CLIFFSQuICKREVIEW Accounting Principles II By Elizabeth A Minbiole, CPA, MBA IDG Books Worldwide, Inc An International Data Group Company Foster City, CA ♦ Chicago, IL ♦ Indianapolis, IN ♦ New York, NY About the Author Elizabeth A Minbiole, CPA, MBA, is an associate professor at Northwood University in Midland, Michigan, where she teaches accounting principles, cost accounting, and financial statement analysis; as well as managerial accounting in the Richard DeVos Graduate School of Management Publisher’s Acknowledgments Editorial Project Editor: Linda Brandon Acquisitions Editor: Kris Fulkerson Copy Editor: Rowena Rappaport Technical Editor: John Tracy, Ph.D., CPA Editorial Assistant: Melissa Bluhm Production Indexer: York Production Services, Inc Proofreader: York Production Services, Inc IDG Books Indianapolis Production Department CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW™ Accounting Principles II Published by IDG Books Worldwide, Inc An International Data Group Company 919 E Hillsdale Blvd Suite 400 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AND STRATEGIES CONTAINED HEREIN MAY NOT BE SUITABLE FOR EVERY INDIVIDUAL NEITHER THE PUBLISHER NOR AUTHOR SHALL BE LIABLE FOR ANY LOSS OF PROFIT OR ANY OTHER COMMERCIAL DAMAGES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, OR OTHER DAMAGES Trademarks: Cliffs, CliffsNotes, and all related logos and trade dress are registered trademarks or trademarks of IDG Books Worldwide, Inc in the United States and other countries All other brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks, or registered trademarks of their respective owners IDG Books Worldwide, Inc is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book is a registered trademark under exclusive license to IDG Books Worldwide, Inc from International Data Group, Inc C Q R Accounting Principles II • 8565-7 FM.4 • 6/20/00 • EZ • ii CONTENTS FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS CHAPTER 1: CURRENT LIABILITIES Accounts Payable Payroll Liabilities Net pay and withholding liabilities Employer payroll taxes Notes Payable Unearned revenues 10 Contingent liabilities 11 Warranty liabilities 11 CHAPTER 2: LONG-TERM LIABILITIES 13 Notes Payable 13 Mortgage Payable 16 Lease Obligations 18 Bonds Payable 19 Types of bonds 19 Bond prices 20 Bonds issued at par 23 Bonds issued at a discount 25 Bonds issued at a premium 34 Bonds issued between interest dates 42 Deferred Income Taxes 43 CHAPTER 3: PARTNERSHIPS 45 Characteristics of a Partnership 45 Limited life 45 Mutual agency 46 Unlimited liability 46 Ease of formation 46 Transfer of ownership 47 Management structure and operations 47 Relative lack of regulation 47 Number of partners 47 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES II iii CONTENTS Partnership Accounting 47 Asset contributions to partnerships 48 Income allocations 48 Changes in Partners 52 New partner 52 Retirement or withdrawal of a partner 56 Liquidation of a Partnership 57 The Statement of Partners’ Capital 57 CHATER 4: CORPORATIONS 59 Characteristics of a Corporation 60 Unlimited life 60 Limited liability 60 Separate legal entity 60 Relative ease of transferring ownership rights 60 Professional management 61 Ease of capital acquisition 61 Government regulations 61 Stock Terminology 62 Accounting for Stock Transactions 64 Stock issued for cash 64 Stock issued in exchange for assets or services 66 Treasury stock 68 Dividends 71 Cash dividends 72 Stock dividends 74 Stock Splits 76 Stockholders’ Equity Section of Balance Sheet 77 Book value 78 Income Statement 79 Earnings per share 81 Diluted earnings per share 83 iv CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW CONTENTS CHAPTER 5: INVESTMENTS 85 Accounting for Debt Securities 85 Accounting for Equity Securities 87 Cost method 87 Equity method 89 Consolidated financial statements 91 Balance Sheet Classification and Valuation 91 CHAPTER 6: STATEMENT OF CASH FLOWS 95 Statement of Cash Flows Sections 95 Operating activities 96 Investing activities 96 Financing activities 97 Cash reconciliation 97 Preparing the Statement of Cash Flows 99 Direct Method 99 Indirect Method 99 Direct Method of Preparing the Statement of Cash Flows 104 Operating activities 108 Investing activities 112 Financing activities 114 Reconciliation of net income to cash provided by (used by) operating activities 115 Indirect