112 Chapter Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education Kijpokin Kasemsap Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand ABSTRACT This chapter explains the current trends in higher education, the overview of neuroscience, the multifaceted applications of neuroscience, the overview of knowledge management (KM), the perspectives of KM, the significance of neuroscience in higher education, and the significance of KM in higher education Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary science that is concerned with the study of the structure and function of the nervous system KM is the practice of organizing, storing, and sharing vital information, so that individuals can benefit from its use The achievement of neuroscience and KM is required in higher education institutions (HEIs) in order to serve school administrators and students, increase educational performance, sustain competitiveness, and fulfill expected accomplishment in higher education The chapter argues that encouraging neuroscience and KM has the potential to improve educational performance and reach educational goals in higher education INTRODUCTION Higher education emphasizes the goal of promoting the reflective engagement among learners in order to engage the learners in the active learning for knowledge generation with self-reflection on their learning process and learning outcomes (Kong & Song, 2015) Higher education institutions (HEIs) aim to prepare the new generations with the skills, culture, and flexibility necessary to make their own contribution to society (Cranfield & Taylor, 2008) The current HEIs in overseas have adapted to their changing role in the knowledge-based society (Singh, 2010) Higher education is expected to meet three goals: to develop learners’ mastery of expert knowledge specific for major disciplines; to promote learners’ development DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-0672-0.ch006 Copyright © 2017, IGI Global Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education of generic competencies essential for the 21st century; and to stimulate the learners’ reflection on the continual pursuits, especially the learning pursuits (Njenga & Fourie, 2010) The relationship between neuroscience and education can prove most productive when it fosters a bidirectional exchange of educational ideas and approaches (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) Neuroscientists and educators have recently begun to evaluate how to transfer brain-based research to the classroom (Alibali & Nathan, 2010) It is time to consider the implications of neuroscience for education (Ansari, de Smedt, & Grabner, 2012) Neuroscience can contribute the obvious insights into education beyond traditional behavioral findings (Meltzoff, Kuhl, Movellan, & Sejnowski, 2009) The knowledge of the human brain has posed many questions about the potential for the knowledge of neural processing to be translated into the valuable knowledge that teachers and faculties can employ in their educational curriculum tasks (Clement & Lovat, 2012) In the knowledge-based economy, KM is rapidly disseminated in both academic areas and the business world (Park, Jang, Lee, Ahn, & Yoon, 2013) In higher education, KM-related research is the key for knowledge creation and knowledge dissemination (Laal, 2011) Petrova et al (2015) stated that KM becomes an educational strategy of management in the research university KM strategy is an important factor that enables universities to have more effective role in relation to society with the international market and the political perspective (Trivella & Dimitrios, 2015) KM is important to HEIs, when the expectations of stakeholders (e.g., government, local employers, and students) are increasing (Demchig, 2015) This chapter aims to bridge the gap in the literature on the thorough literature consolidation of neuroscience and KM in higher education The extensive literatures of neuroscience and KM provide a contribution to practitioners and researchers by describing the theory and applications of neuroscience and KM in order to maximize educational impact of neuroscience and KM in higher education BACKGROUND In the late 1980s, the advent of cognitive science brought cognitive psychologists and neurologists together for scientific collaboration for studying intelligence (Posner & Raichle, 1994) The development of neuroeducators was first proposed 30 years ago, based on the belief that brain science might transform and improve the practice of teachers (Cruickshank, 1981) Theories on cognition should be connected directly with brain and its functioning (Rumelhart, 1989) There are many efforts to connect neuroscience to education (Willingham, 2009) Neuroscience can offer the obvious understanding of how the brain learns new information and manage this information throughout life (Shonkoff & Levitt, 2010) In the past two decades, the interest of neuroscientists in building bridges between neuroscience and education