0 TABLE OF CONTENT INTRODUCTION Unit 1: THE ROLE OF TREES Page 2-5 Unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION Page 6-10 Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I) Page 11-15 Further Reading: A GUIDE TO TREE IDENTIFICATION Page 16-17 Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II) Page 18-20 Further Reading: TREE IDENTIFICATION Page 21-23 Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION Page 24-27 Further Reading: TREES AND FORESTS Page 28-32 Unit 6: FOREST AND FLOODING Page 33-37 Further Reading: WINDBREAKS Page 38-39 Unit 7: CREATING A NEW STAND Page 40-45 Further Reading: TREE MAINTENANCE Page 46-49 Unit 8: DIFFERENT TYPE OF CUTTING Page 50-56 Unit 9: FOREST MEASUREMENTS DEFINED Page 57-61 Unit 10: FOREST HARVESTING Page 62-66 Unit 11: FOREST TREE INSECTS AND HOW TO CONTROL THEM Page 67-72 Further Reading: TREES DISEASES Page 73-78 Unit 12: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDFIRES Page 79-82 Further Reading: FIRE MANAGEMENT Page 83 REFERENCES Page 84 Unit 1: THE ROLE OF TREES A READING & COMPREHENSION I Reading text For hundreds of years people have planted trees to serve the needs of future generations for timber and tree products In Europe and Asia forests were planted by rulers, church leaders and farmers – for the people By planting trees they particularly and symbolically showed faith and hope for the future Trees are fundamental to life and the processes that maintain healthy soil, and clean air and water There is evidence which shows that in regions where the trees are cleared to less than 30% of their original surface area, other sustainable life processes begin to collapse Rivers silt up, soils wash away, and air quality declines James Lovelock, a renowned ecologist, claimed these breakdowns in natural systems will in turn affect other word bio-areas continent or cyclones may occur more frequently It will be sad if these things happen before we change from consumers to producers II Comprehension questions: Now read the text carefully, and try to answer the following questions: What people plant trees for? What European and Asian people want to show by planting trees? What are fundamental roles of trees? What will happen to the area when the trees are cut down? III Vocabulary Fill in the gaps with words in the box boundary ; slopes pressures ; verges ; sanctuary ; shelter ; indigenous ; surrounding ; reptiles ; uncontaminated ; backbones 1.……… forests involved over millions of years with all the ………… of natural selection operating, so that finally what we see is a highly refined complex which is beautifully honed to survive in the ………… environment If the forest is large enough it will offer ………… to indigenous mammals, birds and ……………… Forest may be established in the areas such as: creeks, gullies, farm ………… , ridges and places with ………… greater than 15, and roadside ………………… Your garden is the natural forest that are the ………… and security for the whole landscape Like your food forest and structural forest, this assembly of trees and their organisms provides …………… and protection, and maintains air, water and soil in …………… states B GRAMMAR COMMON COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are generally followed by specific prepositions However, there are many exceptions to any rule listing certain words which must appear with certain prepositions This is something that one must learn from constant contact with and attention to the elements of a new language Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition It‟ very nice you to let me use your car Thank you very much Why are you always so impolite ………… your parents? Can‟t you be nice …… … them? It wasn‟t very polite ………….….him to leave without saying thank you I can‟t understand people who are cruel to ………… animals Why you always get so annoyed …………… little thing? We enjoyed our vacation, but we were disappointed ………….… the hotel I was surprised ………….… the way he behaved It was out of character These days everybody is aware ……………… the danger of smoking Mr Davis spends a lot of time gardening His garden is very well-kept, and he‟s very proud ……… … it 10 Bill has been doing the same job for too long He‟s bored …… ……… it Exercise 2: Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank A sound understanding of trees and their growth should be important ………… somebody who participates in managing forests (on / for / to / with) Forestry must be based …………… a sound understanding of botanical principles (on / for / to / with) Considering the growth of tree is important …………… the determination of the yield of lumber and other products (in / on / for / with) Some areas tend to be crowded ……………… bushes (in / on / by / with) Biophysical life processes of broad-leaved trees are different …………… those of needle-like ones (with / at / from / for) The life cycle of trees, similar …………… that of most plant, begins with germination (with / to / as / by) A tree may develop stunted roots if the soil is poor …………… nitrogen (with / in / at / on) If the tree is deficient (not enough) …………… water, it is hard for nutrients to be carried to different parts (in / with / on / for) The forest edge is essential ……………… the lift of the wind (with / for / to / of) 10 In the soil, water may be valuable …………….soil organisms and plant roots (with / for / to / of) 11 The gross features of trees are more useful …………… quick field identification (with / for / to / of) 12 The positions of tree crown are relative ……… the general level of the forest canopy (with / for / to / of) 13 Some branches are capable ………… growing independently (with / for / to / of) 14 Glucose is rich …………… energy (with / in / for/ of) 15 Some forests are free …………… rotting diseases (with / for / to / from) 16 Trees are vulnerable ………… various diseases (with / for / to / of) 17 It is a good way to plant trees highly resistant …………… diseases (with / for / to / of) 18 Forest trees are prone …………… attacks by diseases (with / for / to / of) 19 The fungus causing wilt diseases used to be native ………….the Orient (with / for / to / of) 20 The rotting fungi are responsible ……….great volumes of wood worthless (with / for / to / of) 21 Cellulose is high ………… energy content (with / for / in / of) Exercise : The American chestnut once accounted ………… as much as one half of the trees in many forest stands (with / for / to / of) Any tree consists ……… the roots, stem and leaves (with / for / to / of) The tree provides habitat ………… the animals (with / for / to / of) The word „crown‟ refers …………… the branches and leaves of a tree (with / for / to / from) Four sections of layers make ………… the outer part of a tree trunk (with / for / to / of) The outer bark protects the tree ………… radical changes in temperature, diseases, insects and dying (with / for / to / from) Nature supplies the tree ………carbon dioxide from the air, minerals and water from the soil and light energy from the sun (with / for / to / of) Metabolism is the process of building ……… and breaking ……… substances containing carbon (of-of / up-of / down-up / up-down) The cycle including respiration and photosynthesis results …………… several net effects (with / for / in / from) 10 Biomass production should depend …… the tree species and their spacing and age (up / on / upon / of) 11 Chemical substances can prevent trees ……… being attacked by fungi (with / for / from / of) Unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION A READING & COMPREHENSION I Reading text In very early pioneer days, trees were cut down with no thought of replacing them However, the significance of trees was indicated as early as the 1620s by the Plymouth Colony, when an ordinance was passed prohibiting the felling of timber on any colony land without official consent A little later in Pennsylvania, William Penn, the governor, ordered that, for every acres of forest land cleared, acre was to be left uncut After the United States was established, laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent thoughtless waste of the forests In the early 1800s Congress authorized the president to protect live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida and to use the Army and Navy for enforcement During this same period the first step in forestry was taken by the government by providing for the growing of live oaks in the southern states for ship timbers A federal act also provided for preservation of nearly 250.000 acres of forest land in Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana According to another act passed in that decade, any person cutting down or destroying living red cedar, live oak, or other trees on federal land could be punished by the government These laws and regulations, through which the government tried to control the forest land, helped call attention to the importance of forests and led to the development of conservation at the state level In January 1867, the first state committee on forest protection was appointed in Michigan, and Wisconsin followed in March of that year Two years later the State Board of Agriculture of Maine appointed a committee to develop a state policy for the preservation and production of trees Minnesota created a law in 1871 that granted bounties to encourage the planting of forest trees The first Arbor Day, a day in late April or early May observed by the planting of trees was celebrated the following year in Nebraska The federal government adopted the Timber Culture Act in the early 1870s It provided that the government would donate 160 acres of land to any person who planted 40 acres of that trees with trees not more than 12 feet apart and kept the trees growing and healthy for one decade This act, however, was repealed after 10 years because of serious abuses; too many recipients of these grants were not honoring their commitments by failing to follow the rules and regulations pertaining to the grants In many instances, while employing fire to prepare their land for cultivation, the settlers disregarded caution relating to neighboring land Gross carelessness often resulted in destruction of property well II/ Comprehension questions A/ True or False? Trees were cut with thought of replacing them in very early pioneer days The importance of trees was known in the 17th century Before USA was founded laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent thoughtless waste of the forests In the early 10th century, live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida were protected Red cedars were grown by the government in southern states for ship timbers