Ethnography and Language Policy “This book brings together some of the best scholars in the field to rebuild the connection between anthropology and linguistics that produced sociolinguistics, firmly establishing the relevance of an ethnographic and policy approach to education It will quickly become the standard course text.” Bernard Spolsky, Bar-Ilan University, Israel Illuminating, through ethnographic inquiry, how individual agents “make” language policy in everyday social practice, this volume advances the growing field of language planning and policy using a critical sociocultural approach From this perspective, language policy is conceptualized not only as official acts and documents, but also as language-regulating modes of human interaction, negotiation, and production mediated by relations of power Using this conceptual framework, the volume addresses the impacts of globalization, diaspora, and transmigration on language practices and policies; language endangerment, revitalization, and maintenance; medium-of-instruction policies; literacy and biliteracy policies and practices; language and ethnic/national identity; and the ethical tensions in conducting critical ethnographic language policy research These issues are contextualized in case studies and reflective commentaries by leading scholars in the field Extending previous work in the field, tapping into leading-edge interdisciplinary scholarship, and charting new directions, Ethnography and Language Policy: • • • • Joins language policy research with ethnographic methods and analysis Takes a critical sociocultural approach to exploring how policy is enacted in social practice Is deeply local and broadly comparative, probing cases in depth while offering parallels and contrasts from the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Pacific, and South-Central Asia Exemplifies an ethnography for social justice allied with the interests of the communities with whom researchers work Recognizing that language policy is not merely or even primarily about language per se, but rather about power relations that structure social-linguistic hierarchies, the authors seek to expand policy discourses in ways that foster social justice for all Teresa L McCarty is the Alice Wiley Snell Professor of Education Policy Studies, Professor of Applied Linguistics, and Co-Director of the Center for Indian Education at Arizona State University This page intentionally left blank Ethnography and Language Policy Edited by Teresa L McCarty First published 2011 by Routledge 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2011 Taylor & Francis The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Typeset in Minion by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Ethnography and language policy/edited by Teresa L McCarty p cm Includes index Language policy Ethnography Anthropological linguistics Sociolinguistics I McCarty, T L P119.3.E87 2011 306.44'9–dc22 2010024480 ISBN13: 978-0-415-80139-3 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-415-80140-9 (pbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-83606-4 (ebk) This page intentionally left blank Dedication To the memory of Dell Hymes, seminal critical ethnographer of language in use And to teachers of language policy in praxis – Joshua and Gella Fishman Kenneth and Yetta Goodman Wayne Holm Dónall Ó Riagáin Bernard Spolsky Tove Skutnabb-Kangas Contents Foreword COURTNEY CAzDEN x Preface xii Acknowledgments xiv ENTRY INTO CONVERSATION Introducing Ethnography and Language Policy TERESA L McCARTY ETHNOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGE POLICY CASES AND CONTEXTS, PART I Critical Ethnography and Indigenous Language Survival: Some New Directions in Language Policy Research and Praxis 29 31 T E R E S A L M c C A R T Y, M A R Y E U N I C E R O M E R O - L I T T L E , L A R I S A WA R H O L , A N D O F E L I A z E P E D A “How Are You Hopi if You Can’t Speak It?”: An Ethnographic Study of Language as Cultural Practice among Contemporary Hopi Youth 53 SHEILAH E NICHOLAS Diaspora Communities, Language Maintenance, and Policy Dilemmas 77 A SurESh CAnAGArAJAh Reconstructing Ethnography and Language Policy in Colonial Namibian Schooling: Historical Perspectives on St Mary’s High School at Odibo RODNEY K HOPSON 99 viii Contents INTERLUDE – COMMENTARIES ON PART I 119 Language Ideologies, Ethnography, and Ethnology: New Directions in Anthropological Approaches to Language Policy 121 PErrY GIlmorE Language, Globalization, and the State: Issues for the New Policy Studies 128 JAmES CollInS ETHNOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGE POLICY CASES AND CONTEXTS, PART II 137 International Migration and Quichua Language Shift in the Ecuadorian Andes 139 KEndAll A KInG And mArlEEn hAb oud Exploring Biliteracy in Ma-ori-Medium Education: An Ethnographic Perspective 161 R I C H A R D H I L L A N D S T E P H E N M AY US Latinos and the Learning of English: The Metonymy of Language Policy 185 m A rY C Aro l C o m b S , n o r mA G o n z lE z , An d lu I S C m o l l Critical Perspectives on Language-in-Education Policy: The Corsican Example 205 AlExAndrA JAFFE Languages, Texts, and Literacy Practices: An Ethnographic Lens on Bilingual Vocational Education in Wales 231 m A r I l Y n m A r T I n - J o n E S 10 Researching-Texting Tensions in Qualitative