has considerably increased (Sigman, Peña, Goldin, & Ribeiro, 2014) Hermida et al (2015) indicated that knowledge about neural development of cognitive and emotional processes can be incorporated and applied to learning and teaching Advances in the neurosciences have many implications for a collective understanding of what it means to be human, in particular, notions of the self, the concept of volition, the questions of individual’s responsibility, and the phenomenology of consciousness (Frost & Lumia, 2012) The adoption of neuroscience to improve education has often been considered (Butterworth & Kovas, 2013) The connection between neuroscience and education can be guided by defining roles, approaches, implications, and applications (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) Neuroscience and education should be 113  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education regarded as a two-way path (Turner, 2011) If the path is one-way, neuroscience is intended to be applied to educational practice, and the theorizing on student cognition and learning that the brain makes possible, should be adjusted (Mason, 2009) A two-way path, in contrast, implies that outcomes from neuroscience influence education since they act as a sort of constraint on that theorizing (Mason, 2009) University has the power of shaping the 21st century (Gül, Gül, Kaya, & Alican, 2010) Universities are the main formal method of creating, disseminating, and transferring knowledge, as the important factor for economic growth (Trivella & Dimitrios, 2015) There is a tremendous value to higher education that develops the effective initiatives to share knowledge toward reaching business objectives (Kidwell, Linde, & Johnson, 2000) Most colleges have web-based learning system to keep a large number of course resources during higher education process (Peng, Jiang, & Zhang, 2013) Traditional coursebased learning confines knowledge to one course Both teachers and learners often require extracting the useful knowledge from educational courses for themselves (Peng et al., 2013) NEUROSCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION This section emphasizes the current trends in higher education, the overview of neuroscience, the multifaceted applications of neuroscience, the overview of KM, the perspectives of KM, the significance of neuroscience in higher education, and the significance of KM in higher education Current Trends in Higher Education Education is broadly recognized as a key issue in the economic and social development of a country (Barro & Lee, 2013) There is a direct link between school quality and educational achievement (Boccanfuso, Larouche, & Trandafir, 2015) Quality of education is related to the income and economic growth (Manuelli & Seshadri, 2014), as well as with the higher individual returns to education (Zhong, 2011) Higher education is recognized as the major factor of social and economic progress (Dossybayeva, 2014) HEIs have to their business with the limited resources of finance and experienced teachers (Demchig, 2015) In the last decade, there has been a shift from the teacher-centered education to learner-centered education (Reynolds & Miller, 2013) Wesselink et al (2010) stated that there has been a shift from the content-centered curricula to the competence-centered curricula Information and communication technology (ICT) has become extensive in higher education (Boe, Gulbrandsen, & Sorebo, 2015) The advent of digital technology in the recent decade has driven the growth of electronic learning (e-learning) in HEIs across the globe (Kong & Song, 2015) Web-based learning allows students to learn at their own pace, access the information at a time that is convenient for them, and provides education to the remote students (Kasemsap, 2016a) Higher education promotes the bring your own device (BYOD) as a prevailing e-learning initiative (Al-Qahtani & Higgins, 2013) BYOD refers to a technology model which aims to foster learners to bring a personally owned device to the learning institutes for the purpose of learning, of which the personally owned device is any digital device brought into the learning institutes and owned by a learner (Thomas, O’Bannon, & Bolton, 2013) The practice of BYOD in the digital classrooms is considered as one of the prevailing e-learning initiatives in the higher education sector, as learners at this stage can afford to procure and bring their own digital portable devices for campus learning, and are capable of manipulating various functions of digital devices for multiple tasks (Osborne, Dunne, & Farrand, 2013) 114  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education The revival of competence-based education is connected with the shift to a knowledge-based society and a constructivist view of learning in higher education (Koenen, Dochy, & Berghmans, 2015) Bergsmann et al (2015) indicated that in competence-based higher education, concepts, and methods for the evaluation of all