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Modifying lipids for use in food (ISBN 9781855739710) Any oil or fat should have the optimum physical, chemical, and nutritional properties dictated by its end use. Modification of natural fats and oils is therefore important to improve the quality of lipids for use in foods. When lipids are modified, though, compromises have to be made as the physical, chemical and nutritional properties of lipids are not always mutually compatible and this provides an important challenge for food technologists. Edited by an eminent specialist, this collection shows how these challenges have been met in the past, how they are being met today, and how they may be met in the future. Starch in food – Structure, function and applications (ISBN 9781855737310) Starch is both a major component of plant foods and an important ingredient for the food industry. Starch in food reviews starch structure and functionality and the growing range of starch ingredients used to improve the nutritional and sensory quality of food. Part I illustrates how plant starch can be analysed and modified, with chapters on plant starch synthesis, starch bioengineering and starchacting enzymes. Part II examines the sources of starch, from wheat and potato to rice, corn and tropical sources. The third part of the book looks at starch as an ingredient and how it is used in the food industry. There are chapters on modified starches and the stability of frozen foods, starch–lipid interactions and starchbased microencapsulation. Part IV covers starch as a functional food, including the impact of starch on physical and mental performance, detecting nutritional starch fractions and analysing starch digestion. Proteins in food processing (ISBN 9781855737235) Proteins are essential dietary components and have a significant effect on food quality. Edited by a leading expert in the field and with a distinguished international team of contributors, Proteins in food processing reviews how proteins may be used to enhance the nutritional, textural and other qualities of food products. After two introductory chapters, the book first discusses sources of proteins, examining the caseins, whey, muscle and soy proteins and proteins from oilproducing plants, cereals and seaweed. Part II illustrates the analysis and modification of proteins, with chapters on testing protein functionality, modelling protein behaviour, extracting and purifying proteins and reducing their allergenicity. A final group of chapters is devoted to the functional value of proteins and how they are used as additives in foods.
Novel enzyme technology for food applications Related titles: Modifying lipids for use in food (ISBN 978-1-85573-971-0) Any oil or fat should have the optimum physical, chemical, and nutritional properties dictated by its end use Modification of natural fats and oils is therefore important to improve the quality of lipids for use in foods When lipids are modified, though, compromises have to be made as the physical, chemical and nutritional properties of lipids are not always mutually compatible and this provides an important challenge for food technologists Edited by an eminent specialist, this collection shows how these challenges have been met in the past, how they are being met today, and how they may be met in the future Starch in food – Structure, function and applications (ISBN 978-1-85573-731-0) Starch is both a major component of plant foods and an important ingredient for the food industry Starch in food reviews starch structure and functionality and the growing range of starch ingredients used to improve the nutritional and sensory quality of food Part I illustrates how plant starch can be analysed and modified, with chapters on plant starch synthesis, starch bioengineering and starch-acting enzymes Part II examines the sources of starch, from wheat and potato to rice, corn and tropical sources The third part of the book looks at starch as an ingredient and how it is used in the food industry There are chapters on modified starches and the stability of frozen foods, starch–lipid interactions and starch-based microencapsulation Part IV covers starch as a functional food, including the impact of starch on physical and mental performance, detecting nutritional starch fractions and analysing starch digestion Proteins in food processing (ISBN 978-1-85573-723-5) Proteins are essential dietary components and have a significant effect on food quality Edited by a leading expert in the field and with a distinguished international team of contributors, Proteins in