Research: Ethics in and around Textual Fidelity, Selectivity, and Translations 255 VA I D E H I R A M A N A T H A N DISCUSSION AND SYNTHESIS 271 11 The Ethnography of Language Policy 273 n A n C Y h h o r n b E r G E r A n d d Av I d C A S S E l S J o h n S o n Contents ix About the Contributors 290 Index 297 Index Page numbers in italics denote tables, those in bold denote figures A Place To Be Navajo (McCarty) xii Abakan Action xv absences/presences 146, 255–6, 258 academic achievement 33, 44, 139, 162, 164, 173, 186, 193, 295 Académie de Corse 218 Achimota School, Gold Coast 111 acquisition planning 8, 14, 77, 93, 205, 208, 275, 278–9, 281–3 action research, community-based 33, 35–6 active participation and involvement 54, 73 additive–subtractive models 194 Advisory Committee on Native Education in British Tropical Africa (Advisory Committee on Education in the British Colonies) 109–10 aesthetic sense 56 affective enculturation 54, 129–30 Afrikaans 105, 111–13, 124, 130, 132–3, 276 Agar, M H 99, 123 Agha, A 131 Aikman, S 13 Akimel O’odham (Pima) 33, 34, 35, 39 Alaska Native 32, 291 Aldridge, M 249 Amanti, C 195, 291, 294 Amazonian basin 141 American Indian(s) viii, xii, xiii, 4, 32–3, 40, 44, 274, 290, 295–6; see also Indigenous language survival study Andes 141, 147, 280, 291 Angioni, G Anglo-European invasion, upheavals brought on by 35 Angola 100, 105 anthropology x, 10–12, 16, 54, 100–3, 123, 131, 133, 276, 290–2, 294, 295 Anthropology of Policy (Shore and Wright) xii anti-immigrant perspectives 185–8, 191–3, 279 Aotearoa (New Zealand) x, 14, 160, 161, 164–6, 168, 170–2, 174–7, 179, 232, 276, 291, 293 Apache places and place names 55 apartheid 104, 106, 108, 112–15, 130 Appiah, K 266, 267 applied/educational linguistics 12 Arakmbut 13 Arizona xiii, xiv, 15, 17, 44, 45, 50, 54, 56, 59, 61, 63, 72, 185–91, 193, 199, 200, 278–80, 290, 291, 294–6; sociopolitical context of language policy in 185–9; see also English-language learning study Arizona Republic 193 Armitage, S xiv Arthur, J 273 Artiles, A xiii Arzubiaga, A xiii Asad, T 101 Assemblée de Corse 218 assessment 36, 39, 58, 131, 162, 164, 168–9, 173–5, 177–9, 205–6, 215, 220–3, 241, 243–4, 274–5, 283 Assessment Tools for Teaching and Learning (asTTle) 175, 176 assimilationist education policies 161 Associated Press 187 autonomous model 18n2, 206, 216 Azuay 148 Bacacela, S 140–2, 151 Bace, E xvi Bace, J xvi Baker, C 9, 11, 169, 179, 231, 233–4 298 Index Baker, L D 11, 18n8 Bakhtin, M M 189, 278 Baldauf, R B 7, 8, 14 Ball, S J 7, 12, 285 ballot measures 186 Balter, A 15 Baltodano, M 274 Bantu education 116n2 Baquedano-López, P 195 Bartlett, L 40 Basch, L 140 Basso, K 53, 55, 66 Baugh 9, 42 Bauman, R 16, 18n7, 227n2 Beaulieu, D xv Belize 42 Belote, L 140–2, 147–9, 151 Benjamins, J 293 Benton, N 161 Benton, R 161 Berk, M L 139 Berliner, D xv Berman, M Bevan-Brown, J 163 Bhabha, B 195 bilingual children’s discourse 196–7 bilingual education 9, 15, 17, 42, 104, 141, 154, 178, 179, 185–6, 194–5, 234, 236–7, 273–4, 278–80, 290–3, 295–6; additive– subtractive models 194; dual language model 45, 190; endorsement 190; bilingual schools, Corsican 205–6, 217, 219–21, 226 bilingual intercultural education 2, 12, 153 bilingual literacy 236, 239–40, 244–5, 247–9 bilingual special education 190 bilingual vocational education in Wales study see Welsh bilingual vocational education study bilingualism 2, 45, 79, 82, 85, 141, 153, 172, 178, 200, 215, 218–20, 278–80, 283, 292–3, 295–6; balanced 218, 220 biliteracy xi, 14, 167, 194, 274, 278, 282, 291–2; Ma– ori study see Ma– ori biliteracy study; Te Wharekura o Rakaumangamanga Bishop, R 163–4 Blanc-Szanton, C 140 Bland, K 193 Blommaert, J 2, 9, 10, 18n7, 77, 131–2, 205, 208, 273, 276–7 Blot, R K 35, 40, 290 Blum, J 116 Boas, F 11, 18n5, 18n8 Bonner, D 42–3 Border Patrol 191 Borgoiakova, T xv bottom-up language planning and policy 2, 4–6, 13, 275, 278–9, 281–2, 284 Bourdieu, P 6, 226, 277 Bowring, B xv Brayboy, B M J xiv–xv, 16, 45 Brinnon, J A xvi Broder, D 186 Brutt-Griffler, J 86, 94 Bucholtz, M 12–13, 32, 216 Burawoy, J 99, 115 Burchell, G 258 Busch, B 221 Butler, J 267 Cachi 143 California 15, 17, 59, 78, 80, 89, 130, 186–7, 274, 276, 292, 294–5 Canada x, 13, 17, 81, 84, 86, 130, 234 Canagarajah, A S 3, 5, 10, 13, 16, 77, 79, 83, 89, 104, 121, 124–5, 130–2, 221, 273, 275, 276, 280–5, 290 Cañar 140, 143, 146, 148, 151, 154 Cantoni, G 33 Capps, R 139 Carl Hayden High 193 Carnoy, M 101 Cazden, C x–xiv, 11, 15, 18n7, 123, 129 Charles, W xv chauvinism, vernacular 14, 260, 262, 277 Chen, R xv Cherokee Chilcotin 43 child circulation 151 childhood 55, 59, 66–7, 70, 143, 147, 150, 155, 219, 266 Children In and Out of School (Gilmore/ Glatthorn) 11 Chomskyan linguistics 31 “citizen initiatives” 186 citizenship 205, 209, 293; plurilingual 211, 218, 221 Civil Rights revolution viii clan identity 66 clan–kinship system 54, 65 Clifford, J 78 Cloud, N 178 code switching 92, 198, 293 Cohen, R 95 Cole, M 194 Collier, V P 139, 179, 186, 194 Collins, J x–xi, xiv, 16, 18n7, 35, 40, 131–3, 290 Index colonial racism 102, 276 colonial schooling 35, 41–3; see also Namibian school study colonialism 81, 95, 99–101, 103–4, 121, 125 colonization 35, 82, 100–1, 103, 115, 161, 185, 279 Combs, M C xiii, 2, 10, 14–17, 131, 186, 189, 190, 194, 195, 201n4, 274–5, 277–80, 282, 285, 290–1 Coming of Age in Samoa (Mead) 