student competencies of a concrete curriculum at a concrete university are needed Competence-based higher education requires a more comprehensive view of competence-based teaching in higher education that leads to the systematic evaluation If competencies are educationally recognized, quality criteria derived from competence research should be considered in defining the competencies students should acquire within the curriculum (Bergsmann et al., 2015) A participatory evaluation approach (Hansen, Alkin, & Wallace, 2013) that includes the relevant stakeholders of HEIs in the evaluation process should be applied to the evaluation of competence-based teaching in higher education For higher education, the internationalization gives a real opening toward the exchange of best practices (Nechita, Cojocariu, & Păcurari, 2014) The internationalization of education is the process of various international aspects in the research, teaching, and administrative activities of educational institutions of different levels (Maudarbekova & Kashkinbayeva, 2014) The internationalization of higher education contributes to the attainment of global career-readiness competencies (Yeravdekar & Tiwari, 2014) Overview of Neuroscience Neuroscience raises the high attention by the educational and neuroscientific community (Rato, Abreu, & Castro-Caldas, 2011) Neuroscience is an increasing area of research (Snook, 2012) The brain sciences have gone through an innovation for theories and procedures for understanding the neural function and its associations with human cognition, experience, and modification (Lende & Downey, 2012) Neuroscience methods have gained widespread use in many areas of psychological and behavioral sciences (Harmon-Jones & van Honk, 2012) Much recent work in systems neuroscience has focused on how dynamic interactions between different cortical regions underlie complex brain functions, such as motor coordination, language, and emotional regulation (Shafi, Westover, Fox, & Pascual-Leone, 2012) Neuroscience is the basic science of psychiatry (Akil & Etkin, 2014) Psychiatric disorders are the brain disorders (Akil & Etkin, 2014) Neuroscience has begun to demonstrate the mechanisms of volition, decision making, and action (Shields, 2014) The neuroscience revolution has led many scientists to posit the thinking brains initiating rich psychological properties (Gillet, 2014) Organizational neuroscience continues to flourish in organizational behavior and management studies as indicated by the growing number of publications (Lindebaum & Jordan, 2014) Educational neuroscience has begun to move into the limelight, suggesting an increased importance on the ethical considerations of educational neuroscience (Zocchi & Pollack, 2013) Researchers in many areas of psychology and neuroscience have grown concerned with what has been referred to as a crisis of replication and reliability in the field (Barch & Yarkoni, 2013) The advent of neuroscience as a defining paradigm for psychiatry has challenged residencies with a humanistic focus due to common perceptions that it will entail constriction of psychiatric practice to the psychopharmacology roles (Griffith, 2014) Efforts to bridge between research in the neurosciences and research, theory, and practice in education have grown from a mere hope to the scholarly sophistication (Hruby, 2012) Organizational neuroscience has great commitment for promoting organizational research and practice (Ashkanasy, Becker, & Waldman, 2014) The ability to simulate the entire brains is a revolutionary scientific advance with the substantial benefits for brain science (Bancroft, 2013) The collateral sulcal complex is an important landmark 115  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education on the medial surface of the temporal lobe (Huntgeburth & Petrides, 2012) The mismatch negativity (MMN) component of event-related brain potentials has become an important tool for investigating the neurobiological mechanisms toward underlying auditory perception, memory, attention, speech, and music (Sussman & Shafer, 2014) Michael et al (2013) stated that the power of brain images has captivated scholars in many disciplines The goal of behavioral neuroscience is to map the psychological concepts onto the physiological and anatomical concepts (Rösler, 2012) Personality neuroscience involves examining relations between behavioral variability and neural variables, such as brain structure and function (Mar, Spreng, & DeYoung, 2013) Neuroscience research can help practitioners and researchers organize many hypothesized influences for each of the decision complexes into the meaningful clusters that rely on the same brain mechanisms (Doucerain & Fellows, 2012) Studying human brain remains one of the greatest scientific challenges (Amunts, Lindner, & Zilles, 2014) Knowledge about the brain and the human nervous system relates to human thought, perception, and behavior (Howard & Lieberman, 2014) Identifying neural systems responsible for