food processing reviews how proteins may be used to enhance the nutritional, textural and other qualities of food products After two introductory chapters, the book first discusses sources of proteins, examining the caseins, whey, muscle and soy proteins and proteins from oil-producing plants, cereals and seaweed Part II illustrates the analysis and modification of proteins, with chapters on testing protein functionality, modelling protein behaviour, extracting and purifying proteins and reducing their allergenicity A final group of chapters is devoted to the functional value of proteins and how they are used as additives in foods Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead’s titles can be obtained by: • visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com • contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodhead-publishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, England) Novel enzyme technology for food applications Edited by Robert Rastall CRC Press Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC Cambridge England Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, England www.woodheadpublishing.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA First published 2007, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC © 2007, Woodhead Publishing Limited Chapters 12 and 14 were prepared by US government employees; those chapters are therefore in the public domain and cannot be copyrighted The authors have asserted their moral rights Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge ownership of copyright The publishers will be glad to hear from any copyright holders whom it has not been possible to contact This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-132-5 (book) Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-371-8 (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 978-1-4200-4396-9 CRC Press order number WP4396 The publishers’ policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publishers ensure that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards Typeset by Ann Buchan (Typesetters), Middlesex, England Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, England Contents Contributor contact details xi Preface xv Part I Principles of industrial enzyme technology Discovering new industrial enzymes for food applications Thomas Schäfer, Novozymes A/S, Denmark 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Where to screen for new enzymes 1.3 How to screen for new enzymes 1.4 Summary: which option to choose? 13 1.5 References 13 Improving enzyme performance in food applications Ronnie Machielsen, Sjoerd Dijkhuizen and John van der Oost, Wageningen University, The Netherlands; Thijs Kaper and Loren Looger, Carnegie Institution of Washington, USA 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Laboratory evolution 2.3 Examples of improving enzyme stability and functionality by laboratory evolution 2.4 Rational and computational protein engineering 2.5 Examples of improving enzyme stability and ability by rational protein engineering 2.6 Examples of combined laboratory evolution and computational design 16 16 17 24 28 30 34 vi Contents 2.7 2.8 2.9 Summary and future trends 35 Sources of further information and advice 35 References 36 Industrial enzyme production for food applications Carsten Hjort, Novozymes A/S, Denmark 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Traditional sources and processes for industrial enzyme production 3.3 Design of expression systems for industrial enzyme production 3.4 Development of an enzyme production process 3.5 Future trends 3.6 Sources of further information and advice 3.7 References Immobilized enzyme technology for food applications Marie K Walsh, Utah State University, USA 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Immobilized enzyme technology for modification of acylglycerols 4.3 Immobilized enzyme technology for modification of carbohydrates 4.4 Immobilized enzyme technology protein modification 4.5 Immobilized enzyme technology for production of flavor compounds 4.6 Future trends 4.7 References Consumer attitudes towards novel enzyme technologies in food processing Helle Søndergaard, Klaus G Grunert and Joachim Scholderer, MAPP, University of Aarhus, Denmark 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Theoretical approaches to how consumers form attitudes to new food production technologies 5.3 Studies of consumer attitudes to enzyme technologies 5.4 Implications of consumer attitudes to enzyme technologies 5.5 Future trends 5.6 Sources of further information and advice 5.7 