earth science expedition, delve into new technologies, uncover discoveries impacting the environment, and discover the hot topics in Earth science eXpeditions! Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 13 Chapter 16 On Site: In the Footsteps of Disaster 20 On Site: Crystals at Large in Mexico .102 On Site: Geology in Central Park 152 On Site: Storm Spotters 366 On Site: Surveying the Deep Ocean Floor 455 Get an inside look at exciting places and scientists doing real-world Earth science Chapter 18 On Site: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory 518 Chapter 20 On Site: Hiking the Appalachian Trail 577 Chapter 23 On Site: Digging for Dinosaurs .666 Chapter 27 On Site: Living in Space 785 Discover recent advancements that have influenced Earth science Chapter Mapping Disaster Zones 47 Chapter Liquid Crystal Displays 76 Chapter Space-Age Technology Shapes Modern Farming .184 Chapter 21 Discovering Dinosaur Tissues 610 Chapter 22 Exploring Mars .638 Chapter 26 Measuring and Modeling Global Warming 751 Chapter 28 Water in the Solar System 820 Chapter 29 Space Weather and Earth Systems 852 Chapter 30 Black Holes Are Green? 882 Explore environmental issues that influence Earth science Chapter Moon Rocks 124 Chapter 10 Watcher of the Water .269 Chapter 11 Ozone Variation 304 Chapter 15 Bacterial Counts and Full Moons 428 Chapter 17 Vailulu’u Seamount 489 Chapter 25 Bacteria Power! 724 Examine Earth science in the news and sharpen your debating skills on complex issues in Earth science Chapter Slipping Away 213 Chapter The World of Water .242 Chapter 12 Weather Forecasting — Precision from Chaos 333 xvi Real-World Earth Science Features Chapter 14 Effects of Global Warming on the Arctic 396 Chapter 19 Learning from the Past 552 Chapter 24 The Price of Water 698 Careers in EARTH SCIENCE Unit Speleologist Chapter Cartographer 44 Unit Unit Geologist 56 Chapter Lapidary 90 Chapter Sedimentologist 138 Unit Unit Glaciologist 160 Chapter Landscaper .177 Chapter Geochemist Technician 240 Chapter 10 Hydrogeologist .266 Unit Marine Scientist 278 Chapter 11 Weather Observer 298 Chapter 12 Meteorologist 316 Chapter 13 Hurricane Hunter 360 Chapter 14 Climatologist 377 Chapter 15 Oceanographer .408 Investigate a day in the life of people working in the field of Earth science Volcanologist 464 Chapter 17 Marine Geologist 475 Chapter 20 Petrologist 568 Archaeologist 586 Chapter 21 Petroleum Geologist .600 Chapter 22 Planetary Geologist 622 Chapter 23 Paleoecologist 652 Unit Environmental Technician 674 Chapter 24 Materials Engineer 680 Chapter 25 Environmental Consultant 721 Chapter 26 Hydrologist .750 Unit Astronaut 760 Chapter 27 Space Engineer .765 Chapter 28 Planetologist 798 Chapter 29 Spectroscopist 845 Chapter 30 Computer Programmer 876 History in Focus Interactive Time Line Interactive Time Lines explore science and history through milestones in Earth science Chapter Chapter Major Events in Earth Science 14 Mapping Technology 42 Mineral Use Through Time 98 Floods in Focus 228 13 Storm Tracking 358 15 Developments in Oceanography 406 18 Volcanoes in Focus 502 19 Major Earthquakes and Advances in Research and Design 530 21 Fossil Discoveries and Technology 592 25 Development of Alternative Energy Sources 716 27 Development of Astronomy 766 Careers xvii Analyze complex Earth science topics with animations of the National Geographic Visualizing pages Chapter Chapter Visualizing Scientific Methods 11 16 Visualizing the Ocean Floor 450 Visualizing GPS Satellites 45 17 Visualizing Seafloor Spreading 478 Visualizing Bonds 69 18 Visualizing Eruptions 511 Visualizing the Silica Tetrahedron 97 19 Visualizing Seismic Waves 537 Visualizing Fractional Crystallization and Crystal Settling 116 20 Visualizing the Rise and Fall of the Appalachians 572 Visualizing Cross-Bedding and Ripple Marks 139 21 Visualizing the Geologic Time Scale 591 22 Visualizing Continent Formation 626 Visualizing Soil Orders 181 23 Visualizing Continental Glacial Features 211 Visualizing the Basin and Range Province 663 Visualizing Erosion and Deposition in a Meander 235 24 Visualizing Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles 689 10 Visualizing Springs 257 25 Visualizing Coal 711 11 Visualizing the Layers of the Atmosphere 285 26 Visualizing Agricultural Practices 741 27 Visualizing the Phases of the Moon 779 12 Visualizing the Coriolis Effect 319 28 Visualizing the Kuiper Belt 817 13 Visualizing Cyclone Formation 357 29 Visualizing Star Groupings 839 14 Visualizing Worldwide Climates 382 30 Visualizing The Local Group 871 15 Visualizing the Salt Cycle 415 Interactive Tables Check your understanding by viewing interactive versions of tables in your text Chapter Subspecialties of Earth Science .7 Chapter 19 