improvements in self-control is of tremendous benefit not only for overall intervention efficacy, but also for basic science issues related to the shared biological mechanisms of psychopathology (Berkman, Graham, & Fisher, 2012) Multifaceted Applications of Neuroscience Neuroscience is advancing at a rapid pace, with new technologies and approaches that are creating ethical challenges (Al-Delaimy, 2012) The advances of neuroscience in revealing the neural bases of mental processes have shown that the answer cannot be exhaustive without looking into the human brain (Margreth, Carafoli, & Berlucchi, 2014) Growing a new breed of specialists mastering the art of teaching grounded in the mind and brain research-based science of learning, appears to be one of the roadblocks for a meaningful connection between mind, brain, and educational practice (Summak, Summak, & Summak, 2010) Neuroscience can offer the understanding of how the brain learns new information and processes this information throughout life (Shonkoff & Levitt, 2010) The developments in neuroscience move brain research to the center of learning science and open a new perspective for educational policymakers and practitioners (Hinton, Miyamoto, & Della-Chiesa, 2008) Cognitive theory has analyzed human mental abilities into cognitive systems, and cognitive neuroscience succeeded in recognizing a host of relationships between cognitive systems and specific structures of human brain (Pulvermüller, Garagnani, & Wennekers, 2014) The philosophy of neuroscience needs to capture how educational events are tested through experience and modified in the brain to comprise a knowledge base (Schulkin, 2013) Cognitive neuroscience uses the probes (e.g., neuropsychological tasks and neuroimaging techniques) to identify the neural underpinnings of behavior (Kidd & Steinglass, 2012) Neuroscience has seen dramatic advances over the past few decades (Akil & Etkin, 2014) Advances in neuroscience technology make it possible to monitor the activity of human brain in educational actions (Scott, 2012) The relation between mind and brain is one of the most scientific questions attracting scientists’ attention (Gobet, 2014) The National Institute of Mental Health seeks to address the gap between modern neuroscience and psychiatric training (Chung & Insel, 2014) Neuroscience can provide the causal explanations and predictions of behavior (Rösler, 2012) A frequent topic in neuroscience is the challenge of knowledge explanation (Ascoli, 2013) The outcomes of neuroscience research have affected the change in the human condition (Giordano, 2013) 116  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education Rapid advances in neuroscience enable practitioners and researchers to identify the neural correlates of ordinary decision making (Clarke, 2013) Neuroscience is re-orienting itself toward more psychoanalytically relevant questions and gives the new insights into the nature of basic drives and social relations (Watson & Michels, 2014) Neuroscientists can establish the functional network between neural impulses and an individual’s capacity for moral evaluation of situations (Tsomo, 2012) Theoretical neuroscience is a domain involving area for new developments initiated by an interaction with experiment (van Hemmen, 2014) It is important to understand how the brain deals with innovation (Goldberg, Funk, & Podell, 2012) The collaboration of neuroscience and cultural psychology is emerged as the cultural neuroscience (Mahmood, Othman, & Yusof, 2012) Work in the cultural developmental neuroscience is vital in determining the degree of generality that can be attributed to neuroscientific findings toward providing the insight into how developmental neurobiology interacts with sociocultural parameters (Miller & Kinsbourne, 2012) Enhancing neuroscience education during psychiatry residency training requires the organization of comprehensive pedagogy in various aspects of clinical neuroscience (Gopalan, Azzam, Travis, Schlesinger, & Lewis, 2014) Neuroscience and humanoid robotics have converged to the different frameworks which aim at enhancing motor abilities of humanoids (Ivaldi, Sigaud, Berret, & Nori, 2012) Overview of Knowledge Management Globalization has resulted in the use of knowledge as the beneficial tool in many organizations (Chu, Kumar, Kumar, & Khosla, 2014) The application of emerging knowledge is crucial for innovation by firms competing in the science and technology-intensive industries (Hohberger, 2014) KM should be coherent and based on the firm’s strategy (Bagnoli & Vedovato, 2014) Effective KM frequently leads to value-added innovations and consequently raises competitiveness of its products and services (Kim, 2014) Noruzy et al (2013) indicated that KM and organizational learning positively influence the organizational innovation Knowledge-intensive firms need to obtain their individual knowledge assets through knowledge sharing to create the collective knowledge resources (Swart, Kinnie, van