Acknowledgements 5.8 References 43 43 44 46 54 56 56 57 60 60 62 68 73 75 77 78 85 85 86 88 94 95 95 96 96 Contents vii Part II Novel enzyme technology for food applications Using crosslinking enzymes to improve textural and other properties of food Johanna Buchert, Emilia Selinheimo, Kristiina Kruus, Maija-Liisa Mattinen, Raija Lantto and Karin Autio, VTT, Finland 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Types of crosslinking enzymes 6.3 Application of crosslinking enzymes in baking and pasta manufacture 6.4 Application of crosslinking enzymes in meat and fish processing 6.5 Application of crosslinking enzymes in dairy applications 6.6 Other applications of crosslinking enzymes in food manufacture 6.7 Analysing the chemistry of crosslinks formed by enzymes 6.8 Effect of biopolymer crosslinking on nutritional properties of food 6.9 Conclusions 6.10 References Enzymatically modified whey protein and other protein-based fat replacers Jacek Leman, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Enhancing the fat mimicking properties of proteins 7.3 Applications in low-fat foods 7.4 Future trends 7.5 References Enzymatic production of bioactive peptides from milk and whey proteins Paola A Ortiz-Chao and Paula Jauregi, University of Reading, UK 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides 8.3 Other bioactive peptides and their health benefits 8.4 Production of bioactive peptides from milk and whey proteins 8.5 Future trends 8.6 Sources of further information and advice 8.7 References 101 101 103 109 114 118 122 122 124 126 126 140 140 142 149 152 153 160 160 161 165 170 177 177 177 viii Contents Production of flavours, flavour enhancers and other protein-based speciality products Stuart West, Biocatalysts Ltd, UK 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Production and usage of monosodium glutamate (MSG) 9.3 Chondroitin sulphate 9.4 Production of aspartame 9.5 Enzymes for vanilla extraction 9.6 Enzyme modified cheese as a flavour ingredient 9.7 Enzymes used in savoury flavouring 9.8 Enzymes used in yeast extract manufacture 9.9 Future trends 9.10 Sources of further information and advice 9.11 References 10 Applications of cold-adapted proteases in the food industry A Guðmundsdóttir and J Bjarnason, University of Iceland, Iceland 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Use of proteolytic enzymes in food processing 10.3 Application of cold-adapted serine proteases in food processing 10.4 Modifying marine proteases for industrial use 10.5 Future trends 10.6 References 11 Health-functional carbohydrates: properties and enzymatic manufacture Simon Hughes and Robert A Rastall, University of Reading, UK 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Dietary fibre 11.3 Prebiotics 11.4 Inulin 11.5 Transgalacto-oligosaccharides 11.6 Gluco-oligosaccharides 11.7 Alternansucrase–maltose acceptor oligosaccharides 11.8 Resistant starch 11.9 Arabinoxylan 11.10 Oligosaccharides from non-starch polysaccharides 11.11 Pectins 11.12 Oligodextran 11.13 Conclusion 11.14 References 183 183 186 188 190 191 193 198 199 200 202 203 205 205 208 209 211 212 212 215 215 215 217 219 222 223 224 226 228 230 232 234 237 237 Contents ix 12 Flavorings and other value-added products from sucrose Gregory L Côté, United States Department of Agriculture, USA 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Di- and oligosaccharides from sucrose 12.3 Polysaccharides from sucrose 12.4 Other products 12.5 Future trends 12.6 Sources of further information and advice 12.7 References 243 13 Production of structured lipids with functional health benefits Xuebing Xu, Janni B Kristensen and Hong Zhang, BioCentrumDTU, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Production of diglyceride oils 13.3 Production of healthy oils containing medium chain fatty acids 13.4 Future trends 13.5 Acknowledgements 13.6 References 14 Lipase-catalyzed harvesting and/or enrichment of industrially and nutritionally important fatty acids George J Piazza and Thomas A Foglia, US Department of Agriculture, USA; and Xuebing Xu, BioCentrum-DTU, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Lipase selectivity 14.3 Fatty acid harvesting 14.4 Structured triacylglycerols 14.5 Single reaction step process for the production of STAG 14.6 Multiple reaction step processes for the production of STAG 14.7 Nutritional and other uses of structured lipids 14.8 Summary and future trends 14.9 References 243 244 257 260 261 262 262 270 270 271 278 282 282 282 285 285 286 294 295 301 307 307 308 309 Index 315 306 Novel enzyme technology for food applications A B