Chapter 19 – Taxes on Consumption and Wealth Public Economics Introduction • There is substantial dissatisfaction with the federal personal and corporate income tax systems • One possibility is to adopt a consumption tax whose base is actual consumption Another possibility is a tax on wealth, whose base is accumulated saving Retail Sales Tax • Several types on sales taxes levied on wide variety of commodities: – General sales tax impose the same tax rate on the purchase of all commodities – Selective sales tax is levied at different rates on the purchase of different commodities • Also known as excise tax or differential commodity tax Retail Sales Tax • Table 19.1 shows tax revenue collected from various sales taxes • Federal government levies no general sales tax, but does tax motor fuel, alcoholic beverages, tobacco, and some other commodities • Large majority of states have sales tax, with rates between 2.9% and 7.25% Table 19.1 Retail Sales Tax • Sales taxes generally take one of two forms: – A unit tax is a given amount for each unit purchased (e.g., motor fuel tax that is a certain number of cents per gallon of gasoline) – An ad valorem tax is computed as a percentage of the value of the purchase Retail Sales Tax • Rationalizations for a sales tax – Administrative Considerations • Collected at retail level, have to monitor fewer units Nonetheless, still difficult, and defining the tax base somewhat arbitrary • Underground markets / smuggling – Optimal Tax Considerations • It can be shown that the income tax is not optimal, differential commodity taxes can improve welfare • Inverse elasticity rule could guide the rate setting Retail Sales Tax • Rationalizations for a sales tax – Other considerations • Sin taxes • Merit goods Retail Sales Tax • Efficiency and Distributional Implications – Would the pattern of sales tax rates minimize excess burden? – Overall excess burden depends on both the elasticities of each good and the degree of substitutability or complementarity with other goods – Equal tax rates is almost certainly not efficient Retail Sales Tax • Efficiency and Distributional Implications – When viewed in a lifetime perspective (rather than an annual perspective), general sales taxes are somewhat progressive – More generally, however, statutory incidence of sales tax is not the same as the economic incidence 10 Efficiency and Fairness of Personal Consumption Taxes • Equity Issues – Progressiveness • A personal consumption tax can be made as progressive as desired with suitable exemption levels – Ability to pay • Those who favor income tax argue that potential (not actual) consumption is relevant 25 Efficiency and Fairness of Personal Consumption Taxes • Equity Issues – Annual versus lifetime equity • Income taxation can lead to tax burdens that differ substantially, even for those with the same lifetime wealth • Savers are penalized because interest earnings are taxed • Under consumption tax, lifetime tax burdens are independent of saving 26 Efficiency and Fairness of Personal Consumption Taxes • Equity Issues – Annual versus lifetime equity • Income tends to fluctuate more than consumption during a year • Annual consumption is likely a better reflection of lifetime circumstances 27 Income versus Consumption Taxation Advantages of Consumption Tax Disadvantages of Consumption Tax No need to measure capital gains & depreciation Administrative problems Fewer problems with inflation Transitional problems No need for separate corporation tax Gifts and Bequests 28 Wealth Taxes • All the taxes discussed so far (such as income taxes and consumption taxes) are flow variables – and are associated with a time dimension (such as one calendar year) • A stock variable has no time dimension Wealth is one such variable 29 Wealth Taxes • All the taxes discussed so far (such as income taxes and consumption taxes) are flow variables – and are associated with a time dimension (such as one calendar year) • A stock variable has no time dimension Wealth is one such variable • The property tax on housing is an example of a wealth tax 30 Wealth Taxes • What are the justifications for a wealth tax? – May correct problems that arise with the administration of an income tax – The higher an individual’s wealth, the greater his ability to pay Ignores human capital, however – Reduces concentration of wealth, which may be desirable socially and politically – Wealth taxes are payments for benefits that wealth holders receive from government (e.g defense) 31 Gift and Estate Taxes • Federal government (and some state governments) levy gift taxes and estate taxes • Small source of federal tax revenue In principle, the “death tax” will be phased out over the next six years 32 Gift and Estate Taxes • Rationales for estate taxes – Payment for services – Reversion of property to society – Incentives – Relation to the Personal Income Tax – Income Distribution 33 Gift and Estate Taxes • Provisions of the estate tax and gift tax • Two taxes are linked; otherwise could avoid tax by transferring resources inter vivos Officially referred to as the unified transfer tax 34 Gift and Estate Taxes • Taxable base: The gross estate consists of all property including real property, stocks, bonds, and insurance policies Also includes gifts made during the decedent’s lifetime • The taxable estate has the following provisions: – Gifts to charity are deductible without limit – Lifetime exemption of $1.5 million in 2004 – Qualified transfers to spouse are deductible from the taxable base – Annual gift exclusion of $11,000 per recipient Married couple with three kids could transfer $66,000 per year out of their estate 35 Gift and Estate Taxes • Rate structure: maximal rate in 2004 is 48%, and is being phased down to 45% in 2009, then to 0% in 2010 • Legislation will revert back in 2011 to the pre-2001 