Rossenberg, & Yalabik, 2014) KM is utilized by a large number of research disciplines (Ackerman, Dachtera, Pipek, & Wulf, 2013) Knowledge-based approaches to the organization offer the valuable insights into some of the central issues of governance and organizational design (Grant, 2013) Managing knowledge is effectively critical to the competitive power of an organization (Park, Lee, Lee, Jiayi, & Yu, 2013) KM has attracted an increasing number of researchers since the concept was born (Li, Guo, Zhi, Han, & Liu, 2013) The evaluation of KM has become increasingly significant (Liu & Abdalla, 2013) Managing knowledge constitutes one of the major strategic advantages of an organization (Lunnan & Zhao, 2014) Three key factors affecting the conduct of business include human, knowledge, and the environment (Intezari & Pauleen, 2014) Knowledge infrastructure and process capabilities are highly correlated (Cho & Korte, 2014) There is a positive relationship between KM capabilities and organizational performance (Cho & Corte, 2014) Knowledge transfer is more likely to succeed if the recipient organization has absorptive capability (Schulze, Brojerdi, & von Krogh, 2014) Knowledge must be integrated throughout organization to facilitate the strategic process (Lionzo & Rossignoli, 2013) Organizational learning positively affects KM in the manufacturing firms (Noruzy et al., 2013) Knowledge growth measurement is the active research spanning from the concepts that include the stages of knowledge growth (Al-Omari, AlShaki, Ahmad, & Ahmed, 2014) 117  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education There is an increasing need for the usable tools to support knowledge elicitation, knowledge formalization, and KM (Catenazzi & Sommaruga, 2013) Knowledge sharing is the behavior of disseminating acquired knowledge to organizational members (Tsai, Chang, Cheng, & Lien, 2013) Knowledge sharing mediates the relationship between team identification and research and development (R&D) creativity (Tang, Shang, Naumann, & von Zedtwitz, 2014) Organizational learning partially mediates the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and performance and fully mediates the link between learning orientation and performance (Real, Roldán, & Leal, 2014) Learning and sharing through discussion forms is the most used practices among all organizational respondents (Singh, Singh, & Sharma, 2014) KM, organizational culture, and organizational climate lead to the increased job performance in modern organizations (Kasemsap, 2014a) Social media allows technological access to the data and video information for potential consumers in the knowledge-based organizations (Kasemsap, 2014b) KM, strategic orientation, and organizational innovation are practically related to the improved organizational performance (Kasemsap, 2014c) Human resource management, organizational learning, and KM capability lead to the improved organizational performance in global business (Kasemsap, 2015a) Organizations aiming to improve business performance within enterprise architecture should create and develop information technology, technical alignment, information system capabilities, and information system effectiveness (Kasemsap, 2015b) The integration of KM and organizational innovation is important for modern organizations to acquire improved organizational performance (Kasemsap, 2016b) Modern organizations that emphasize employees’ learning requirements can achieve business objectives through building knowledge, transferring knowledge, and applying knowledge in the learning organizations (Kasemsap, 2016c) Perspectives of Knowledge Management Cooperation with a diverse set of partners leads to learning opportunities with regard to both cooperation and innovation skills and is expected to enhance the firm’s innovation performance (van Beers & Zand, 2014) External information acquisition has a positive effect on service innovation performance (Kang & Kang, 2014) Participation in knowledge-building communities is organized through learning the moves of such games (Bielaczyc & Ow, 2014) Learning ability has been proven to increase when organizations employ the dynamic processes that help nurture, enhance, and motivate people to improve their capacity to act (Tzortzaki & Mihiotis, 2014) Organizational learning moderates the relationship between managerial ties and opportunity capture (Li, Chen, Liu, & Peng, 2014) Factors influencing inter-project knowledge sharing include trustworthiness, organizational culture, and knowledge-sharing mechanisms (Wiewiora, Murphy, Trigunarsyah, & Brown, 2014) KM is a critical antecedent of new product development (NPD) (Yu, Chen, & Nguyen, 2014) Product innovation strategies and KM efficiently support each other and together to achieve planned goals (Kasemsap, 2016d) Knowledge creation influences new product performance through creativity, which includes novelty and appropriateness (Chang, Hung, & Lin, 2014) With increasing pressure to sustain competitive