B B Substrate triglyceride Fig 14.1 via diglyceride A A B B A B B Intermediate triglyceride B via diglyceride A B A B A Product triglyceride Reaction scheme of sn-1,3-lipase catalyzed interesterification between a triglyceride (BBB) and an acyl donor (A) Besides the reactions from BBB to ABA in Fig 14.1, acyl migration also occurs owing to the existence of diglycerides that arise from the lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis The hydrolysis cannot be fully avoided since there is often a small amount of water associated with the lipase This process can lead to the formation of nonspecific triglycerides such as AAA, AAB, and so on Since regiospecificity is one of the major aims of the process and determines product quality, this side reaction has to be minimized Diglycerides play a very important role in the induction of acyl migration (Xu, 2003) The greater the amount of diglycerides produced in the reaction, the greater the extent of acyl migration found in the products Acyl migration, on the premise of diglycerides being the precursor, takes place via the formation of an unstable cyclic intermediate and is initiated by the nucleophilic attack of a lone pair of electrons from the free hydroxyl oxygen on the ester carbonyl carbon, which results in a five-member ring intermediate Subsequently, the ring opens and results in two products, the original diglyceride and a migrated diglyceride 1,2(2,3)-Diglycerides are thermodynamically unstable and tend to rearrange to 1,3-diglycerides The ratio of 1,2(2,3)-diglycerides and 1,3-diglycerides is about 2:3 at equilibrium A good quality STAG should have high acyl incorporation or content of monoand/or di-incorporated triglycerides and low acyl migration and diglyceride content In many cases, factors such as temperature, water content, reaction time, and so on that favor higher acyl incorporation also favor a higher degree of acyl migration and diglyceride content In this case, the reaction has to be optimized and a compromise has to be made The process for such an operation uses a simple stirred tank reactor or a plug flow reactor There is not much difference in process productivity between the two processes (Xu, 2003) However, there is some impact on product quality, process cost and ease of operation Since the system is often a homogenous system, solvents can be avoided This makes the process much simpler than a process that requires solvents Such processes have been implemented in pilot plants and industrial production (Quinlan and Moore, 1993) Many case studies have been published concerning different STAG (Chang et al., 1990; Xu et al., 1998, 1999; Yang et al., 2003; Nielsen et al., 2006) Lipase-catalyzed harvesting and/or enrichment of fatty acids LLL + ethanol Novozym 435 307 2-MAG + L-EE + ethanol Remove enzyme Remove ethanol Lipozyme RM IM 8/L/8 + L-EE + 8:0 2-MAG + L-EE Vacuum Remove Lipozyme RM IM Remove 10:0 and L-EE 8:0/L/8:0 up to 90% 8:0 Fig 14.2 Scheme of the two-step reaction process for the production of ABA-type structured lipids, where A is caprylic acid and B is a long chain essential fatty acid (L), EE are ethyl esters and MAG monoglycerides 14.6 Multiple reaction step processes for the production of STAG For products with higher purity, a more sophisticated procedure for the production of STAG with a regiospecific distribution of fatty acids has been developed A schematic presentation of the procedure is given in Fig 14.2 (Soumanou et al., 1998; Kim and Yoon, 2003; Iwasaki and Yamane, 2004) The first step is ethanolysis of LLL to produce sn-2 monoglycerides This reaction can reach 100% in 2–3 h The monoglycerides produced can either react with a fatty acid or its ethyl ester, using another enzyme to synthesize into ALA structured lipid The intermediate monoglycerides can either be isolated from the system or used directly for further synthesis without isolation but with over-abundance of acyl donors (A) to minimize reverse reactions with the acyl donors released in the first step The synthesis step can be very fast, less than one hour This sophisticated procedure has, so far, only been applied on a laboratory scale Purity can reach 90% with a 500 g production run Previous studies in the laboratory have reported 95% purity (Iwasaki and Yamane, 2004) Acyl migration of the monoglycerides produced is a central issue for this process and it is critical to develop a process technology that will ensure high product quality 14.7 Nutritional and other uses of structured lipids There are few if any industrial applications for which STAG have been claimed, other than