11 communal society 60 communalism 67 communication technology 145 “communicative competence” 40 communicative repertoire(s) 33, 38, 40, 42–4, 122, 278, 280, 284 communities of practice 3, 14–15, 93, 194, 206, 222, 226, 282 community-based action research 33, 35–6 community research collaborators (CRCs) 36, 46, 48, 276 Constitución Política de la República del Ecuador 152–3 Cook, M 195 Cooper, R L 5–7 corn children 70, 71 Coronel-Molina, S xv corpus planning 8, 46, 207–8, 211, 213, 216, 275, 279 Corsica 3, 13–14, 204–6; see Corsican language education study Corsican language education study: conclusions and implications 221–6; Corsican bilingual schooling 210–21; critical approaches to language and identity 206–10; elderly villager and Corsican speaker 212; excluded words 214; introduction 205–6; school–society outreach/collaboration options 224 Corsican Regional Collectivity 205, 211, 219 Corson, D Coupland, N 216, 231, 249 Cowie, C 274 Cox, C 110 Crawford, J 10, 187 Creese, A 273 Creutzberger, C xvi critical ethnographic approaches/critical ethnographic research 6, 7, 16–17, 162–3, 206–9, 221–2, 276, 280 critical/postmodern approach Crystal, D 18n9, 70 Cuenca 141, 148 299 cultural identity, and linguistic competency 53, 54, 65, 72, 90, 129, 142, 151, 206, 218–19 cultural institutions 59, 62, 65 cultural markers of identity: clan membership 65; names 66; kinship ties 67; kinship connections 67n3, 68 “cultural models” 187 cultural practices 32, 53–4, 62, 65, 70, 73, 89, 92, 129, 132, 152, 232, 282 Culture of Education Policy, The (Stein) 12 Cummins, J 139, 171, 179, 186, 194 Curtis, P 100 Daijiworld Media Network Dauenhauer, N M 73 Dauenhauer, R 73 Davis, K A 13, 273, 295 De Fina, A 143, 148 Deleuze, G 265, 267 Derrida, J 255–7 devaluation of identity 143 dialectal differences 142 diary-based interviews 239 Diamond, S 18n6 diaspora communities 3, 13, 33, 35, 121, 124, 130, 276, 280–2; see also Sri Lankan Tamil language maintenance study Dick, E xiii Dick, G S xiii diglossia/diglossic 40, 215 Dirección Nacional de Educación Intercultural Bilingüe del Ecuador (DINEIB) 153 discrimination 9, 43, 85, 142 “disinvention” of language 221 Djajic, S 139 Dobra High School 112 dominant languages 82, 86, 207, 209, 280 dominant/national 82 Dong, J 131 Dorian, N C Doulin, V xvi DREAM (Development, Relief and Education for Alien Minors) Act 193 Du Bois, W E B 18n8 dual language model 190 Dunbar, R early mission days 105, 110 Earth Is My Mother, Sky Is My Father (Momaday) 55 Eckert, P 216 ecological approaches 2, 8, 13, 37–8, 44, 93, 122, 125, 155, 200, 281, 285 300 Index Ecuador 2, 13, 138, 140–7, 152–5, 273, 276, 291; see also international migration and language shift study; Quecha/Quichua; Saraguro Educación Intercultural Bilingüe Amazónica (EIBAMAZ) 153 educational language policy 46, 104, 152 educational sovereignty 16, 199, 200 Educational Welcome of Latinos in the New South, The (Hamann) 12 Edwards, J 93, 94 Eisenhart, M 18n5, 115 El Niño 141 Email Razor emic/etic (insider/outsider) roles 10, 18n4, 283 emigration 142, 144–5, 150, 154 endangered languages (language endangerment) xiii, 1, 13, 15, 16, 33, 41, 43, 292 English 112–13; “for the Children” 15; language learner(s) 39, 185, 190, 194–5; language learner programs 188; monolingualism 2, 53, 131; official 14; only 2, 15, 17, 35; as a second language (ESL) 190; socialization of children in 35; standard 41; supremacy 43; transition program 164, 169–70, 176, 179 English-language learning study (US Latinos): children’s bilingual discourse 196–7; discussion 199–200; epistemologies of research 189; ideology in practice 194–5; impact of antiimmigrant discourses 191–3; interpreting third space possibilities in an SEI classroom 198–9; language policy in practice 194–9; methodologies 189–90; sociopolitical context 185–9; third space metaphors 195–6; US–Mexico border wall 188 English language textbook excerpt 264 English-medium (EM) 258 English–Vernacular Divide, The (Ramanathan) xii equality 8, 44, 99, 104, 123, 195, 199, 233 Erickson, F 17 Errington, J J xiv, 207, 209, 227n2 Ervin-Tripp, S 18n7 ethics xi, 16, 59, 102, 256, 259, 268 Ethnography: A Way of Seeing (Wolcott) xii Ethnography and Education Policy Across the Americas (Levinson et al.) 12 Ethnography and Language in Educational Settings (Green/Wallat) 11 ethnography of communication x, 11, 17 ethnology of language policy 122 Europe xii, 3, 139, 140, 142, 231 European Union 141, 242 Evans-Pritchard, E E 101–3 Explorations in the Ethnography of Speaking (Bauman/Sherzer) 16 face-to-face interaction 2, 3, 266, 293 Fairclough, N family language policy 139, 150 family-making efforts 151 Fanon, F 103 Fasold, R W Faubion, J 268 fidelity, textual 255–6, 258–9, 268 Field, M C 4, 10, 40 Fillerup, M xv, 44–5 Fillmore, L W xv Final Cut Pro software 190 first-language instruction 139 Fischer, H 189 Fishman, G v, xv Fishman, J A v, xv, 5–7, 9, 12, 53, 62, 150, 205 focused in-depth interviewing 56 Fogle, L 2, 18n9, 150, 155 Foley, D E 18n9, 189, 191 Foucault, M 6, 256, 258 Fourth World 60 Fox, S xv Foxen, P 144–5, 149, 151 Francis, N 13, 205, 292 Freeman, R 13, 91, 273 Freire, P 199, 200 Fuligni, A J 139 Functions of Language in the Classroom (Cazden/John/Hymes) x, 11, 15 funds of knowledge 195, 198, 279, 294 Funds of Knowledge: Theorizing Practices in Households, Communities and Classroom (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) 291, 294 Gal, S 85, 205, 207, 215, 227n2 Gallegos, F R 141 Gándara, P Garcia, G xv García, O 2, 7, 12, 15, 17, 18n10, 38, 40, 46, 91, 169, 179, 273–4, 278 Garifuna 42 Gearing, F 18n6 Gee, J 187 Geertz, C 283 generation gap 53, 58 Genesee, F 178 Index genre studies 169–70, 176–7, 179 Giddens, A Gilmore, P x, xiv–xv, 3, 11, 16, 43, 122, 125, 291 Gitlis, K xvi Glass, G xv Glatthorn, A A 11, 122 Glick Schiller, N 140 globalization viii, x–xi, 77, 99, 131, 144, 148, 185, 282, 290, 295 Glynn, T 163 Gomes, A M R 13 González, N 2, 14, 131, 185, 195, 275, 291, 294 Gonzalo, M 187 Good Voice, C Goodman, K v, xv Goodman, Y v, xv Gordon, C 258 Gough, K 101 Gramsci, A 101, 133 grassroots 131, 233 Gratton, B 140, 142 Green, J xv, 11, 115, 197 Grenoble, L 18n9 Griffin-Pierce, T 55 Grossman, E xi Guatemala 149 Guattari, F 265, 267 guided reading 170 Gujarat 13–14, 254, 258, 260–1, 265, 276 Gumperz, J J x, 11, 33, 128, 131, 132, 278 Gutiérrez, K 195 Habermas, J Haboud, M 2, 13–14, 16–17, 141–3, 145, 154, 275, 277–8, 280, 282, 291 Hale, K xv, 18n9, 33, 73 Hall, K 12, 62, 70 Hall, S 92 Hamann, E T 7, 12 Hamayan, E 178 Hamel, R E 9, 109, 114 Hamilton, M P 12, 241, 276 Hammersley, M 99 Hamutumbangela, T 114 Harris, M 18n4 Harris, R 131 Harrison, F V 102, 115, 166 Harrison, K D 18n9 Hassan, M 260 Hattie, J 175 Haugen, E x, 6, Headland, T H 18n4 Heath, S B 2, 11, 234 301 hegemony 44, 99, 101–2, 104, 129, 185, 215, 280, 281, 285 Heller, M 3, 6, 10, 13, 15, 17, 131, 132, 209–10, 232, 273, 292 Henze, R 13 Herero 108 heritage language education 44, 47, 80, 292 heritage language(s) 3–5, 14, 16, 33, 39–45, 47, 53–4, 58, 72, 77–8, 80, 89, 92–6, 141, 143, 226 Hermes, M xv, 44 Hill, J H 103, 227n2 Hill, R 3, 14–16, 161–3, 165, 168, 171, 173, 275, 277, 278, 282, 291 Hilliard, A G 103 Hindu myths 260 Hindu nationalism 260–1 Hindu vernacularism 262 Hinton, L xv, 18n9, 33 historical–structural approach 7, 18n2, 100 Holliday, A 255 Holm, A D xv, 44 Holm, W v, xiii Hopi: ancestors 62; corn planter 61; cultural institutions 59, 65; cultural traditions 55, 72; Emergence story 53, 59–60, 62, 73; epistemology 60, 64, 129; girls in the Grinding Corn ceremony 64; identity 13, 54, 60, 72, 132; lands 52, 56, 57; language shift impact study see Hopi youth cultural practice study; oral tradition 53, 62–4; people 55–60, 62–4, 70, 72–3, 133; philosophy of life 59–60; reservation 56, 59, 65, 282; ritual practice, planting corn by hand 54, 59–62, 70–1; theory of life 53; way of life 53–4, 57–8, 60, 64, 70; natwani 61; reciprocity and humility 60; woman making piiki 63 Hopi youth cultural practice study: contemporary Hopi society 56–9; Hopi epistemology 60–4; “insider” ethnographic project 54–6; introducing Dorian, Jared, and Justin 64–5; language as cultural practice 65–72; conclusion 73 Hopilavayi 57, 295 Hopitsàatsayom 59 Hopitutskwa 56 Hopkins 4, 292 Hopson, R 6, 14–17, 102–4, 106, 112, 121–4, 129–30, 132–3, 275–6, 278–9, 282, 292 Hornberger, N H x–xi, xiii, xv, 5–8, 11–17, 18n3, 18n7, 32, 46, 47, 112, 154, 205, 207, 208, 232, 255, 273–6, 279, 282–6, 292 302 Index House, D 13 Hult, F M 8, 12 human agency 12, 199 human rights 8, 10, 199, 277, 291; see also linguistic human rights Huss, L 18n9 hybridity 13, 39–40, 43–4, 78, 91–2, 96, 122, 124, 133, 195, 198, 222, 279, 280, 282, 284; communicative repertoires 40; linguistic 39, 43–4; spaces of (third spaces) 2, 195, 198–200 Hymes, D v, x–xi, 11, 15–16, 18n7, 31–3, 35–6, 38–9, 44, 47, 77, 115, 122–4, 128–9, 131–2, 276, 283, 285–6 Saraguro 140–2; mural in the town of Saraguro 152; Quichua family language policy 150–2; Saraguro woman texting 146; study aims and research approach 142–3; trilingual sign 153 international transmigration 140; see also international migration and Quchua language shift study Inuit 13 invention of language 208 Invisible Culture, The (Philips) 11 Irvine, J 207 Israel 142 itangu 62, 67 identity: cultural markers of see cultural markers of identity; devaluation of 143; formation process 53; loss of 145, 153; Saraguro 141, 143, 152, 155 “ideological and implementational spaces” 15–16, 47, 274–5, 282, 285 Illinchu 143 “I’m Alive” (Puente de Hózhó˛ School) 47 immersion education 45–6, 161–3, 168–9, 171–3, 185–7, 198, 278–9, 282, 291 immigrants/immigration ix, 14, 77–80, 83, 85–6, 88, 99, 130, 139, 142, 147, 154, 185–9, 191–3, 198–9, 273–4 imperialism 100, 290 “implementational and ideological spaces” 15–16, 47, 274–5, 282, 285 India 1, 3, 14, 95, 255, 258, 260, 262–3, 265, 268, 274, 276, 278 Indigenous language loss 32 Indigenous language survival study: a study “that is fundamental to education” (Native Language Shift and Retention Study) 32–43; ethnographic monitoring and language policy praxis 43–7; Navajo immersion classroom 45; research site characteristics 34; teacher-created materials (corpus planning) 46–7 inequality 1, 4–6, 10, 12, 31, 32, 83, 85, 86, 103, 121, 131, 276, 282 Instituto Nacional de Estadística 142 intercultural education 2, 12, 13, 17, 153; see also bilingual intercultural education intergenerational transmission 87, 150, 217 international migration and Quichua language shift study: conclusion 155; educational language policy 152–4; globalization 144–7; migration and changing conceptions of childhood 147–50; migration in Ecuador and Jaffe, A 6, 13–14, 16, 209, 215, 218, 222, 227n1, 