Types of Faults 531 Types of Maps and Projections 39 Modified Mercalli Scale 540 Mohs Scale of Hardness 91 21 Half-Lives of Selected Radioactive Isotopes 603 22 How Life Might Have Begun on Earth: Three Hypotheses 634 23 Major Extinctions in the Phanerozoic 659 25 Advantages of Public Transportation 721 27 Orbiting Telescopes 768 Special Properties of Minerals 94 Types of Magma 112 Classification of Sedimentary Rocks 142 Types of Dunes 205 10 World’s Water Supply 252 11 Components of the Atmosphere 284 12 Air Mass Characteristics 316 13 Fujita Tornado Intensity Scale 353 The Heat Index 363 xviii 15 Removal of Sea Salts 416 17 Summary of Convergent Boundaries 483 18 Types of Volcanoes 506 Concepts in Motion The Moon and Earth 772 28 Physical Data of the Planets 798 29 Relative Properties of the Sun 830 Relationships of Spectral Types of Stars 844 Properties of Main-Sequence Stars 845 30 Population I and II Stars of the Milky Way 866 Concepts in Motion Animated Art Enhance and enrich your knowledge of Earth science concepts through simple and 3D animations of visuals Chapter Chapter Time Zones 33 Seismic Waves 532 Electron Cloud 60 Seismometers 534 Periodic Table of Elements 61 P-Waves and S-Waves 536 Ionic Bonding 68 Tsunami 548 20 Isosasty 564 pH Scale 71 Island Formation 568 Rockslides 197 Convergence 570 Dune Migration 204 Folding Rocks 571 Glacier Formation 207 Faults 528 Map Projections 34 Electron Flow 68 19 21 Angular Unconformity 598 Water Cycle 224 Alpha Decay 601 Meander Formation 234 Half-Lives 602 10 Saltwater Contamination 267 22 Miller-Urey Experiment 633 11 Conduction, Convection, and Radiation 288 24 Distillation 697 12 Fronts 322 25 Geothermal Power 717 13 Thunderstorm Development 347 Tornado Formation 352 14 Fission Reactor 718 26 Carrying Capacity 735 Tropical Cyclones 355 How Smog Forms 744 Seasons 388 Ozone Depletion 745 Greenhouse Effect 393 27 Moon Impact Theory 774 15 Waves 421 Eclipse 782 16 Longshore Currents 441 28 Gravitational Attraction 802 17 Continental Drift 469 29 Doppler Effect 840 18 Subduction 501 Parallax 841 Divergent Plate Boundaries 502 Star Formation 848 Caldera Formation 505 Helium Core 849 Concepts in Motion xix eXpeditions! Swim the Okavango Explore the African Landscape Dig for Dinosaurs W hat is it like to scuba dive with crocodiles in the Okavango delta? Or fly in a bush plane over the African continent? Or dig for dinosaurs in China? The National Geographic Expeditions allow you to share in the excitement and adventures of explorers, scientists, and environmentalists as they venture into the unknown Each Expedition takes you on a journey that enriches your learning about our dynamic planet xx National Geographic Expeditions National Geographic Expeditions Table of Contents 892 Tracing the Human footprint 898 State of Rock 904 Okavango 910 Super Storms 916 The Next Big One 922 Jewels in the Ash 928 Frogs 934 Night Vision Use with Chapter Use with Chapters and Use with Chapters and 10 Use with Chapters 11 and 13 Use with Chapter 19 Use with Chapter 21 Use with Chapter 26 Use with Chapters 27 and 28 For more information on these Expeditions, visit glencoe.com You can also link to original National Geographic articles that cover these topics and more National Geographic Expeditions xxi When you read Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe, you need to read for information Science is nonfiction writing; it describes real-life events, people, ideas, and technology Here are some tools that this book has to help you read Before You Read By reading the BIG Ideas and MAIN Ideas prior to reading the chapter or section, you will get a preview of the coming material Each unit preview lists the chapters in the unit An overall BIG Idea is listed for each chapter The Big Idea describes what you will learn in the chapter The Dynamic Earth Chapter 17 Plate Tectonics BIG Idea Most geologic activity occurs at the boundaries between plates Chapter 18 Volcanism BIG Idea Volcanoes develop from magma moving upward from deep within Earth Chapter 19 Earthquakes BIG Idea Earthquakes are natural vibrations of the ground, some of which are caused by movement along fractures in Earth’s crust Chapter 20 464 Volcanic eruption Source: Unit 5, p 464 464_465_UO5_874636.indd 464 18.1 Volcanoes MAIN Idea The locations of volcanoes are mostly determined by plate tectonics 18.2 Eruptions MAIN Idea The composition of magma determines the characteristics of a volcanic eruption The MAIN Ideas within a chapter support the BIG Idea of the chapter Each section of the chapter has a Main Idea that describes the focus of the section 18.3 Intrusive Activity MAIN Idea Magma that solid- ifies below ground forms geologic features different from those formed by magma that cools at