Method of Preparing the Statement of Cash Flows 115 Operating activities 117 Investing activities and financing activities 119 Using the Statement of Cash Flow Information 120 CHAPTER 7: FINANCIAL STATEMENT ANALYSIS 123 Need for Financial Statement Analysis 123 Trend Analysis 123 Percentage change 123 Trend percentages 125 Common-Size Analysis 127 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES II v CONTENTS Ratio Analysis 130 Liquidity ratios 130 Profitability ratios 135 Solvency ratios 141 Limitations on Financial Statement Analysis 143 CHAPTER 8: MANAGERIAL AND COST ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS 147 Manufacturing Financial Statements 148 Costing Terminology 149 The Cost of Goods Manufactured Schedule 150 Accounting by Manufacturing Companies 154 CHAPTER 9: TRADITIONAL COST SYSTEMS 161 Job Order Cost System 161 Predetermined overhead rate 162 Process Cost System 171 Raw materials requisitioned 174 Factory labor 175 Factory overhead 177 Work-in-process accounting 179 Process costing summary 183 CHAPTER 10: ACTIVITY-BASED COSTING 187 Activity-Based Costing Activities 187 Activity categories 189 Comparison of Activity-Based Costing and Traditional Cost System 190 CHAPTER 11: COST-VOLUME-PROFIT RELATIONSHIPS 197 Cost Behavior 197 Fixed costs 197 Variable costs 198 Mixed costs 200 vi CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW CONTENTS Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis 202 Contribution margin and contribution margin ratio 203 Break-even point 204 Targeted income 207 Margin of Safety 209 Sensitivity Analysis 210 CHAPTER 12: BUDGETS 211 Operating Budgets 212 Sales budget 212 Manufacturing costs 213 Selling expenses budget 221 General and administrative expenses budget 224 Capital Expenditures Budget 225 Cash Budget 225 Budgeted Income Statement 231 Budgeted Balance Sheet 232 Merchandising Company Budgets 236 CHAPTER 13: FLEXIBLE BUDGETS AND STANDARD COSTS 239 Flexible Budgets 239 Preparation of a Flexible Budget 243 Standard Costs 245 Variance Analysis 248 Direct Materials Variances 249 Direct Labor Variances 253 Overhead Variances 255 Total Variance 264 CHAPTER 14: INCREMENTAL ANALYSIS 265 Examples of Incremental Analysis 267 Accepting additional business 267 Making or buying component parts or products 270 Selling products or processing further 271 Eliminating an unprofitable segment 273 Allocating scarce resources (sales mix) 275 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES II vii CONTENTS CHAPTER 15: CAPITAL BUDGETING 277 Capital Budgeting Techniques 277 Payback Technique 277 Net present value 280 Internal rate of return 284 Annual rate of return method 285 APPENDIX A 287 Present Value of 287 APPENDIX B 289 Present Value Annuity of 289 viii CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW CAPITAL BUDGETING When net cash flows are not all the same, the Present Value of an Annuity of table cannot be used Instead, a separate present value calculation must be made for each period’s cash flow A financial calculator or a spreadsheet can be used to calculate the present value Assume the same project information for the Cottage Gang’s investment except for net cash flows, which are summarized with their present value calculations below Period Estimated Annual Net Cash Flow (1) $ 44,000 8929 $ 39,288 55,000 7972 43,846 60,000 7118 42,708 57,000 6355 36,224 51,000 5674 28,937 44,000 5066 22,290 39,000 4523 17,640 Totals $350,000 12% Discount Factor * (2) Present Value (1) × (2) $230,933 *Taken from Appendix A 282 CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW CAPITAL BUDGETING The NPV of the project is $83,195, calculated as follows: Present Value of Cash Flows Annual Net Cash Flows Salvage Value ($5,000 × 4523)* Total Present Value of Net Cash Inflows $230,933 2,262 233,195 Less: Investment Cost (150,000) Net Present Value $ 83,195 * Taken from Appendix A The difference between the NPV under the equal cash flows example ($50,000 per year for seven years or $350,000) and the unequal cash flows ($350,000 spread unevenly over seven years) is the timing of the cash flows Most companies’ required rate of return is their cost of capital Cost of capital is the rate at which the company could obtain capital (funds) from its creditors and investors If there is risk involved when cash flows are estimated into the future, some companies add a risk