partially hydrogenated products, presumably because of the costs associated with producing STAG Hence most applications claimed for STAG usage have been as nutritional or nutraceutical type lipids STAG products that 308 Novel enzyme technology for food applications have been commercialized include reduced-calorie fats that are composed of at least one VL (C16–C18) and a short chain fatty acid (C2–C3) as characterized by the Benefat series of STAG lipids (Cultor Food Science) Similar type reduced-calorie STAG can be prepared by interesterification of long-chain FA and M (C6–C8), which are marketed under the name Caprenin (Procter and Gamble) While a targeted STAG product Behenin (Fuji Oil) is produced by enzymatic esterification of behenic and oleic acid in a 2:1 ratio These reducedcalorie fats, which typically have half the caloric density of natural fats (∼5 kcal g–1) have been used for confections, baking, compound coatings and dairy applications Medium-chain TAG are another common form of STAG that are composed of mixed medium-chain FA either alone or in combination with a VL Examples of the former products include Captin (Stepen Co.) and Captex (Abitec Corp.), which are mixtures C8–C12 FA that are used in such applications as sport drinks, energy bars and infant formulas In the latter instance, the medium chain TAG is interesterified in combination with a long-chain FA (usually an unsaturated C18) and includes products such as Neobee (Stepan Corp.) Impact (Novartis Corp.), and Laurical (Calgene Inc.) all of which have claimed medical and/or nutritional benefits in such applications as nutritional beverages, parenteral nutrition and intravenous fat emulsions Finally, recently enacted labeling laws both in the USA and Europe have prompted the food and ingredient industry to manufacture foods with low or zero trans fat content Such products originally were produced by interesterification of a full saturated fat (typically fully hydrogenated oil) with a non-hydrogenated oil Similar type oils have been produced enzymatically by ADM Corp and are marketed as a series of products under the trade name NovaLipid These zero or reduced trans structured fats and oils are intended for use as shortenings and margarines 14.8 Summary and future trends In this chapter we have attempted to provide an overview of recent literature on the selectivity of selected lipases, the synthesis of STAG, materials used in their synthesis, their current availability and SL applications An understanding of the functional and nutritional properties of the fatty acyl groups in STAG will also provide new products with beneficial end-use properties With these perspectives in mind, the outlook and potential for further commercialization of enzymatic produced STAG should continue to meet consumer needs and hence increase their potential commercialization Factors that need to be considered for continued commercial success of these enzymatic processes include: identification of new markets for food ingredients or fine chemicals, process scale-up, catalyst reuse and cost of enzymatic processes versus chemical routes, consumer preferences for natural versus synthetic products and meeting government regulations for new food ingredients Lipase-catalyzed harvesting and/or enrichment of fatty acids 309 14.9 References Akoh C C (2002) ‘Structured Lipids’, in Akoh C K and Min D B (eds), Food Lipids, Marcel Decker, New York, 877–908 Akoh C C and 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methodology’, J Agric Food Chem, 49, 5771–5777 Index acetolactate decarboxylase 206 acylglycerols, modification by immobilized enzymes 62 cocoa butter equivalents 65 diacylglycerols 67 modified triacylglycerols 65–6 trans-free oils 62–5 aflatoxins 50–1 alternan oligosaccharides 256, 258–9 alternansucrase–maltose acceptor oligosaccharides 224–5 amino acids, flavour characteristics 184 α-amylase 206 β-amylase 206 angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors 161–3 milk-derived 165 structural implications 163–5 antibiotic resistance markers 53–4 antihypertensive peptides 162, 165 antimicrobial peptides 168–9 antioxidant peptides 169 arabinanoligosaccharide (AOS) 230 (arabino)galacto-oligosaccharide (ATOS) 230 arabinoxylan (AX) 228–9 arabinoxylo-oligosaccharide (AXOS) 231 aromatic amino acids (AAA) 74 artichoke inulin 219–20 aspartame 76–7, 190–1 Atlantic cod enzymes 205–8 cryotin 209–11 Bacillus subtilis baking, applications of crosslinking enzymes 109–10 protein-based fat replacers 149 transglutaminase (TG) 110–12 biocatalysis 16 biochemical assays 8–9 bioinformatics 6–7 bioreactors