in the early 19 th century In some states of America, about 250.000 acres of forest land were preserved by a federal act Any persons cutting down one acre of living red cedar, live oak or other trees on federal land could be punished by the government In the early 19th century police were used to enforce forest laws and regulations In 1896 the state Board of Agriculture of Maine appointed a committee to develop a state policy for the preservation and production of trees 10 These early laws and regulations played an important role in the establishment of forestry in USA B/ Answer the questions: In very early pioneer days, why were trees cut with no thought of replacing them? What was the content of the ordinance passed in 1620? What did William Penn order? In the early 1800s, what did the congress authorize the president to do? When was the planting of trees started? When was the timber culture Act adopted and what was its content? III Vocabulary A Look at paragraph again Which word has the same meaning as: A harvested C importance B without thinking of D banning Look at paragraph again Find the synonym of the words: A agreement C give hope and courage B conservation Look at paragraph again Which word has the same meaning as: A 10 years B parliament B Put the appropriate word in the blank conserve cut significance fell prevented protection growing timber laws destruction The…………………….…of Eucalyptus on waste land is becoming popular In Sweden, machines have been used to……………….….trees It is very important to……………….….all the valuable wood species Shifting cultivation causes a lot of forest……………….… Nowadays, most of people are aware the…………………of forests Forests…………… …….is a very important subject for us Long, long ago, trees were………………………with no thought of replacing them ………………… consumption of Japan has been increasing since the Second World War Everybody should respect the……………….……… 10 New forest laws have…………… ……people from destroying forests B GRAMMAR Some verbs in English must be followed by the - ing form: He admitted taking my book Others are followed by the infinitive, “to”: He agreed to lend me his book Verbs followed by a particles like „in‟, „from‟, ect are followed by the -ing form: He insisted on going to a film last night Some verbs are followed by either gerunds or infinitives: It began raining It began to rain COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES Enjoy: I enjoy working in my gardent Finish: Bob finished studying at midnight Stop: It stooped raining a few minutes ago Quit: David quit smoking Mind: Would you mind opening the window? Postpone: I postponed doing my homework Put off:I put off doing my homework Keep: Keep working Don’t stop Keep on: Keep on working Don’t stop Consider: I’m considering going to Hawaii Think about: I’m thinking about going to Hawaii Discuss: They discussed getting a new hat Talk about: They talked about getting a new car want need would like would love hope expect plan intend mean decide promise offer agree refuse appear pretend forget can’t afford Under normal condition, it is …………………….……to use and apply insecticides Most of the destruction from insects happens during……………………………… 10 The forest looks…………………………where defoliator insects are epidemic 11 Frass seen as the base of the tree can be used to determine the existence of………………… 12 The complete transformation in form between the juvenile and adult stages is called……………… …… B GRAMMAR Comparative Sentences E.g a) Particles of fine sand are coarser than particles of clay = Particles of clay are not as coarse as particles of fine sand b) Transported soils are more common than sedentary soil in humid regions = Sedentary soils are less common than transported soils in humid regions Exercise : Complete these sentences Use the comparative of the words in parentheses (……) + than Sorry I‟m late It took me ………………………… to get here ……….………… I expected (long) My toothache is ………………… it was yesterday (painful) She looks about 20, but in fact she‟s much …………………………… she looks (old) The problem is not so complicated It‟s …………………………… you think (simple) Your English has improved You speak a lot ……………………… you did when we were last met (fluently) Health and happiness are ………………….……… money (important) We always go camping when we go on vacation It‟s much ……………… …… staying in a hotel (cheap) I like the country It‟s …………… ……and ……………….…living in the city (healthy/ peaceful) 71 Exercise 2: Write sentences with the … the Choose a half sentence from box A to go with a half from box B the earlier we leave the faster you‟ll learn the longer he waited the more you have to pay the more I got to know him the sooner we‟ll arrive the more you practice your English the more profit you‟ll make the longer the telephone call the more impatient he became the more goods you sell the more I like him Exercise 3: Use the following verbs in the correct form to complete the paragraph below: Carry, be help, perforate, carry, be , not lignify, usually find, form, thicken, make , know The movement of materials through the plant as translocation The xylem or wood vessels which the water or mineral salts from the root to the leaves tube These tubes from dead cells The cross walls of the cell have disappeared and the longitudinal walls with lignum