advantage, NPD activities remain the perspective of recognized interest from top management in many organizations (Felekoglu & Moultrie, 2014) Patel et al (2014) indicated that being able to internationally launch new products is critical for technology-based ventures to recover the high cost of R&D and to exploit their innovations KM of NPD-related project team is critical for the project-based organization’s competitive advantage (Zhang & Zhang, 2014) Project-based organizations should focus on building and maintaining knowl118  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education edge through using information technology because the increased knowledge is positively correlated with the improved project performance (Kasemsap, 2015c) Strategic requirements (e.g., organizational learning and employees’ competence) are effectively utilized through projects (Breunig & Hydle, 2013) Organizations specializing in project management can manage a project for the benefit of third party by applying the client’s technical knowledge (Stoshikj, Kryvinska, & Strauss, 2014) The global economies thrive on cutting-edge knowledge, which drives entrepreneurship education in competitive environments (Kasemsap, 2016e) Regarding the increasing advances in technology, information technology and KM applications effectively improve the strategic tools for providing the direct link between customers and tourism organizations, thus encouraging the communication channels in global tourism (Kasemsap, 2016f) KM strategy and intellectual capital effectively enhance organizational performance (Ling, 2013) It is crucial to negotiate a legitimate knowledge system, which should include both expert and local knowledge (Giordano, Preziosi, & Romano, 2013) The development of information technology relies on the transfer of knowledge from onshore units to offshore subsidiaries (Zimmermann & Ravishankar, 2014) Managers are optimistic about the benefit of ICT-based knowledge sharing (Trusson, Doherty, & Hislop, 2014) Within the new business environment, an organization’s profitability depends on its ability to learn and adapt (Tzortzaki & Mihiotis, 2014) Knowledge transfer is a critical factor in ensuring the success of offshore outsourcing software development projects (Betz, Oberweis, & Stephan, 2014) Social capital allows entrepreneurial firms to capitalize on learning the advantages of innovation and gain access to knowledge as the foundation for improving performance (Hughes, Morgan, Ireland, & Hughes, 2014) Knowledge effectively influences supply chain performance (Schoenherr, Griffith, & Chandra, 2014) Knowledge-sharing processes play as the mediators in the effect of trust, collaboration, and learning on KM effectiveness (Moon & Lee, 2014) Organizations need to put more tangible effort to improve their organizational knowledge implementation (Kim, 2014) The structure of knowledge system is a crucial component to make the knowledge system effective and acceptable to organizational users (Turchetti & Geisler, 2013) The integration of business process management (BPM) and KM helps organizations improve the cost aspects of the provision of products and services toward increasing their innovative capacities (Schmid & Kern, 2014) The combination of the right type of KM strategy with the useful pattern of intellectual capital practically enhances organizational performance (Ling, 2013) Modern agricultural business gains benefit from information sharing and knowledge exchange (Bernardi, 2013) Tengo et al (2014) indicated that the indigenous and local knowledge systems can provide the useful knowledge to enhance the understanding of biodiversity governance The degradation of human resource decreases an organizational performance (Lecuona & Reitzig, 2014) Organizations serve as the knowledge repositories (Holcombe, 2013) Strong ties enhance knowledge sharing (Huang, 2014) Social interaction ties and shared knowledge-sharing vision are the antecedents of interpersonal trust (Hsu & Chang, 2014) Significance of Neuroscience in Higher Education The role of neuroscience in education is still under discussion (Samuels, 2009) Summak et al (2010) stated that the developments in neuroscience and psychology seem to create a significant foundation for connecting mind and brain research with educational practices Since there is no learning without brain (Goswami, 2004), modern research on learning processes practically relates education with neurosci119  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education ence (Rato et al., 2011) Hardiman et al (2012) indicated that the popularization of neuroscientific ideas about learning explains a real challenge for classroom teachers who want to understand how children learn The information that education researchers try to import from neuroscience concerns a single cognitive process in isolation, but the interactions with other systems are part of educational context (Willingham, 2009) One application of neuroscience for