chromatographic 176 membrane 173–6 bovine chymosin see chymosin, bovine branched chain amino acids (BCAA) 74 carbohydrates, health-functional 215, 237 alternansucrase–maltose acceptor oligosaccharides 224–5 arabinoxylan (AX) 228–9 dietary fibre 215–17 gluco-oligosaccharides (GOS) 223–4 inulin 219–22 oligodextran 234–7 oligosaccharides from non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) 230–2 pectins 232–4 prebiotics 217–18 resistant starch (RS) 226–8 transgalacto-oligosaccharides (TOS) 222–3 carbohydrates, modification by immobilized enzymes functional oligosaccharides 69–72 316 Index high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) 68–9 lactose hydrolysis 72–3 tagatose 73 Cascade system 199, 200 cellulases 206 cereals, applications of crosslinking enzymes 112–14 cheese applications of crosslinking enzymes 121 protein-based fat replacers 150 enzyme modified cheese (EMC) 194–8 flavours 196 chicory inulin 219–20 chondroitin sulphate 188–90 chromatographic bioreactors 176 chymosin 206 bovine 44, 45 chymotrypsin 171 classical strain improvement (CSI) 27 cloning 10–11, 18–19 cocoa butter equivalents 65 colonic diseases 218 combinatorial libraries enhanced by recombination in yeast (CLERY) 23 computational protein engineering 28–9 combined with laboratory evolution 34–3 consumer attitudes 85–6 future trends 95 implications 94–5 information sources 95 studies 88 attitude formation 88–9 effect of information on attitudes 89–90 effect of product experience on attitudes 92–4 intention to buy 91–2 theoretical approaches to attitude formation 86–7 impact on buying behaviour 87–8 Corning Glass process 72 crosslinking enzymes 101–3, 126 baking and pasta applications 109–10 oxidative enzymes in cereals 112–14 transglutaminase in baking 110–12 transglutaminase in pasta manufacture 112 chemistry of crosslinks 122–3 carbohydrates, feroylylated 124 proteins 123–4 dairy applications 118–20 cheese manufacture 121 milk stability 121 set and stirred yoghurts 121 effect on nutritional properties 124–6 meat and fish processing 114–15 heated meat products 115–18 restructured meat products 118 other applications 122 types oxidative enzymes 104–9 transglutaminase 103–4 cryotin 209–11 cyclodextrin glucano transferases (CGTases) 32 dairy products, applications of crosslinking enzymes 118–20 cheese manufacture 121 milk stability 121 protein-based fat replacers 149 set and stirred yoghurts 121 degenerate homoduplex gene family recombination (DHR) 23 degenerate oligonucleotide gene shuffling (DOGS) 23 dextran 258 dietary fibre 215–17 diglyceride (DAG) oils 67, 271–2 enzymatic optimization 277–8 lipase-catalysed production 272–4 process technology 274–7 discovery of industrial enzyme systems background 3–4 technologies method selection 13 screening methodologies expression cloning 10–11 functional biochemical assays 8–9 molecular screening 11–12 primary and secondary screening 10 screening strategies bioinformatics and genomics 6–7 natural diversity 5–6 protein optimization 7–8 1,3-distearoyl-2-mono-olein (SOS) 65 DNA microarrays 12 DNA shuffling 19, 22, 26–8 enantioselectivity 26 enzyme modified cheese (EMC) 194–8 erlose 248–9 expressed sequence tags (EST) 11–12 expression cloning 10–11, 18–19 extracellular enzymes 55 Index fatty acids 62–5 fatty acids, lipase-catalysed harvesting/ enrichment 285–6 future trends 308 harvesting 294–5, 296–7 lipid selectivity 286–94 structured triacylglycerols (STAG) 295–301 multiple reaction step production 307 nutritional and other uses 307–8 single reaction step production 301–6 fermentation techniques 54–6 fish processing, applications of crosslinking enzymes 114–15 flavours and flavour enhancers see also sucrose-derived flavourings future trends 200–2 information sources 202–3 production 183–4 aspartame 190–1 cheese flavour 193–8 chondroitin sulphate 188–90 industrial proteases 185–6 monosodium glutamate (MSG) 186–7 protease classification 184–5 savoury flavours 198–9 vanilla extraction 191–3 yeast extract 199–200, 201 production by immobilized enzymes aspartame 76–7 ester flavour synthesis 75–6 fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) 21 fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) 71, 217–18, 252–3 short-chain (scFOS) 253–4 β-galactosidase 72 ‘generally regarded as safe’ (GRAS) 47 gene mutations 7–8 genetically modified (GM) foods, consumer attitudes 88–9 genome shuffling 26–8 genomics 6–7 β-glucanase 206 glucoamylase 206 gluco-oligosaccharides (GOS) 223–4 glucose isomerase 48 glucose oxidases 102, 108–9, 113, 206 glutathione oxidase 102 glycoside hydrolases 32 hexose oxidases 102, 109, 113 high