These wood The tubes to strengthen the stem The phloem tubes organic material through the plant These vessels … chains of living cells which They have cross walls which - hence the alternative name, sieve tubes In the stem the xylem and phloem tubes in a ring near the outside of the stem 72 FURTHER READING: TREE DISEASES A READING & COMPREHENSION I Reading text Trees, like people, are vulnerable to many diseases Like people, trees are attacked in various places by different kinds of diseases Forest pathology is the study of diseases of trees Some foes work on the main body trunk, some on the roots, and some on the leaves Vigorous trees are attacked less by diseases The older, weak trees or young seedlings that are struggling to become established trees are the most susceptible If a forest is managed correctly, seldom will disease be serious enough to require overt control Well-managed forests are healthy and comparatively devoid of disease Tree diseases are of two main types: nonparasitic and parasitic, often called environmental and organic The nonparasitic diseases are caused by drought, sunscald, winter injury as from heavy ice storm and snow, improper nutrition of the trees, air pollution by smoke and gases, flooding, and soil pollution The salt laid on the highways during winter months pollutes the nearby soil and in some instances kills trees Ocean spray, which feels so good on one‟s face, is a prime cause of disease in the coastal area This sea spray can be blown inland by hurricanes and result in tree damage far from the coast The parasitic diseases are caused by organisms that live within various parts of nutrients from it while contributing nothing to the well-being of the tree There are five groups of such organisms: viruses, bacteria, nematodes, mistletoes, and fungi Viruses cause minor gall, a condition known as witches-broom, and the serious phloem necrosis in elms and locusts A number of bacteria that are involved in many serious diseases of agricultural plants are of little importance in forest trees Nematodes, a group of parasitic worms, can be a problem for tree seedlings Mistletoes, parasitic seed-bearing plants, are widespread and cause serious damage, the dwarf mistletoes of the West in particular The most important cause of tree disease are the parasitic fungi Saprophytic 73 fungi decay dead tree and are important in the recycling of nutrients within the forest ecosystem The parasitic fungi attack living trees and are serious problems in all forest regions Considerably more timber is lost annually to fungal disease than is lost to fire The life cycle of a typical fungus consists of two basic stages, the vegetative and the reproductive The vegetative stage begins with the germination of a spore, the fugal equivalent of a seed Out of the spore grown a microscopically fine hollow filament called a hypha, which penetrates into wood or foliage and grows very rapidly, branching and rebranching to produce a gossamer, interwoven network known as a mycelium These mycelia dissolve the tree‟s cell walls and convert them and the contents of the cell into food The second stage is the reproductive stage in which hyphae grow to the surface and produce fruiting bodies, which split and release spores to be carried away by the wind The form, texture, colour, and location of these fruiting bodies are how most fungi are recognized Familiar examples are mushrooms and conks For convenience the fungal diseases can be sorted into three large groups: the foliage diseases, the stem diseases, and the rotting diseases Although widespread and of great importance in horticulture, foliage diseases are problems in forest trees only in that they can reduce the rate of growth of the infected trees Stem diseases can in turn be broken into three groups, the cankers, the rusts, and the wilts Among these are the epidemic diseases, which can result in rapid and widespread loss of forest trees The chestnut blight is an example of a stem canker diseases The American chestnut once was one of the most important and useful eastern trees Very widespread, it often accounted for as much as one half of the trees in many forest stands The fungus was introduced into New York probably prior to 1900 on imported Chinese chestnuts, and the native species had no resistance The windblown spores from an infected tree could travel great distances to enter tiny cracks or breaks in the bark of other chestnuts The stem is killed by girdling as the cambium is destroyed By 1950 a living noninfected chestnut tree was a rarity Today the American chestnut is no longer a viable species The potential threat of similar epidemics of exotic disease to other native species is source of anxiety for many foresters The Dutch elm disease is an example of the wilt disease This fungus, probably native to the Orient, was introduced into this country from Europe around 1930 The disease is spread by the elm bark beetle, which upon emerging from an effected tree is covered with spores When the insect burrows under the bark of an uninfected tree, it is effectively inoculated The fungus grows rapidly within the vascular tissue of the elm, and death is caused by physical blocking of the movement of moisture and nutrients to the foliage and perhaps by the production of a