informing education is explaining the science behind teaching principles (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) Many schools utilize the teaching principles to guide the approach and framework for interacting with students and fostering learning (Christodoulou & Gaab, 2015) To translate the teaching principle to research topics in neuroscience can involve the discussion of mirror neurons (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004) to demonstrate the ways in which neuroscience does and does not corroborate the principle Mirror neurons can inform the understanding of how the perception and execution of motor actions may operate at the level of the brain (Lepage & Theoret, 2007) Fischer et al (2007) indicated that the creation of a strong research infrastructure that education lacks for connecting research with practice is recommended The relationship between neuroscientific findings and classroom applications is spoiled by popular neuromyths (Pickering & Howard-Jones, 2007) Social environment, which includes the formal education, affects the neurocognitive development of a population (Baker, Salinas, & Eslinger, 2012) Education requires a research infrastructure to promote the know-how generation by connecting neuroscience to education (Fischer & Daniel, 2009) Educators need to know the human brain and neuroscience because neuroscience findings provide the insights into the learning process (Brandt, 1999) Teachers usually express the interest in the brain research, although the educational literature poorly discusses the neuroscientific perspective (OECD, 2002) Teachers can receive neuroscientific information in an accessible pattern Teachers can contribute to informing cognitive neuroscience research with their practical knowledge (Szücs, 2005) Educational psychology incorporates the research findings from cognitive neuroscience (Byrnes & Fox, 1998) The current gap between neuroscience and education can be bridged, at least as the first step, by educational psychology, which is interested in developing the descriptive, interpretive, and prescriptive models of student learning and other educational phenomena (Mason, 2009) Significance of Knowledge Management in Higher Education Driven by globalization, HEIs have expanded their provisions through the educationally strategic alliances to enhance their influences, visibility, market share on the international perspectives (Denman, 2000) KM strategy is needed to modernize the universities’ operation to adapt to the demand of the changing environment in order to be educationally competitive (Trivella & Dimitrios, 2015) Rowley (2000) stated that if HEIs are in the knowledge business since they are involved in knowledge creation, dissemination and learning, they must be full of successful examples and best practices of advancing their learning and teaching, research, and consultancy services by knowledge creation KM is an educational management for the research university (Smokotin, Petrova, & Gural, 2014) Knowledge sharing has become an increasing concern in higher education (Ramayah, Yeap, & Ignatius, 2013) Angelstam et al (2013) indicated that the collaboration, communication, and dissemination of knowledge are the meaningful management perspectives regarding KM in education Kutsikos et al (2014) indicated that the academic staff must be trained to develop, manage, and utilize the KM based on their ability of collaboration 120  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education Organizational culture, leadership, and employee satisfaction are the major factors for the development of KM strategy, which determine the overall service quality in higher education (Trivellas & Dargenidou, 2009) Organizational culture is positively correlated with organizational climate (Kasemsap, 2016g) HEIs that embed KM practices across a range of lifelong learning activities effectively establish a boundary spanning culture, which links various organizational disciplines in the knowledge-based economy (Kasemsap, 2016h) Leadership development can maximize productivity, shape a positive culture, and promote harmony (Kasemsap, 2016i) The character of organizational culture in higher education has been challenged by the rise of a more managerial culture in many universities (Christopher, 2012) Knowledge acquired through cooperating with an international partner helps universities stand out from the crowd (Chen, 2004) In higher education, Coukos-Semmel (2003) categorized knowledge into two types (i.e., academic knowledge and non-academic knowledge) The dissemination of academic knowledge represents the primary purpose of universities, while non-academic knowledge refers to the accumulated management experience required to support a university’s primary purpose (Coukos-Semmel, 2003) Both types of higher-education knowledge exist in the explicit and tacit knowledge perspectives (Li, Roberts, Yan, & Tan, 2014) Explicit academic knowledge exists in the patterns of textbooks, course