fructose corn syrup (HFCS) 48, 68–9 317 high-throughput screening (HTS) 24 historical background 3–4, 43–4 honey oligosaccharides 246–7 hydrolytic membrane bioreactors 175 ice-cream, applications of crosslinking enzymes protein-based fat replacers 150–1 immobilized enzyme assay (IDEA) system 74 immobilized enzymes 60–2 flavour production aspartame 76–7 ester flavour synthesis 75–6 future trends 77–8 modification of acylglycerols 62 cocoa butter equivalents 65 diacylglycerols 67 modified triacylglycerols 65–6 phospholipids 66 trans-free oils 62–5 modification of carbohydrates functional oligosaccharides 69–72 high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) 68–9 lactose hydrolysis 72–3 tagatose 73 modification of proteins protein functionality 74–5 protein hydrolysates 73–4 immunomodulatory peptides 169 improving enzyme performance 16–17 future trends 35 information sources 35–6 laboratory evolution 17–18 enantioselectivity 26 enzyme stability 24–6 genome shuffling 26–8 selection and screening 20–4 techniques 18–20, 22–3 laboratory evolution combined with computational design 34–3 rational and computational protein engineering 28–9 construction of designed sequences 29 enzyme stability 30–2 ligand and substrate specificity 32–3 reaction mechanism 32 in vitro recombination 19 in vitro selection 20–1 in vivo random mutagenesis 22 incremental truncation for the creation of hybrid enzymes (ITCHY) 19–20, 23 318 Index SCRATCHY 23 intracellular enzymes 54–5 inulin 71, 219–20 isolation of high chain lengths 221–2 novel production 220–1 plant synthesis 220 invert sugar 260 isomalto-oligosaccharides (IMO) 71, 256–7 isomaltulose (palatinose) 71, 244–5 kestose 254 koji process 45, 47 laboratory evolution of enzymes 17–18 combined with computational design 34–3 improvement examples enantioselectivity 26 enzyme stability 24–6 genome shuffling 26–8 selection and screening 20–4 techniques 18–20, 22–3 laccases 102, 105–7, 113 applications in meat and fish processing 117 lactase 206 lactobacilli 27 lactoferricin 167, 168 lactoferrin 167 β-lactoglobulin 74–5 lactose hydrolysis 72–3 lactosucrose 250 lecithin 66 leucrose 246 levan oligosaccharides 254–5, 259 lipases 206 selectivity 286–94 lipids, structured see structured lipids lipoxygenases (LOX) 102, 108, 113 low-fat foods 149–52 lysozyme 206 maltosyl sucrose 250–1 marine proteases 211–12 meat processing, applications of crosslinking enzymes 114–15 heated meat products 115–18 laccases 117 protein-based fat replacers 149 restructured meat products 118 transglutaminase (TG) 116–17 tyrosinases 117 medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) 278–9 common process parameters 279–81 determination of products 281–2 lipase-catalysed interestification 279 reactors for interestification 281 medium chain triacylglycerols (MCT) 65–6 melezitose 247–8 membrane bioreactors 173–6 microbial fermentation 43–4 milk applications of crosslinking enzymes 121 bioactive peptides 170 ACE inhibitors 165 production processes and bioreactors 172–6 proteolytic enzymes 170–2 miso process 44, 45 molecular screening 11–12 molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) membranes 174 monosodium glutamate (MSG) 186–7 mutation of genes 7–8 natural diversity 5–6 nitrosoguanidine 27 non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDO) 217–18 non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) oligosaccharides 230–2 nutritional properties of foods, effects of crosslinking 124–6 oils, trans-free 62–5 oligodextran 234–7 oligonucleotides, synthetic 20 oligosaccharides 69–72 from non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) 230–2 production enzymes 70 opioid peptides 168 oxidative enzymes 104 applications cereals 112–14 glucose and hexose oxidases 108–9 laccases 105–7 lipoxigenases (LOX) 108 peroxidases 107 sulphydryl oxidases 107–8 tyrosinases 104–5 palatinose (isomaltulose) 71, 244–5 1(3)-palmitoyl-3(1)-stearoyl-2-mono-olein (POS) 65 papain 44, 206, 208 Index pasta, applications of crosslinking enzymes 109–10 transglutaminase (TG) 112 pectic-oligosaccharides 233 pectinase 206 pectins 232–4 pepsin 170 peptides, bioactive 160–1 ACE inhibitors 161–3 milk-derived 165 structural implications 163–5 future trends 177 information sources 177 production from milk and whey proteins 170 processes and reactors 172–6 proteolytic enzymes 170–2 types and benefits 165–7 antimicrobial peptides 168–9 antioxidant peptides 169 immunomodulatory peptides 169 opioid peptides 168 periplasmic binding protein (PBP) 32–3 peroxidases 102, 107, 113 phospholipids 66 plant carbohydrates 216 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) random