the surface Earth Science Visit glencoe.com to learn more about the work of volcanologists Then write a short newspaper article about how volcanologists predicted a recent eruption Mountain Building BIG Idea Mountains form through dynamic processes which crumple, fold, and create faults in Earth’s crust Volcanism BIG Idea Volcanoes develop from magma moving upward from deep within Earth CAREERS IN EARTH SCIENCE Volcanologist This volcanologist is monitoring volcanic activity to help forecast an eruption Volcanologists spend much of their time in the field, collecting samples and measuring changes in the shape of a volcano Lava river GeoFacts OTHER WAYS TO PREVIEW • All the lava from Kilauea could pave a road three times around Earth • There are 500 active volcanoes on Earth today • Read the chapter title to find out what the topic Destruction by lava • Magma comes from the Greek word meaning dough • Many of Earth’s geographic features are caused by volcanoes • • 498 Source: Chapter 18, p 498 498_499_C18_CO_874636.indd 498 xxii 2/6/07 3:30:36 PM Reading for Information • will be Skim the photos, illustrations, captions, graphs, and tables Look for vocabulary terms that are boldfaced and highlighted Create an outline using section titles and heads 2/16/07 4:33:13 PM Reading for Information As You Read Within each section you will find a tool to deepen your understanding and a tool to check your understanding Section Objectives Volcanoes ◗ Describe how plate tectonics influences the formation of volcanoes ◗ Locate major zones of volcanism ◗ Identify the parts of a volcano ◗ Differentiate between volcanic landforms MAIN Idea The locations of volcanoes are mostly determined by plate tectonics Real-World Reading Link Road crews spread salt on icy winter roads convergent: tending to move toward one point or to approach each other Zones of Volcanism New Vocabulary Volcanoes are fueled by magma Recall from Chapter that magma is a slushy mixture of molten rock, mineral crystals, and gases As you observed in the Launch Lab, once magma forms, it rises toward Earth’s surface because it is less dense than the surrounding mantle and crust Magma that reaches Earth’s surface is called lava Volcanism describes all the processes associated with the discharge of magma, hot fluids, and gases As you read this, approximately 20 volcanoes are erupting In a given year, volcanoes will erupt in about 60 different places on Earth The distribution of volcanoes on Earth’s surface is not random A map of active volcanoes, shown in Figure 18.1, reveals striking patterns on Earth’s surface Most volcanoes form at plate boundaries The majority form at convergent boundaries and divergent boundaries Along these margins, magma rises toward Earth’s surface Only about percent of magma erupts far from plate boundaries volcanism hot spot flood basalt fissure conduit vent crater caldera shield volcano cinder cone composite volcano ■ Figure 18.1 Most of Earth’s active volcanoes are located along plate boundaries Katmai Arctic Ocean Augustine Asia Europe Mount St Helens Fujiyama Pinatubo Indian Ocean The Real-World Reading Link describes how the section’s content may relate to you because salt makes the ice melt at a lower temperature At extremely high temperatures, rocks can melt Often, if heated rocks are in contact with water, they melt more easily Review Vocabulary Australia Mauna Loa Kilauea Pacific Ocean Parícutin Popocatepetl Fernandina Cotopaxi Krakatoa Tambora Surtsey Vesuvius Santorini North America Atlantic Ocean Pelée Etna Africa South America Active volcano Plate boundary Circum-Pacific belt Source: Section 18.1, p 502 Indian Ocean ■ Figure 18.3 Eruptions at divergent boundaries tend to be nonexplosive At the divergent boundary on the ocean floor, eruptions often form huge piles of lava called pillow lava 500 Chapter 18 • Volcanism 500_507_C18_S01_874636.indd 500 Source: Section 18.1, p 500 2/6/07 2:47:40 PM Interactive Figure To see an animation of divergent plate boundaries, visit glencoe.com Reading Checks are questions that assess your understanding VOCABULARY SCIENCE USAGE V COMMON USAGE Plume Science usage: an elongated column Common usage: a large, showy feather of a bird Divergent volcanism Recall from Chapter 17 that at divergent plate boundaries tectonic plates move apart and new ocean floor is produced as magma rises to fill the gap At ocean ridges, this lava takes the form of giant pillows like those in Figure 18.3, and is called pillow lava Unlike the explosive volcanoes detailed in Figure 18.4, volcanism at divergent boundaries tends to be nonexplosive, with effusions of large amounts of lava About twothirds of Earth’s volcanism occurs underwater along divergent boundaries at ocean ridges Reading Check Convert