rules unless Congress makes the repeal permanent 36 Gift and Estate Taxes • Problems with the estate tax – Jointly held property • Under current law, half of the value of jointly held property is now included in the gross estate of the first spouse to die – Closely held businesses • Heirs may have to sell business to pay estate tax Law allows estate taxes to be paid off over 14 years at favorable interest rates 37 Gift and Estate Taxes • Problems with the estate tax – Avoidance strategies • Trusts are arrangements whereby a person or institution known as a trustee holds legal title to assets with the obligation to use them for the benefit of another party • Allows a household to get funds out of their estate • In general, many methods are available for making intergenerational transfers of wealth without bearing any taxes and without losing effective control of the property during one’s life 38 Recap of Taxes on Consumption and Wealth • Retail Sales Tax • Value Added Tax • Hall-Rabushka Flat Tax • Cash Flow Tax • Efficiency and Fairness of Personal Consumption Taxes • Wealth Taxes • Gift and Estate Taxes 39 [...]... the taxes discussed so far (such as income taxes and consumption taxes) are flow variables – and are associated with a time dimension (such as one calendar year) • A stock variable has no time dimension Wealth is one such variable 29 Wealth Taxes • All the taxes discussed so far (such as income taxes and consumption taxes) are flow variables – and are associated with a time dimension (such as one calendar... a person can trade off leisure versus consumption 24 Efficiency and Fairness of Personal Consumption Taxes • Equity Issues – Progressiveness • A personal consumption tax can be made as progressive as desired with suitable exemption levels – Ability to pay • Those who favor income tax argue that potential (not actual) consumption is relevant 25 Efficiency and Fairness of Personal Consumption Taxes •... than consumption during a year • Annual consumption is likely a better reflection of lifetime circumstances 27 Income versus Consumption Taxation Advantages of Consumption Tax Disadvantages of Consumption Tax No need to measure capital gains & depreciation Administrative problems Fewer problems with inflation Transitional problems No need for separate corporation tax Gifts and Bequests 28 Wealth Taxes. .. between all cash receipts and saving – Difficult recordkeeping 23 Efficiency and Fairness of Personal Consumption Taxes • Efficiency issues – Using a life-cycle model, on the surface a consumption tax does not create excess burden as an income tax does • Income tax changes relative price of consumption in the future versus today • This assumes labor supply is fixed, however A consumption tax does distort... same rate (19% ) that is applied to businesses These were deducted on the business-side This simply changes the point of collection for part of the tax 22 Cash-Flow Tax • Each household files a return reporting their consumption expenditures during the year – Various exemptions and deductions can be taken – Tax bill from adjusted amount of consumption • How does one compute annual consumption? – Cash-flow... business tax – Consumption- type VAT – Firm also deducts payments to its workers – Flat tax on the final amount • Individual compensation tax – Base is payments received for labor services – No taxes on capital income – Allow exemption, but no other deductions 21 Hall-Rabushka Flat Tax • Why is this consumption tax? – The business tax is essentially a VAT, which is equivalent to a sales tax – The wage payments... dimension Wealth is one such variable • The property tax on housing is an example of a wealth tax 30 Wealth Taxes • What are the justifications for a wealth tax? – May correct problems that arise with the administration of an income tax – The higher an individual’s wealth, the greater his ability to pay Ignores human capital, however – Reduces concentration of wealth, which may be desirable socially and. .. 19 Hall-Rabushka Flat Tax • Legal incidence of a retail sales tax and the VAT falls onto business Consumers make no explicit payments to government • Other proposals require personal consumption taxes, and allow individuals tax liabilities to depend on their personal circumstances 20 Hall-Rabushka Flat Tax • Hall and Rabushka (H&R) plan a flat tax – Two tax collecting vehicles: • A business tax – Consumption- type... politically – Wealth taxes are payments for benefits that wealth holders receive from government (e.g defense) 31 Gift and Estate Taxes • Federal government (and some state governments) levy gift taxes and estate taxes • Small source of federal tax revenue In principle, the “death tax” will be phased out over the next six years 32 Gift and Estate Taxes • Rationales for estate taxes – Payment for services – Reversion... services – Reversion of property to society – Incentives – Relation to the Personal Income Tax – Income Distribution 33 Gift and Estate Taxes • Provisions of the estate tax and gift tax • Two taxes are linked; otherwise could avoid tax by transferring resources inter vivos Officially referred to as the unified transfer tax 34 Gift and Estate Taxes • Taxable base: The gross estate consists of all property ... their consumption expenditures during the year – Various exemptions and deductions can be taken – Tax bill from adjusted amount of consumption • How does one compute annual consumption? – Cash-flow... Transitional problems No need for separate corporation tax Gifts and Bequests 28 Wealth Taxes • All the taxes discussed so far (such as income taxes and consumption taxes) are flow variables – and. .. dimension (such as one calendar year) • A stock variable has no time dimension Wealth is one such variable 29 Wealth Taxes • All the taxes discussed so far (such as income taxes and consumption taxes)