point mutagenesis 18–19, 22 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) 285, 286 prebiotics 217–18 production of enzymes 43–4 expression system design 46–7 antibiotic resistance markers 53–4 host strain safety 47–8 host strain sporulation 51–2 secretion/accumulation of product 48 side activities and potential contamination 48–9 toxic metabolites 49–51 vector design 52–3 future trends 56 information sources 56 process development 54–6 traditional sources 44–6 promoters 52–3 proteases, cold adapted 205–8 applications 208–9 applications: serine proteases 209–11 future trends 212 modification of marine proteases 211–12 proteases, classification 184–5 protein hydrolysates 73–4 319 protein optimization 7–8 proteinase K 171 protein-based fat replacers 140–2 applications in low-fat foods 149–52 enhancing fat-mimicking properties of proteins 142–3 protein crosslinking 146–8 proteolysis 143–6 future trends 152 proteins, modification by immobilized enzymes protein functionality 74–5 protein hydrolysates 73–4 public opinion see consumer attitudes raffinose 251–2 random chimeragenesis on transient templates (RACHITT) 22 random point mutagenesis 18–19, 22 rational protein engineering 28–9 improvement examples enzyme stability 30–2 ligand and substrate specificity 32–3 reaction mechanism 32 recombinant DNA technology 46 resistant starch (RS) 226–8 reuteran 259 saturation mutagenesis 22 SCRATCHY 23 secretomics 11 sequence homology-independent protein recombination (SHIPREC) 23 sequence independent site-directed chimeragenesis (SISDC) 23 Snamprogetti process 72 soy oligosaccharides 252 soy sauce 198–9 soya oil 62 sporulation of host strains 51–2 stability of enzymes 24–6 laboratory evolution 24–6 rational protein engineering 30–2 stachyose 252 staggered extension process (StEP) 22 starch, resistant (RS) 226–8 structure based combinatorial protein engineering (SCOPE) 23 structured lipids (SL) 270–1, 295–301 diglyceride (DAG) oils 271–2 enzymatic optimization 277–8 lipase-catalysed production 272–4 process technology 274–7 future trends 282 320 Index medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) 278–9 common process parameters 279–81 determination of products 281–2 lipase-catalysed interestification 279 reactors for interestification 281 multiple reaction step production 307 nutritional and other uses 307–8 single reaction step production 301–6 submerged fermentation 54 subtilisin 171–2 sucrose esters 260–1 sucrose-derived flavourings 244–5 see also flavours and flavour enhancers fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS) 252 inulin 252–3 future trends 261 gluco-oligosaccharides (GOS) 255 alternan oligosaccharides 256 branched 255–6 isomalto-oligosaccharides (IMO) 256–7 glycosyl sucroses erlose 248–9 lactosucrose 250 maltosyl sucrose 250–1 melezitose 247–8 raffinose 251–2 soy oligosaccharides 252 stachyose 252 theanderose 248 verbascose 252 xylsucrose 249 honey oligosaccharides 246–7 information sources 262 levan oligosaccharides 254–5 linkage isomers and polyols 244 isomaltose (palatinose) 244–5 leucrose 246 trehalulose 245–6 other products 260 invert sugar 260 sucrose esters 260–1 polysaccharides 257–8 alternan 258–9 dextran 258 levan 259 reuteran 259 sulphydryl oxidases (SOX) 102, 107–8 suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) 12 surface fermentation 54 synthetic oligonucleotides 20 tagatose 73 theanderose 248 thermolysin 171 trans-free oils 62–5 transgalacto-oligosaccharides (TOS) 217–18, 222–3 transglutaminase (TG) 102, 103–4 applications baking 110–12 dairy products 119, 120 enhancing fat-mimicking properties of proteins 147 heated meat products 115–18 meat and fish processing 114–15, 116–17 pasta manufacture 112 restructured meat products 118 transposon assisted signal trapping (TAST) 11 trehalulose 245–6 triacylglycerols, modified 65–6 trichothecenes 51 trypsin 170 tyrosinases 102, 104–5, 113 applications in meat and fish processing 117 vanilla 191–3 vanillyl-alcohol oxidase (VAO) 33 verbascose 252 xylsucrose 249 ... I – Principles of industrial enzyme technology Chapters and deal with the discovery of novel enzymes for food applications and the improvement of enzymes for food applications Chapters and then... selected host microbes for production on an industrial scale Today, gene technology plays a major role in both the discovery Novel enzyme technology for food applications of novel enzymes and the optimization... Immobilized enzyme technology for modification of carbohydrates 4.4 Immobilized enzyme technology protein modification 4.5 Immobilized enzyme technology for