factor to their cost of capital to compensate for uncertainty in the project and, therefore, in the cash flows Most companies have more project proposals than they funds available for projects They also have projects requiring different amounts of capital and with different NPVs In comparing projects for possible authorization, companies use a profitability index The index divides the present value of the cash flows by the required investment For the Cottage Gang, the profitability index of the project with equal cash flows is 1.54, and the profitability index for the project with unequal cash flows is 1.56 ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES II 283 CAPITAL BUDGETING Profitability Index = Present Value of Cash Flows Required Investment Equal Cash Flows 1.54 = $230,452 $150,000 Unequal Cash Flows 1.56 = $233,195 $150,000 Internal rate of return The internal rate of return also uses the present value concepts The internal rate of return (IRR) determines the interest yield of the proposed capital project at which the net present value equals zero, which is where the present value of the net cash inflows equals the investment If the IRR is greater than the company’s required rate of return, the project may be accepted To determine the internal rate of return requires two steps First, the internal rate of return factor is calculated by dividing the proposed capital investment amount by the net annual cash inflow Then, the factor is found in the Present Value of an Annuity of table using the service life of the project for the number of periods The discount rate that the factor is the closest to is the internal rate of return A project for Knightsbridge, Inc., has equal net cash inflows of $50,000 over its seven-year life and a project cost of $200,000 By dividing the cash flows into the project investment cost, the factor of 4.00 ($200,000 ÷ $50,000) is found The 4.00 is looked up in the Present Value of an Annuity of table on the seven-period line (it has a seven-year life), and the internal rate of return of 16% is determined (see Appendix B) 284 CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW CAPITAL BUDGETING Annual rate of return method The three previous capital budgeting methods were based on cash flows The annual rate of return uses accrual-based net income to calculate a project’s expected profitability The annual rate of return is compared to the company’s required rate of return If the annual rate of return is greater than the required rate of return, the project may be accepted The higher the rate of return, the higher the project would be ranked The annual rate of return is a percentage calculated by dividing the expected annual net income by the average investment Average investment is usually calculated by adding the beginning and ending project book values and dividing by two Annual Rate of Return = Estimated Annual Net Income Average Investment Assume the Cottage Gang has expected annual net income of $5,572 with an investment of $150,000 and a salvage value of $5,000 This proposed project has a 7.2% annual rate of return ($5,572 net income ÷ $77,500 average investment) Annual Rate of Return = Estimated Annual Net Income / Average Investment 7.2% = $5,572 / $77,500 (1) (2) ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES II 285 CAPITAL BUDGETING (1) Accrual Basis Income Statement Revenues Operating Expenses $310,000 280,000 Depreciation Expense (A) 20,714 Income before Taxes 9,286 Income Taxes (40%) 3,714 Net Income (A) $ 5,572 Straight-line with cost of $150,000, salvage value of $5,000, and a service life of seven years $150, 000 - $5, 000 (2) Calculation of Average Investment Beginning Investment $150,000 Ending Investment (Salvage Value) 5,000 155,000 Divide for Average Average Investment ÷ $ 77,500 The annual rate of return should not be used alone in making capital budgeting decisions, as its results may be misleading It uses accrual basis of accounting and not actual cash flows or time value of money 286 CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW 4% 5% 6% 14% 16% 18% 20% 22% 287 0.9804 0.9615 0.9524 0.9434 0.9259 0.9091 0.8929 0.8772 0.8621 0.8475 0.8333 0.8197 0.9612 0.9246 0.9070 0.8900 0.8573 0.8264 0.7972 0.7695 0.7432 0.7182 0.6944 0.6719 0.9423 0.8890 0.8638 0.8396 0.7938 0.7513 0.7118 0.6750 0.6407 0.6086 0.5787 0.5507 0.9238 0.8548 0.8227 0.7921 