the fraction of volcanism that happens underwater to a percentage Hot spots Some volcanoes form far from plate boundaries over hot spots Scientists hypothesize that hot spots are unusually hot regions of Earth’s mantle where high-temperature plumes of magma rise to the surface ■ Figure 18.4 Volcanoes in Focus A.D 79 Mount Vesuvius in Italy erupts, burying two cities in ash Volcanoes constantly shape Earth’s surface 4845 B.C Mount Mazama erupts in Oregon The mountain collapses into a 9-km-wide depression, known today as Crater Lake (topographic map) 502 1630 B.C In Greece, Santorini explodes, causing tsunamis 200 m high Nearby, Minoan civilization on the Isle of Crete disappears Chapter 18 • Volcanism 500_507_C18_S01_874636.indd 502 2/6/07 2:47:51 PM Reading for Information xxiii Scavenger Hunt Reading for Information OTHER READING SKILLS • Ask yourself: What is the BIG Idea ? What is the MAIN Idea ? • Think about people, places, and situations that you’ve encountered Are there any similarities with those mentioned in this book? • Relate the information in this book to other areas you have studied • Predict events or outcomes by using clues and information that you already know • Change your predictions as you read and gather new information Types of Volcanoes After You Read Follow up your reading with a summary and assessment of the material to evaluate if you understood the text Cinder cones When eruptions eject small pieces of magma into the air, cinder cones form as this material, called tephra, falls back to Earth and piles up around the vent Cinder cones have steep sides and are generally small; most are less than 500 m high The Lassen Volcanic Park cinder cone shown in Table 18.1 is 700 m high Cinder cones often form on or very near larger volcanoes Download quizzes, key terms, and flash cards from glencoe.com BIG Idea Volcanoes develop from magma moving upward from deep within Earth Vocabulary Composite volcanoes Composite volcanoes are formed of layers of hardened chunks of lava from violent eruptions alternating with layers of lava that oozed downslope before solidifying Composite volcanoes are generally cone-shaped with concave slopes, and are much larger than cinder cones Because of their explosive nature, they are potentially dangerous to humans and the environment Some examples of these are Mount Augustine in Alaska, shown in Table 18.1, and several in the Cascade Range of the western United States, such as Mount St Helens Section 18 18 Assessment Understand Main Ideas ◗ Volcanism includes all the processes in which magma and gases rise to Earth’s surface Identify two volcanoes in the Mediterranean Belt MAIN Idea Explain how the location of volcanoes is related to the theory of plate tectonics ◗ Most volcanoes on land are part of two major volcanic chains: the Circum-Pacific Belt and the Mediterranean Belt Draw a volcano, labeling the parts ◗ Parts of a volcano include a vent, magma chamber, crater, and caldera Think Critically ◗ Flood basalts form when lava flows from fissures to form flat plains or plateaus Decide whether a flood basalt is or is not a volcano ◗ There are three major types of volcanoes: shield, composite, and cinder cone If the Pacific Plate has moved 500 km in the last 4.7 million years, calculate its average velocity in centimeters per year Refer to the Skillbuilder Handbook for more information Propose Yellowstone National Park is an area of previous volcanism Using a map of the United States, suggest the type(s) of tectonic processes associated with this area Evaluate the following statement: Volcanoes are only found along coastlines MATH in Earth Science Key Concepts Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com MAIN Idea • • • • • tectonics Volcanism includes all the processes in which magma and gases rise to Earth’s surface Most volcanoes on land are part of two major volcanic chains: the Circum-Pacific Belt and the Mediterranean Belt Parts of a volcano include a vent, magma chamber, crater, and caldera Flood basalts form when lava flows from fissures to form flat plains or plateaus There are three major types of volcanoes: shield, composite, and cinder cone 500_507_C18_S01_874636.indd 507 Source: Section 18.1, p 507 At the end of each chapter you will find a Study Guide The chapter’s vocabulary words as well as key concepts are listed here Use this guide for review and to check your comprehension MAIN Idea The composition of magma determines the characteristics of a volcanic eruption • There are three major types of magma: basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic • Because of their relative silica contents, basaltic magma is the least explo- sive magma and rhyolitic magma is the most explosive • Temperature, pressure, and