282, 292 Jennings, P 176 Jocks, C 73 John, V P x, 11, 18n7, 123, 129 Johnson, D C x–xi, xiii, 8, 12, 15–17, 18n3, 274–6, 279, 284, 292–3 Johnson, E 15 Johnson, F T 44 Johnson, L B x Jokisch, B 140–2 Jones, D 102, 231 Jones, D V 231 Jones, K 15, 40, 43, 239, 248, 278 Jones, M P 234 Joseph, J 205, 208 Juncal 143 Kamana– , K 40, 44 Kaplan, A B 7, katsina society 66 kaupapa Ma– ori 16, 161–3, 166, 277, 291; see also kura kaupapapa Ma– ori Kavanagh, J 189 Kegelman, J xvi key questions Khanti Khera, S xiv King, K A x, xii–xiii, 2, 13–14, 16–17, 40, 42, 73, 111, 140–3, 145, 146, 150–5, 275, 277, 278, 280, 282, 293 kinship 54, 56, 65–8 Kleifgen, J 40 KMR principles 163 Kozleski, E xv Kramsch, C 255, 267 Krauss, M 33 Kroskrity, P V 10, 40, 104 kura kaupapa Ma– ori 161 Kymlicka, W Index la migra (immigration police) 191–2; see also Border Patrol Lagunas 143, 151, 153 Lambert, W E language: and identity 209–10; assessment 58; attitudes 9, 33, 35; choice 9, 79, 82; death 33; exclusion 161; immersion 45–6; invention of 208; loss 54, 82, 86, 89, 124, 129, 165–6, 180, 280; maintenance 12–14, 77–9, 81, 84, 88–90, 92, 95–6, 139–40, 143, 150, 278, 281, 283, 285; practices 31, 37–8; as a problem 9, 31; question 104; purism 215–16; reclamation/revitalization 12–14, 33, 40, 47, 205–6, 210, 215–17, 226, 227n1; restrictive laws 15; as cultural practice, 53–4, 70; reversal 125, 161; as a resource, 31–2, 38, 44–6, 129, 131–2, 209; as a right 9; shame 42–3; shift 12–14, 32, 44, 139; spread 12, 14; types and processes 278–82 language competency, cultural identity and 53, 54, 65, 72, 90, 129, 142, 151, 206, 218, 219 language endangerment (endangered languages) xi, 1, 13, 15, 16, 33, 41, 43, 292 language ideology(ies): autonomous model 206–8, 210, 216, 220; dominant/national 208, 210, 215, 222; of identity 40–3, 209; multiple/competing 40–3, 206, 221, 222; one nation/one language 6; regimes of 207, 215, 221 language learning 36, 89, 139, 142–3, 155, 220, 277, 290, 293 language orientation: language-as-aproblem 9, 31; language-as-a-resource 9, 31–2, 38, 44–6, 129, 131–2, 209; language-as-a-right language planning x, 4–8, 14, 31, 32, 36, 46–7, 73, 77–8, 94, 155, 205, 207, 209, 211, 273, 290–2 language planning and policy (LPP): acquisition planning 8, 205, 208, 275, 278–9, 281; bottom-up 2, 5, 46, 281–2; corpus planning 8, 207, 208, 211, 213, 216, 275, 279; critical/postmodern approach(es) 5, 7, 279–80; de facto/de jure 2, 3, 13, 15, 32, 43–5, 131, 143, 200, 274, 278, 281–2, 285; definition(s) of 7–9; ecological models of, 8; ethnographic approaches to 275–8; grassroots 5, 15; historical–structural approach 7; interface 5–9; meso space 15; rationalistic approach 6; relationship 303 7; sociocultural approach(es) to 8–9, 277, 281, 284; status planning 8, 208, 275, 279; unplanned 14 Language Policy (Spolsky) xii language policy/policy-making: bottom-up 2, 5, 46; covert, 2; critical 279–80; de facto 2–3, 13, 43–5; definition(s) of, xii, 2–3, 8–9, 32; explicit xii, 2–4, 44; as a field of study and practice 4–10; ; formal 44; implicit xii, 2–4, 44; informal 32, 44; listserv 1; medium-of-instruction 103; macro-level 3, 10, 16; meso-level 3, 10, 15–16; micro-level 3, 10, 16; official xiv, 2–3, 44–5; overt xii, 2; as a “practice of power” 3; processes xii; “real” 42–4; reclamation/revitalization 40; school 40, 45; as a sociocultural process 8–9; topdown 17, 46; unofficial 32, 43; within language planning Language Policy listserv language-restrictive environments 2, 14; see also language language revitalization 14, 47, 125, 143, 154, 161, 162, 180, 205–6, 215–17, 226, 231–2, 249, 250, 278, 280–2, 292, 293, 295, 296 Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects (King) xii language revitalization study: background 231–2; ethnographic project in North Wales see Welsh bilingual vocational education study 236; political and historical context 232–6 language rights 91, 94–6, 133, 207, 277, 293; see also human rights; linguistic human rights language shift 3, 12–13, 17, 32, 35, 40, 42, 44, 53–5, 58–9, 79–80, 96, 150, 216, 280–1, 283–4 language transfer 168, 171, 178–9 language vitality 143 Larsen-Freeman, D 91 Lather, P 189 Latino(s) 12, 14–16, 44, 124, 185, 187, 189–93, 195, 197, 199, 274, 276, 280, 291, 294; see also English-language learning study Lave, J 194 Leap, W 18n9 Lee, T xiii, 13, 40, 42, 43 Legatz, J 44 “legitimate peripheral participation” 194 Leinaweaver, J B 151 Lemke, J L 256 Leonard, B xiii 304 Index Letters to Leaders Levinson, B A U xii–xiii, 2, 3, 6, 12, 18n2, 18n5, 18n6, 32 Levy, C J Lewis, D 102 Lewis, M 241–3 Lewis, P 102, 103, 231, 257 Lewis, W G 231 liberal humanism 31 life history 13, 36, 56, 70 “limited English proficiency” 9, 39 Lin, A M Y 15, 221 Lindholm-Leary, K 178 lingua franca(s) linguistic anthropology of education 12 linguistic: authenticity 215; authority 215, 217; competence 53, 209; continuity 59; difference 216, 293; human rights 277; repertoires 124 linguistic/sociolinguistic ecology(ies) 2, 8, 13, 37, 38, 122, 125, 155, 281, 285 literacy assessment 164, 174, 175, 275 literacy texts 198, 200 literacy(ies) xi, 13–14, 42–3, 163–4, 173–5, 178–9, 194, 200, 208, 231–2, 236–41, 243–50, 273–5, 284, 290–1, 293–5; subrosa 11, 43 literature review 13–15 Littlehales, E xvi Lockard, L 33 Loftin, J D 62 Logan-Terry, A 2, 150, 155 “logocentricism” 256 Loja 141, 143, 145 Lou, J J 18n9 Lomawaima, K T xiii López, L E 16, 45, 195 loss of identity 153 Lucero, J A 141, 185 Luff, A 109 Lujan, D 193 Luke, A xiii, 221–2 Lüthy, H 101 Luxembourg 13, 273 Luykx, A 147 Ma– ori biliteracy study: assessing biliteracy 173–8; conclusion 179–80; fostering biliteracy 171–3; front gate of Te Wharekura o Rakaumangamanga 165; introduction 161–2; kaupapa Ma– ori research 162–4; reflections on the program 178–9; role of English 168–70; Te Wharekura o Rakaumangamanga 164–8 Ma– ori language, exclusion from New Zealand schools 161 Macas, L 141 Macedo, D 104 MacSwan, J 195 Magga, O.