0.7350 0.6830 0.6355 0.5921 0.5523 0.5158 0.4823 0.4514 0.9057 0.8219 0.7835 0.7473 0.6806 0.6209 0.5674 0.5194 0.4761 0.4371 0.4019 0.3700 0.8880 0.7903 0.7462 0.7050 0.6302 0.5645 0.5066 0.4556 0.4104 0.3704 0.3349 0.3033 0.8706 0.7599 0.7107 0.6651 0.5835 0.5132 0.4523 0.3996 0.3538 0.3139 0.2791 0.2486 0.8535 0.7307 0.6768 0.6274 0.5403 0.4665 0.4039 0.3506 0.3050 0.2660 0.2326 0.2038 0.8368 0.7026 0.6446 0.5919 0.5002 0.4241 0.3606 0.3075 0.2630 0.2255 0.1938 0.1670 10 0.8203 0.6756 0.6139 0.5584 0.4632 0.3855 0.3220 0.2697 0.2267 0.1911 0.1615 0.1369 11 0.8043 0.6496 0.5847 0.5268 0.4289 0.3505 0.2875 0.2366 0.1954 0.1619 0.1346 0.1122 12 0.7885 0.6246 0.5568 0.4970 0.3971 0.3186 0.2567 0.2076 0.1685 0.1372 0.1122 0.0920 13 0.7730 0.6006 0.5303 0.4688 0.3677 0.2897 0.2292 0.1821 0.1452 0.1163 0.0935 0.0754 14 0.7579 0.5775 0.5051 0.4423 0.3405 0.2633 0.2046 0.1597 0.1252 0.0985 0.0779 0.0618 APPENDIX A ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES II Period 2% Present Value of 8% 10% 12% 2% 4% 5% 6% 16% 18% 20% 22% 15 0.7430 0.5553 0.4810 0.4173 0.3152 0.2394 0.1827 0.1401 0.1079 0.0835 0.0649 0.0507 16 0.7284 0.5339 0.4581 0.3936 0.2919 0.2176 0.1631 0.1229 0.0930 0.0708 0.0541 0.0415 17 0.7142 0.5134 0.4363 0.3714 0.2703 0.1978 0.1456 0.1078 0.0802 0.0600 0.0451 0.0340 18 0.7002 0.4936 0.4155 0.3503 0.2502 0.1799 0.1300 0.0946 0.0691 0.0508 0.0376 0.0279 19 0.6864 0.4746 0.3957 0.3305 0.2317 0.1635 0.1161 0.0829 0.0596 0.0431 0.0313 0.0229 20 0.6730 0.4564 0.3769 0.3118 0.2145 0.1486 0.1037 0.0728 0.0514 0.0365 0.0261 0.0187 APPENDIX A 288 Period Present Value of 8% 10% 12% 14% CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW 4% 5% 16% 18% 20% 22% 0.9804 0.9615 0.9524 0.9434 0.9259 0.9091 0.8929 0.8772 0.8621 0.8475 0.8333 0.8197 1.9416 1.8861 1.8594 1.8334 1.7833 1.7355 1.6901 1.6467 1.6052 1.5656 1.5278 1.4915 2.8839 2.7751 2.7232 2.6730 2.5771 2.4869 2.4018 2.3216 2.2459 2.1743 2.1065 2.0422 3.8077 3.6299 3.5460 3.4651 3.3121 3.1699 3.0373 2.9137 2.7982 2.6901 2.5887 2.4936 4.7135 4.4518 4.3295 4.2124 3.9927 3.7908 3.6048 3.4331 3.2743 3.1272 2.9906 2.8636 5.6014 5.2421 5.0757 4.9173 4.6229 4.3553 4.1114 3.8887 3.6847 3.4976 3.3255 3.1669 6.4720 6.0021 5.7864 5.5824 5.2064 4.8684 4.5638 4.2883 4.0386 3.8115 3.6046 3.4155 7.3255 6.7327 6.4632 6.2098 5.7466 5.3349 4.9676 4.6389 4.3436 4.0776 3.8372 3.6193 8.1622 7.4353 7.1078 6.8017 6.2469 5.7590 5.3282 4.9464 4.6065 4.3030 4.0310 3.7863 289 10 8.9826 8.1109 11 9.7868 8.7605 8.3064 7.8869 7.1390 6.4951 5.9377 5.4527 5.0286 4.6560 4.3271 4.0354 12 10.5753 9.3851 8.8633 8.3838 7.5361 6.8137 6.1944 5.6603 5.1971 4.7932 4.4392 4.1274 13 11.3484 9.9856 9.3936 8.8527 7.9038 7.1034 6.4235 5.8424 5.3423 4.9095 4.5327 4.2028 14 12.1062 10.5631 9.8986 9.2950 8.2442 7.3667 6.6282 6.0021 5.4675 5.0081 4.6106 4.2646 7.7217 7.3601 6.7101 6.1446 5.6502 5.2161 4.8332 4.4941 4.1925 3.9232 APPENDIX B ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES II Period 2% Present Value of an Annuity of 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 4% 5% 16% 18% 20% 22% 15 12.8493 11.1184 10.3797 9.7122 8.5595 7.6061 6.8109 6.1422 5.5755 5.0916 4.6755 4.3152 16 13.5777 11.6523 10.8378 10.1059 8.8514 7.8237 6.9740 6.2651 5.6685 5.1624 4.7296 4.3567 17 14.2919 12.1657 11.2741 10.4773 9.1216 8.0216 7.1196 6.3729 5.7487 5.2223 4.7746 4.3908 18 14.9920 12.6593 11.6896 10.8276 9.3719 8.2014 7.2497 6.4674 5.8178 5.2732 4.8122 4.4187 19 15.6785 13.1339 12.0853 11.1581 9.6036 8.3649 7.3658 6.5504 5.8775 5.3162 4.8435 4.4415 20 16.3514 13.5903 12.4622 11.4699 9.8181 8.5136 7.4694 6.6231 5.9288 5.3527 4.8696 4.4603 APPENDIX B 290 Period 2% Present Value of an Annuity of 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% CLIFFSQUICKREVIEW Notes Notes Notes Notes Notes Notes ... due and payable quarterly on Oct.1, Jan 1, April 1, and July The Flower Lady operates on a calendaryear basis and issues financial statements at the end of each quarter A long-term note payable... of merchandise or supplies on an account are examples of liabilities recorded as accounts payable The credit terms of each transaction and the company’s ability to take advantage of available discounts... identifies warranty work as probable, and current warranty costs can be reasonably estimated based on past work and current warranties This obligation creates an expense that is matched against the