outlines, and teaching materials, which serve the important aspect of the university’s primary objective (Li, Li, & Chen, 2014) For example, course outlines allow the course distribution and development (Guzman & Trivelato, 2011), and books represent an important method of transmitting the explicit knowledge in higher education (Teichler, 2004) Regarding teaching, the tacit aspect of academic knowledge is gained from experience and embedded in the individual lecturer’s mental models and skill sets (Guzman & Trivelato, 2011) According the UK’s Higher Education Academy (HEA, 2012), teaching knowledge entails the following six dimensions: the core knowledge of subject material, the appropriate appreciation of methods for teaching, the knowledge of how students learn, the ability to utilize the relevant technologies, the understanding of methods for evaluating the effectiveness of teaching, and the knowledge of the implications of quality assurance Tacit academic knowledge promotes the pedagogical practices in higher education (Guzman & Trivelato, 2011) Non-academic knowledge is the capability members of an organization have developed to draw the distinctions in the process of executing their work by performing the sets of generalizations whose application depends on the collective understandings and experiences (Tsoukas & Vladimirou, 2001) Nonacademic knowledge has either knowledge in the organizational routines (Bontis, Crossan, & Hulland, 2002) or the strategic and technical perspectives (Child & Rodrigues, 1996) In higher education, explicit non-academic knowledge is reflected in an organization’s policies, business plans, databases, directories, and accounting procedures (Coukos-Semmel, 2003) Tacit non-academic knowledge is embedded in groups and teams, and also reflected in the non-academic routines and informal procedures (Nelson & Winter, 1982) or applied in the key business processes (Lam, 1997) Tacit non-academic knowledge is developed over time and accumulated through experience (Lenard-Barton, 1992) HEIs promote KM as the encouraging data mining perspectives for their professors and researchers (Natek & Zwilling, 2014) Data mining has been recognized as a contemporary tool for building KM systems (Jashapara, 2011) KM approach to data mining process, otherwise associated with business intelligence technology, brings the value to the data mining solutions (Wang & Wang, 2008) This study is focused on the KM systems in HEIs as part of their educational work (Baker & Yacef, 2009) Using data mining methods for 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Affairs, 23(4), 616–632 doi:10.2478/s13374-013-0153-1 Yusuf, S., Baden, T., & Prieto-Godino, L L (2014) Bridging the gap: Establishing the necessary infrastructure and knowledge for teaching and research in neuroscience in Africa Metabolic Brain Disease, 29(2), 217–220 doi:10.1007/s11011-013-9443-x KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Brain: The soft convoluted mass of nervous tissue within the skull of vertebrates that is the commanding and coordinating center of the nervous system and the seat of thought, memory, and emotion Education: The wealth of knowledge acquired by an individual after studying particular subject matters or experiencing life lessons that provide an understanding of something Higher Education: The education at a college or university where subjects are studied at an advanced level 139  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education Knowledge Creation: The formation of new ideas through interactions between explicit and tacit knowledge in the individual’s human minds Knowledge Management: The strategies and processes designed to identify, capture, structure, value, obtain, and share an organization’s intellectual assets to enhance its performance and competitiveness Nervous System: The system of nerves and nerve centers in an animal or human, including the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia Neuroscience: The field of study encompassing the various scientific disciplines dealing with the structure, development, function, chemistry, pharmacology, and pathology of the nervous system Organizational Learning: The organization-wide continuous process that enhances its collective ability to accept, make sense of, and respond to internal and external change 140 ... building and maintaining knowl118  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience and Knowledge Management in Higher Education edge through using information technology because the increased knowledge. .. cognitive neuroscience Neuroscience can play an important role in investigating the effective method of enhancing brain power in higher education Neuroscience 122  Investigating the Roles of Neuroscience. .. TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Brain: The soft convoluted mass of nervous tissue within the skull of vertebrates that is the commanding and coordinating center of the nervous system and the seat of thought,