-H 33 Mahler, S J 145 Mahoney, K 195 making language policy 53, 54, 64 Makoni, S 205, 207–9, 221, 276 Mansi Manuelito, K xiii Manyak, P C 274 maps: Aotearoa/New Zealand 160; Arizona–Mexico borderlands 184; Corsica 204; Ecuador 138; Gujarat 254; Hopi lands 52; Namibia 98; Native American Nations in the US Southwest 30; Tamil diaspora 76; Wales 230 Martin, J xvi Martin, P 15 Martin, S xvi Martin-Jones, M 6, 13–16, 40, 43, 131, 233, 238–40, 245, 248, 273, 275–6, 278, 280, 282, 293 Martin Luther High School 112 Mason, J 55, 56 matrilineal society 56, 66 May, S xv, 3, 6, 13–16, 44, 140, 161–2, 168, 171, 179, 255, 275–8, 282, 291, 293 McCarty, J xvi McCarty, J L xvi McCarty, M xvi McCarty, T L x, xii–xiv, 1, 3, 7, 8, 11–16, 32–3, 35, 44–7, 121–4, 129–33, 199, 232, 255, 274–8, 282, 294 McCombs, B 191 McDermott, R 17 McGroarty, M 10 McKay, S 18n7 Mead, M 11 Medicine, B 12 Memmi, A 102 Mendoza-Denton, N 13 Menken, K 2, 15, 17, 18n10, 46, 274 meso space 15 Messing, J H xv, 13, 40, 42 metaphors: “deep-dish analysis” 17; of immigration 188–9; kaleidoscope 17; LPP onion 8, 17, 18n10; third space 195, 198–200 “metaphysics of presence” 256 Mexican–American students 185 Mexican and American War 185 Mexico 40, 56, 185, 188, 190, 193, 198, 295 Index Mfum-Mensah, O 100 “micro-aggressions” 199 migration 2, 14, 17, 77, 83, 85, 87, 89, 95, 124, 139–49, 154–5, 281–2, 290 Miles, A 142 Miller, P 258 Mills, M Minutemen 188 misrecognition 209 missionization 35 mobility 59, 84, 86, 94–6, 124, 130, 139, 190, 209, 282 modes of expression 55 Moje, E B 195 Moll, L C 2, 10, 14–17, 131, 185, 190, 195, 199, 200, 275, 291, 294 Momaday, N S 55 monoglot standard 206, 215 monolingual 54, 80, 83, 85–8, 141, 169, 173, 195, 215, 218, 220, 239, 242, 274, 282 Moore, J D 18n5 Moran-Taylor, M J 142, 144, 145, 149, 154 Morgan, B 15, 133, 267 Moroccans 142 Mühlhäusler, P multilingualism 6, 8, 9, 45, 139, 280, 283, 285 multiple/intergenerational case study 56 Mussi, C xvi Mussi, V xvi Mutu, M 163 Nadel, G N 100 Nahuatl 40 Nakagawa, K xv Nama 108 Ñamarin 143 Namibian high school study: conclusion 114–15; entrance to St Mary’s Mission 106; Father George Wolfe Robert (Lukenge) Tobias 109–10; introduction 99–100; reconstructing ethnographies of colonial schooling 100–3; reconstructing language policy 103–5; St Mary’s High School at Odibo, Anglicism, and nationbuilding 105–14; St Mary’s Mission, early mission days 105; see also St Mary’s Anglican Church and High School Nanda, M 260 National Guard 188 National Party (South Africa) 112 Native American youth language practices 31; see also Indigenous language survival study Native American(s) ix, xii, 1, 3, 8, 15, 30, 305 31, 33, 35, 40, 55, 123, 124, 129, 130, 274, 276, 294–6; see also American Indian(s); Indigenous language survival study Native Hawaiian(s) 32–3 native language 4, 39, 42, 53, 129, 130, 153, 198, 200, 291, 295 natwani/natwanta 60–2 Navajo xii, xiv, 13, 33, 34, 37–9, 41, 44, 45, 46, 129, 131–4, 161–3, 168, 169, 171–3, 185–7, 278, 279, 291 NCEA (National Certificate of Educational Achievement) 168, 169 NCLB see No Child Left Behind Act Nettle, D 18n9 New Mexico 56, 295 New York 1, 146, 274, 290 New Zealand (Aotearoa) xii, 14, 160–1, 164–6, 168, 170–2, 174–7, 179, 232, 276, 291, 293 New Zealand Department of Education 170 New Zealand Ministry of Education 165, 170, 175–7 NHL Potty Mouth Policy Nichol, P xvi Nicholas, S E xv, 10, 123–4, 129–33, 275, 277, 281, 282, 295 Niño-Murcia, M 154 Nkrumah, K 114 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act 12, 15, 274 Nopal Elementary school 189–90 Nordquist, M 111 Norris, C 255, 257 Norton, B 255 Novak-Lukanovic˛, S xv Nunavik (Arctic Québec) 13 Ó Caollaí, É Ó hlfearnáin, T xii Ó Riagáin, D v, xv Obama, B H Ochs, E 59, 63, 277 Odibo 98–100, 105, 108, 111, 114 “off task” classroom behavior 198 official languages xii, 1, 14, 17, 81, 103–4, 112, 122, 133, 153, 215, 235, 276, 285 Ogunwole, S 33 Olson, K 274, 290 Oñacapac 143 one nation/one language Onekwaya 106 Ongwediwa Training College 112 oral narratives 55, 267 Ortiz, S xv 306 Index Oshigambo High School 112 Otis, A out-of-college literacy 245, 248, 249 Ovando, C J 194, 291 Owamboland 100, 107–9, 111, 114 Oyster Bilingual School, Washington, DC 13 Pa– keha– (European New Zealander) 165, 166, 172, 173 “panic to leave” 141 Pardue, D xvi Parkin, C 174 Parra, E 195 Patel, P 263 Patrick, D 13, 15, 209, 274 Patten, A Paulston, C 161 pedagogy 190, 200, 202; of control 190; of hope 199–200, 202; repressive 194, 199; transformative 200 Pee Posh (Maricopa) 33, 34, 35 Pels, P 101 Pennycook, A 205, 207–9, 221, 276 Peru 12, 141, 151, 273 Pew Hispanic Centre 185 Philips, S 11 Phillipson, R 6, 8–9 photo-based interviews 239, 240, 275 Pike, K L 283 Pitchford, K xvi Plaid Cymru 235 planting corn by hand, Hopi