poison that kills living cells The spread of this disease has been rapid Many feel that the future of elms, particularly in the northern sates, is in jeopardy 74 There are a number of serious ruts of fruit trees White pine blister rust and the fusiform rusts of the southern pines are the most important These rusts have an unusual and complex life cycle involving the infection of two widely different species of plants known as alternate hosts and the production of more than one type of spore The fungus moves from one host, species A, to a second host, species B, and then back to species A again White pine blister rust, another disease introduced from Europe, is and extremely destructive disease of eastern and western white pines and of sugar pine of California and Oregan Simply put, the disease is spread by the movement of spores from infected currant or gooseberry bushes to the needles of the pines The fungus moves from the needles into the phloem and cambium of limbs and stem The name is from the orange-yellow sporefilled blisters formed on the bark Whenever infection reaches the main stem the tree is doomed, for destruction of phloem continues until the stem, no matter how large, is girdled Infection can be severe and often entire stands are killed The southern fusiform rust, which infects a number of the southern pines, has as its alternate host any of the numerous red oak species of the region While not as destructive as the white pine blister rust, this disease is of increasing concern to forest managers It is most virulent on loblolly pine, which is being intensively managed with costly site preparation and fertilization The rotting fungi, while they rarely cause death directly, are responsible for rendering great volumes of wood worthless There are two major types, the root-decaying fungi and the heart-rotting fungi The Fomes root rots typify the first category Though they attack a variety of species, they are most troublesome in eastern white pine and in plantations of the southern pines Working in the roots and butt of the tree, they weaken the tree, making it susceptible to windthrow, and reduce its growth The heart-rotting fungi destroy the nonliving heart wood of the tree and, aside from leaving it mechanically weaker, not otherwise influence its health and vigor The rotten wood is of course valueless Spores of the heart-rotting must enter through breaks in the bark Once they have germinated, the disease develops very slowly, and rot is rarely a problem in young stands In the oldgrowth conifer forests of the West, a 50 to 60 percent loss of volume to rot is not common II Comprehension questions What are trees vulnerable to? What does “Forest pathology” study? What parts of a tree can be attacked by different diseases? Which trees are the most susceptible to diseases? What are the two main types of tree diseases? What are the non-parasitic diseases caused by? By how many agents are the parasitic diseases caused by? 75 How organisms destroy the trees? How are the organisms classified? 10 What does each type of organisms damage? 11 Which fungi are the most important cause of tree diseases? 12 What parasitic fungi attack? 13 What are the two basis stages in the life cycle of typical fungus? 14 What are the characteristics of each stage? 15 What are the large groups of the fungal diseases? 16 What are the groups of stem diseases? 17 What is the life cycle of the rusts like? 18 How these rusts regenerate and develop? 19 Which fungi make great volumes of wood worthless? 20 What are the two types of rooting fungi? 21 What root-decaying fungi attack and cause? 22 What heart- rotting fungi destroy? 23 How spores of the heart-rotting fungi enter the heart wood? III Vocabulary Find out the word that means a the science that studies forest tree diseases b can be attacked c strong d easily affected by …… e enters f without g taking place h single cell by which a fungus reproduces itself i all j main Find out an appropriate word to fill the blank a These houses are …… ……… to storm b Next term, we will study forest ……………… …… 76 c The …………… … diseases are caused by organisms d ………………… often destruct seedlings e ………………… fungi help the recycling of nutrients within the forest ecosystem f The vegetative stage of the life cycle of a typical fungus starts with the ………………of a spore g The rotting fungi ………… …… great volumes of wood worthless h The pain in his leg has been ……………………… i Due to over forest exploitation for export, several valuable tree species are in danger of ………………… j His speech ……………………… the thinking of the young generation B EXERCISE I Checking your understanding As a matter of fact, there are ……… …… tree diseases A four B some C a lot of D six ………… can be attacked by different kinds of diseases A Only the trunk B Only the leaves C Only the roots D All the parts of a tree Trees diseases fall in ………… …… classes A three B two C four D five Organisms that cause the parasitic diseases are of ……… …… Types A four B two C three D five The life of a fungus undergoes ………………… periods A four B two C three D five ………… rendered great volumes of wood worthless A The foliage fungi B The stem fungi C The rotting fungi D None are correct Rooting fungi can be sorted in ………………….