the presence of water are factors that affect the formation of magma • Rock fragments ejected during eruptions are called tephra OTHER WAYS TO REVIEW Section 18.3 Intrusive Activity • • • • • • batholith (p 515) dike (p 516) laccolith (p 515) pluton (p 514) sill (p 515) stock (p 515) MAIN Idea Magma that solidifies below ground forms geologic features different from those formed by magma that cools at the surface • Intrusive igneous rocks are classified according to their size, shape, and relationship to the surrounding rocks • Most of Earth’s volcanism happens below Earth’s surface • Magma can intrude into rock in different ways, taking different forms when it cools • Batholiths form the core of many mountain ranges 520 Vocabulary PuzzleMaker glencoe.com Vocabulary PuzzleMaker biologygmh.com Chapter 18 • Study Guide 520_523_C18_CA_874636.indd 520 • • • • 2/6/07 2:54:40 PM Source: Chapter 18, p 520 xxiv Section • Volcanoes 507 The locations of volcanoes are mostly determined by plate Section 18.2 Eruptions • pyroclastic flow (p 513) • tephra (p 512) • viscosity (p 509) FOLDABLES Incorporate information from this section into your Foldable Section Summary Section 18.1 Volcanoes caldera (p 505) cinder cone (p 507) composite volcano (p 507) conduit (p 505) crater (p 505) fissure (p 504) flood basalt (p 504) hot spot (p 502) shield volcano (p 507) vent (p 505) volcanism (p 500) Volcanologist Scientists who study eruptions, lava, magma, and the conditions under which these form are volcanologists Some work in the field, studying active volcanoes Many volcanologists also work in the laboratory to understand how rocks melt to form magma To learn more about Earth science careers, visit glencoe.com Shield volcanoes A shield volcano is a mountain with broad, gently sloping sides and a nearly circular base Shield volcanoes form when layers of lava accumulate during nonexplosive eruptions They are the largest type of volcano Mauna Loa, which is shown in Table 18.1, is a shield volcano Each section concludes with an assessment The assessment contains a summary and questions The summary reviews the section’s key concepts while the questions test your understanding • • • • • • • • • • • Careers In Earth Science The appearance of a volcano depends on two factors: the type of material that forms the volcano and the type of eruptions that occur Based on these two criteria, three major types of volcanoes have been identified and are shown in Table 18.1 Each differs in size, shape, and composition Reading for Information • State the BIG Idea Relate the MAIN Idea to the BIG Idea Use your own words to explain what you read Apply this new information in other school subjects or at home Identify sources you could use to find out more information about the topic 2/6/07 2:48:41 PM Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe is full of important information and useful resources Use the activity below to familiarize yourself with the tools and information in this book As you complete this scavenger hunt, either alone or with your teacher or family, you will learn quickly how this book is organized and how to get the most out of your reading and study time How many units are in this book? How many chapters? On what page does the glossary begin? What glossary is online? In what two areas can you find a listing of laboratory safety symbols? Suppose you want to find a list of all the MiniLabs, Data Analysis Labs, and GeoLabs Where in the front you look? How can you quickly find the pages that have information about hurricanes? What is the name of the table that summarizes the key concepts of a chapter? In what special feature can you find information on unit conversions? What are the page numbers? On what page can you find the BIG Ideas for Unit 1? On what page can you find the MAIN Ideas for Chapter 2? What feature at the start of each unit provides insight into Earth scientists in action? Name four activities that are found at What study tool shown at the beginning of a chapter can you make from notebook paper? Where you go to view ? and are two types of end-of-chapter features What are the other two types? Scavenger Hunt xxv ... of Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe, and provided feedback and suggestions for improving the effectiveness of the instruction vi Mark Brazo Lincoln High School Portland,... Visualizing and Expeditions features are exclusive components of Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe Visit author biographies at glencoe.com About About the the Authors... articles that cover these topics and more National Geographic Expeditions xxi When you read Earth Science: Geology, the Environment, and the Universe, you need to read for information Science is nonfiction