ritual practice 54, 59–62, 70–1 plurilingual citizenship 211, 218, 221 plurilingualism 131, 219 Plyler v Doe 189 Policy as Practice (Sutton/Levinson) 3, 12 Pool, B 174, 259, 262 Portavela 141 postpositivist epistemology 189 Potty Mouth Policy (NHL) Prajapati, H 260, 261 Pratt, M L 94 praxis xi, 7, 16, 43, 47, 189, 294 presences/absences 146, 255–6, 258 Pribilsky, J 141, 142, 145–6, 148 Prieto, L 12 principle of reciprocity 67 privatization of communal lands 142 Probe reading assessments 174 Proposition 203 (“structured English immersion”) 17, 186–7, 190, 194–5, 274, 278, 279 Proposition 227 (“English for the Children”) 17, 274 Pu, C 195 Puebloan groups 56 Puente de Hózhó˛ (Bridge of Beauty) School xv, 44, 45, 46, 47 Pujolar, J 205, 208 Pütz, M 12 Pye, C 43 qa hopi (not Hopi) 58, 130, 131, 134 Qoyawayma, P 59 qualitative research textual ethics study: conclusion 267–8; English language textbook excerpt 264; excerpt from Standard 263; fidelity to and in our research texts 256–8; ideological conflict issues 259–62; sociopolitics of English and vernacular-medium teaching 258–9; translation issues 262–7 Quechua/Quichua 2, 12, 13, 273 Quichua language shift study see international migration and Quichua language shift study Rabin, N 189, 201n3 racism 100–3 Rakaumanga School 14, 163, 165, 173, 179 Ramanathan, V 2, 10, 13–16, 32, 255–62, 264, 265, 274–8, 282, 295 Ramey, D R 186, 194 Ramírez, J D 179, 186, 194 Rampton, B 18n7, 94, 131 Rannut, M rationalistic approach 6, 95 Rawal, A 260, 261 receptive and speaking abilities 40, 54, 55, 58, 65 reciprocity 16, 60, 62, 67–8, 71, 148 remittances 141, 143, 144, 146, 148 reverse language shift (RLS) 150; see also language shift; language reversal; language revitalization revitalization programs 14, 33, 141, 162, 206; see also language revitalization Reyhner, J xv, 18n9, 33 Ricento, T 5–8, 15, 17, 32, 112, 205, 207, 275, 285 rites of passage 66 ritualized performances of social dancing 54 ritualized public performances 68 Roberts, L 187, 231 Robinson-Pant, A 284 Robson, N 109 Rockwell, E 13 Roebke, A xvi Roessel, M xv Index Roessel, R A., Jr xiv Romaine, S 18n9, 40, 150 Romanians 142 Romero-Little, M E xv, 3, 32, 33, 114, 122, 130, 143, 277, 295 Rough Rock Community School xiv–xv Ruiz, R xv, 9, 190, 199, 200 Rumyambo 274 Ryan, I 45 Rymes, B 12 Samburu 3, 125 Santa Ana, O 188, 189 Saraguro: community welcoming sign 153; identity 141, 155; mural in the town of 152; Office of Bilingual Education 141; transmigration 141; woman texting 146 Saraguro woman texting 146 Saraguros, dress and rural lifestyle 152 Sarkar, S 260 Saville-Troike, M 18n7 Schick, J 221 Schieffelin, B B 11, 40, 104, 121, 123, 125 Schiffman, H 1, 2, 7, 32, 273, 281, 285 Schmidt, R 205 school labeling practices 38, 43 school–society link 213 Schutz, N W., Jr Science Daily Scollon, R 18n7 Scollon, S W 18n7 Scott, J 133, 188 Scribner, S 194, 294 Scutari, C 188 second language acquisition/learning 139, 186–7, 194, 200, 291 “secure borders” 188 SEI (structured English immersion) 185–6, 194–5, 198, 291 Seidman, I E 36, 56 Sekaquaptewa, E 54, 60–3, 69–70 self-discipline 61, 62, 71 self-reflexivity 256 self-sufficiency 61 sending communities 139, 155 Sengupta, R 260 settlement patterns, disruption of traditional 35 Shafer, S M xiv shame (language) 42, 44, 123–4, 129 Shanahan, T 139 shared reading 170 Sherzer, J 16 Shohamy, E 2, 7, 32, 40, 43, 44, 255, 281, 285 307 Shore, C xii, 3, 12 Shuar 153 Silver, K M 45 Silverman, N xv Silverstein, M 9, 40, 126, 131–3, 206, 215 Simmons, L W 59 Simon, J 165 Sims, C xiii Singapore 95, 273 Skutnabb-Kangas, T v, xv, 6–9, 15, 33, 273 Smith, D M 123 Smith, G H 163 Smith, L T S 56, 162, 165 Smith, W D 108 Smolicz, J 93 Snell, A W xvi Snell, R xvi social identities 55 social leap-frogging 281, 282 sociocultural approaches 142, 200, 277, 280–1, 284 sociocultural linguistics 12 sociocultural theory 194, 200 sociolinguistic ecologies 38, 44 sociology of language 12, 291 Somali literacy course 273 song 54, 63, 68–70, 132 southern Africa 99, 114, 130 Spain 140, 142–3, 147, 155 Spanish 2, 4, 33, 34, 37–8, 40, 42, 44–5, 81, 88, 141, 142, 146, 198, 274, 276, 279, 280, 293–4 Spicer, E 73 Spindler, G 11, 17, 18n6, 115 Spolsky, B v, xii, xv, 2–3, 7, 9, 12, 32, 168 Spring, J 199 SRA Reading Laboratory 170 Sri Lanka 78, 80–3, 86, 88, 89, 95, 130, 281 Sri Lankan Tamil language maintenance study: conclusion 95; language shift among Sri Lankan Tamil immigrants at three study locations 79; narrative 79–91; policy questions and implications 91–6; research settings and methodology 78–9 Sri Lankan Tamil(s) (SLT) 3, 13, 76–9, 81–2, 86, 91–2, 95, 124, 276, 280, 281, 284 St Clair, R 18n9 St Mary’s Anglican Church and High School, Odibo: early mission days 105, 106, 110; ethnographic interviews 106, 107; influence of British colonial education 108–11; location 105; positions held by respondents 107; as precursor to official English 111–14; see also Namibian school study 308 Index status planning 8, 208, 279 Stein, S J 12 Stocking, G W., Jr 11, 18n5 Stoecker, H 108 Storesletten, K 139 Street, B 2, 18n2 Stringer, E T 35 Stritikus, T 3, 15, 17, 274 Stroud, C 209 structured English immersion (SEI) 185–90, 194, 198, 200, 279, 291 Sturrock, J 255 Suárez-Orozco, C 124, 139 Suárez-Orozco, M 124, 139 sub-rosa literacies 11, 43 Sutton, M xii, 2–3, 6, 12, 18n5, 32 Swadener, B B xv