…… 77 A three major groups B two major groups C four major groups D five major groups Heart-rotting fungi usually attack ……………… … A young stands B primitive forests C old stands D pine stands The most important cause of tree diseases are: A fungi & viruses B bacteria & nematodes C mistletoes D All of these are correct Reading text Read the text carefully and answer the following questions: For hundreds of years people have planted trees to serve the needs of future generations for timber and tree products In Europe and Asia forests were planted by rulers, church leaders and farmers – for the people By planting trees they particularly and symbolically showed faith and hope for the future Trees are fundamental to life and the processes that maintain healthy soil, and clean air and water There is evidence which shows that in regions where the trees are cleared to less than 30% of their original surface area, other sustainable life processes begin to collapse Rivers silt up, soils wash away, and air quality declines James Lovelock, a renowned ecologist, claimed these breakdowns in natural systems will in turn affect other word bioareas continent or cyclones may occur more frequently It will be sad if these things happen before we change from consumers to producers What people plant trees for? What European and Asian people want to show by planting trees? What are fundamental roles of trees? What will happen to the area when the trees are cut down? 78 Unit 12: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDFIRES A READING & COMPREHENSION I Reading text Prevention of wildfires and suppression of those that get started are the objectives of firecontrol planning Since nine out of ten wildfires are caused by the activities or carelessness of people, attempts at prevention are worth making Fires caused by people have been reduced greatly by closing forests to hunters and campers during extremely dry seasons, stopping logging operations during hazardous periods, requiring permits for any types of burning operation, stringent enforcement of state laws against arson, and constantly using public safety advertisements with specific emphasis on caution about the use of fire in forests In prevention activities, the causes of fires are analyzed and a major plan is designed to provide prompt fire detection and prompt suppression Detection of a fire a forest in its early stages, before major destruction can take place, is a very significant part of fire management Use of the fire tower for spotting fires in their early stages has been of great value in this country Large maps are employed in reporting exact locations of fires to those who fight them The maps are marked with circles centered upon the locations of fire towers or their points of observation When a lookout spots smoke, he or she sights an alidade at it and determines the azimuth bearing (the angular direction with respect to north), estimates the distance of the source of smoke from the station, and notes any landmarks This information is telephoned to the district ranger or central dispatcher, who obtains similar data from other lookouts He or she then plots the azimuth bearings on a map The location of the fire is indicated where the lines on sight from the various points of observation intersect This process is called triangulation The dispatcher is then able to send off suppression crews with information on the location and size of the fire, type of fuel, and how quickly the fire is spreading 79 Many states in the Pacific Northwest and Canada have replaced many of their lookout towers by fire watch patrol planes These planes, flying a precise and routine pattern, can cover vast areas and can give more specific details about fires that are located However, coverage cannot be as continuous as it is form a tower, and in uniform terrain the ability of the pilot to be precise is less than that of the system of triangulation Hence, where speed of reaction is most critical, in the Southeast and in California, planes are employed to supplement but not replace the towers While smoke is the first sign of a fire, observed smoke does not necessarily indicate a wildfire; it may be just a campfire of the burning of rubbish Where lightning-caused fires are the principal problem, air patrols are most effective When an existing fire has produced haze and smoke blankets through which ground patrols cannot see, air patrols are especially useful A new method for spotting a wildfire employs infrared detection This has the ability to recognize the presence of a fire by the heat emitted by fire, rather than from seeing its flames or smoke This works well when the fire cannot be seen because of smoke The infrared method also can measure the size of a fire and help determine its speed of spreading It may also show the position of rivers, roads, and other landscape points through temperature differences and thus help show the best way to get to the fire area Another type or remote sensing is radar, which is especially useful in tracking lightning storms The U S weather bureau employs radar to track cumulo-nimbus cloud formations, which are associated with thunderstorms Pulses of micro-wave energy in narrow beams are reflected by a target such as a cloud formation From the time that a fire is first discovered to the time control actions can be applied, four events must happen: discovery of the fire; report of its presence and location; getaway of fire-fighting personnel; and travel to get to the fire The time required for each of these steps needs to be made as brief as possible II Comprehension questions 1.How many wildfires are caused by people? 