Swahili 125–6, 273–4 Swain, M 186, 194 SWAPO (South West Africa People’s Organization) 105–6, 112–13, 130 talk radio 188 Tambopamba 143–4, 147, 149, 150 Tamil language 13, 78–95, 125, 130, 132, 133, 273, 280, 281, 284 Tanzania 273, 274 te reo Ma– ori (Ma– ori language) 161, 166 Te Wharekura o Rakaumangamanga: assessing biliteracy attainment 173–8; community background 165; fostering biliteracy 171–2; history 165–6; location 164; mission 165; philosophy 166–7; program reflections 178–80; role of English 168–70; school organization 167–8; student range 164; students’ achievement of biliteracy 172–3; see also Ma– ori biliteracy study teacher-created materials 46 teacher credentialing 154 teaching material 216 teaching materials/texts for learning and teaching 241–3 Tejada, C 195 texts and classroom talk 242–3 textual ethics see qualitative research textual ethics study textual fidelity 258, 259, 268 third space(s) 2, 195–6, 198–200, 279; see also metaphors Thomas, W P 139, 179 Thompson, M 195 Tiakiwai, S 171 tikanga (Ma– ori principles) 164, 172 Tippeconnic, John W., III xiv Tobias, G W R (Lukenge) 109, 110 Tobin, J xv Todorova, I 139 Tohono O’odham 33–5, 37, 39, 41, 295, 296 Tollefson, J W xiii, 6–7, 10, 12, 100, 103–4, 278 Torres-Guzmán, M E 15, 273 Tosi, A 87 “total communicative framework” 62, 70 total immersion 169; see also immersion education traditional protocol 65 TRANSANA software for subtitles 190 translanguaging 40, 43–4, 91–3, 278, 284 translations xi, 1, 242, 255, 263, 267 transmigrant relationships 145 transmigration xiii, 14, 139–43, 145, 147, 150, 155, 277 transmission mechanisms 53, 62, 64, 129 transnational communities 139 Treuer, D 18n9 Trueba, E 139, 294 Truillot, M R 133 truths 10, 260, 265, 268 Tsunudo, T 18n9 Tulloch, S 40 Tunaspamba 143 Tuncarta 143 Turner, C S V xv Udall, L 59 undocumented students 187, 189–93, 291 UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization) 33 United Nations 114, 139, 292 United States x, xii, 32, 57, 78, 140, 193, 198, 234 University of Pennsylvania 122 “unpeeling the onion” 8, 17 Unz, R 186–7 Upham, S 56 Urla, J 227n2 US–Mexico border wall 188 Uto–Aztecan language 57 Vacacela, A 141 Valenzuela, A 12 Varghese, M 274 Vaughn, S xv, 30, 52, 76, 98, 138, 160, 184, 204, 230, 254 Vedic Literature 260 “vernacular chauvinism” 14, 260, 262, 277 vernacular-medium (VM) 13–14, 255, 259, 261 Verscheuren, J 205 Index Viri, D xv vocational education, Welsh study see Welsh bilingual vocational education study Voegelin, C F Voegelin, F M Vyas, R 260–1 Vygotsky, L 194–5, 277, 294 waivers (from structured English immersion) 186–7 Wales (Cymru) see Welsh bilingual vocational education study Wallat, C 11, 115 War on Poverty x Warhol, L xv, 3, 8, 15, 35, 45, 122, 295–6 Warriner, D xv Watahomigie, L W xv, 12 Watanabe, S 15, 274 water resources, diversion of 35 Wax, M 18n6 Wax, R H 283 “ways of speaking” 31, 42, 131, 152 Ways with Words (Heath) 11 Wedin, A 273 Wee, L 209 Weismantel, M J 148 Welsh bilingual vocational education study: bilingual literacies in and out of college 244–8; concluding comments 249–50; different worlds of literacy 248–9; ethnographic project 236–41; insights from research with bilingual tutors 241–4; language revitalization in Wales, political and historical context 232–6; photo-based interview 239–40 Wenger, E 15, 93, 194 Whaley, L 18n9 whanaungatanga (relationships) 164 309 Whitehead, C 100–1, 109–10 Whiteley, P 54, 62, 66 Wiese, A.-M 3, 15, 17, 274 Wiley, T G xiii, xiv, 6, 7, 18n2, 294 Williams, A 241–3, 249 Williamson, A 108 Wilson, W H xv, 40, 44 Windhoek 107 Winstead, T 2–3, 12, 18n2, 32 Wodak, R 208 Wolcott, H W xii, 3, 31 women migrants 142 Wong, L xv Wong Fillmore, L xv, 186, 194 Woolard, K A 9–10, 40, 104, 121, 123, 125, 205, 215 work ethic 71 World War I 108 Wortham, S 12 Wright, S xii, 3, 5–6, 12, 18n1, 186, 195, 205, 207, 208 Wright, W 186, 195 Wyman, L T xv, 13, 40, 42 Yacuambi-Zamora 141 Yamamoto, A Y xv, 12 Yava, A 59, 67 Yazzie-Mintz, T xv Yuen, S D 186, 194 Yup’ik 13 Zakharia, Z 7, 12 Zaruma 141 Zehr, M A xi Zelizer, V A 148 Zepeda, O xv, 3, 8, 11, 13, 31–3, 35, 48, 114, 122, 130, 143, 277, 296 Zipley, D xvi “zone of proximal development” 195 This page intentionally left blank eBooks – at www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk A library at your fingertips! eBooks are electronic versions of printed books You can store them on your PC/laptop or browse them online They have advantages for anyone needing rapid access to a wide variety of published, copyright information eBooks can help your research by enabling you to bookmark chapters, annotate text and use instant 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Introducing Ethnography and Language Policy TERESA L McCARTY ETHNOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGE POLICY CASES AND CONTEXTS, PART I Critical Ethnography and Indigenous Language Survival: Some New Directions in Language. .. 128 JAmES CollInS ETHNOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGE POLICY CASES AND CONTEXTS, PART II 137 International Migration and Quichua Language Shift in the Ecuadorian Andes 139 KEndAll A KInG And mArlEEn hAb oud... Introducing Ethnography and Language Policy Perry Gilmore’s commentary on an American and a Samburu child who resist colonial language hierarchies and create their own language, and in the Native