2.How are fires caused by people reduced? 3.How are wildfires spotted? 4.When detecting smoke, what does the responsible person do? 5.How is the location of the fire indicated? 6.When does the dispatcher send off suppression crews? 7.To improve the fire prevention and control wildfires, what have some countries done? 8.What are the advantages and disadvantages of the employment of planes in detecting fires? 9.What are the advantages of infrared methods? 80 10 When is radar used? III Vocabulary A/ Find out the word or combinations of words that means: 1.aims to find out 2.implementation short 3.damage situated 4.detecting without stops 5.exact 10 visible part of a fire B/ Find out an appropriate word to fill the blank 1.………………….….is better than cure 2.……………….… forests to hunters and campers may reduce fires in dry seasons 3.All the data have been carefully…………….……… 4.To spot forest fires in time, a fire……………………has just been put up on that kili 5.The…………….… crew consists of 15 firemen 6.Canada has used……………… ……to detect forest fires 7.Our paper is being…………….………… 8.The stolen car was…………….……in the forest 100 kilometers west of the city 9.Due to the fires in the petrol pump, the sky has been covered with a………………of smoke 10 He is a specialist in remote…………… …… C Comprehension check ……………………wildfires are caused by the activities or carelessness of people A Seven ninths B Eight ninths C Nine tenths D One third Reduction of fire may be achieved through taking……………………measures A three B four C five D six To report exact locations of fires, ………………… are used A telephones B radios C cameras D large maps Some countries have used…………………………to detect forest fires A spaceships B jetfighters 81 C patrol planes D balloons The patrol planes fly……………….…… A one after another C in a cross-line B one above another D at the same speed Air patrols are most effective……………………… A in uniform terrains B in dry season C in the night time D where lightning-caused fires are the principal problem Infrared detection is a……………….……method for spotting a wildfire A effective B new C time-consuming D old The size and speed is spreading of a fire can be measured by……………………… A fire towers B foresters C patrol planes D infrared method To spot lightning storms, …………… …….should be employed A fire towers B patrol planes C radar D spaceships 10 From the time that a fire is discovered to the time control actions can be applied……………… A two works must be carried out B three events must be done C five works must be implemented D four events must happen 82 FURTHER READING: FIRE MANAGEMENT In a typical year, an estimated 15,000 wildfire and natural-fuel fire occurrences are encountered statewide Each year, an average of 800 wildfires burn 4,500 acres of forest and grassland within Ohio‟s forest fire protection district in the state‟s southeast unglaciated hill country These wildfires are attributed primarily to the careless burning of debris and household litter and arson, and result in untold damage to trees and landscape, water quality, improvements such as fences and outbuildings, and place people and their homes at significant risk The Ohio Division of Forestry works with volunteer fire departments to ensure that they are trained in the latest advances in fire prevention and suppression The division also enters into partnerships with other state and federal agencies to share knowledge and resources In addition to fire suppression, the division prescribed burns approximately 2,500 acres of State Forest lands each year to enhance habitat and reduce fuel buildup 83 REFERENCES Lê Thị Thanh Chi 2004 A course of English for students of agricultural extension and rural development Võ Thị Kỳ 2001 English in agriculture for students of animal husbandry Nguyễn Văn Tú.1992 English for forestry students NXB Đại Học Quốc Gia Hà Nội, Hà Nội Stephen Denny, Lewis Kerr, Martin Phillips, Clarence Shettlesworth 1985 Science and technology: Agriculture Longman, Hongkong Rosemary Morrow 1993 Earth user‟s Guide to Permaculture Kangaroo Press, Australia C St J Yates 1990 English for academic purposes series: Agriculture Oxford, England www.fallrivertrees.org www.dnr.state.oh.us/forestry www.woodlands.co.uk 84 Tên: Lê Thị Thanh Hải Ngày sinh: !5/ 02/ 1979 Trình độ: Cử nhân ĐHSP Huế- Hiện học cao học ĐHNN Huế Năm Tốt nghiệp: 2000 Xếp loại tốt nghiệp: Giỏi Nơi công tác nay: ĐHNN Huế 85 ... (paragraph 1) over (paragraph 5) a certain area that supplies water for a river or a stream (paragraph 2) causes (paragraph 1) the start of a river or a stream (paragraph 2) control (paragraph... combination of words that means: some (paragraph 1) types (paragraph 2) definite (paragraph ) accurate (paragraph 1) the same (paragraph 1) sawn wood (paragraph 4) before (paragraph 2) easily... Vocabulary A Find out the word that means: happen (paragraph 1) help (paragraph 4) get rid of make up (paragraph 4) fall (paragraph ) harmful (paragraph 3) makes changes in (paragraph 2) part