sedimentologi sains laut 2 terrigenous clastic sediments gravel, sand mud

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sedimentologi sains laut 2   terrigenous clastic sediments  gravel, sand  mud

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Sedimentologi Kamal Roslan Mohamed TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTS: GRAVEL, SAND & MUD INTRODUCTION Terrigenous clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks are composed of fragments that result from the weathering and erosion of older rocks They are classified according to the sizes of clasts present and the composition of the material INTRODUCTION The proportions of different clast sizes and the textures of terrigenous clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks can provide information about the history of transport of the material and the environment of deposition Terrigenous clastic is material that is made up of particles or clasts derived from pre-existing rocks The clasts are principally detritus eroded from bedrock and are commonly made up largely of silicate minerals: the terms detrital sediments and siliciclastic sediments are also used for this material CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS A distinction can be drawn between sediments (generally loose material) and sedimentary rocks which are lithified sediment: lithification is the process of ‘turning into rock’ (18.2) Mud, silt and sand are all loose aggregates; the addition of the suffix ‘-stone’ (mudstone, siltstone, sandstone) indicates that the material has been lithified and is now a solid rock Coarser, loose gravel material is named according to its size as granule, pebble, cobble and boulder aggregates, which become lithified into conglomerate (sometimes with the size range added as a prefix, e.g ‘pebble conglomerate’) CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS A threefold division on the basis of grain size is used as the starting point to classify and name terrigenous clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks: • gravel and conglomerate consist of clasts greater than 2mm in diameter; • sand-sized grains are between 2mm and 1/16mm (63 microns) across; • mud (including clay and silt) is made up of particles less than 63 mm in diameter There are variants on this scheme and there are a number of ways of providing subdivisions within these categories, but sedimentologists generally use the Wentworth Scale to define and name terrigenous clastic deposits THE UDDEN–WENTWORTH GRAIN-SIZE SCALE Four basic divisions are recognised: - clay (2.0 mm) The phi scale is a numerical representation of the Wentworth Scale The Greek letter ‘’ (phi) is often used as the unit for this scale Using the logarithm base two, the grain size can be denoted on the phi scale as = - log2 (grain diameter in mm) Using this formula, a grain diameter of 1mm is 0: increasing the grain size, 2mm is -1, 4mm is -2, and so on; decreasing the grain size, 0.5mm is +1, 0.25mm is 2, etc Conglomerates & Breccias Sandstones Mudstones Nomenclature used for mixtures of gravel, sand and mud in sediments and sedimentary rock Other components of sands and sandstones - Lithic fragments - Biogenic particles - Authigenic minerals Matrix – Fine-grained material occurring between the sand grains is referred to as matrix Sandstone nomenclature and classification The Pettijohn sandstone classification combines textural criteria, the proportion of muddy matrix, with compositional criteria, the percentages of the three commonest components of sandstone: quartz, feldspar and lithic fragments The triangular plot has these three components as the end members to form a ‘Q, F, L’ triangle, which is commonly used in clastic sedimentology The Pettijohn classification of sandstones, often referred to as a ‘Toblerone plot’ (Pettijohn 1975) CLAY, SILT AND MUDROCK Fine-grained terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks tend to receive less attention than any other group of deposits despite the fact that they are volumetrically the most common of all sedimentary rocks types The grain size is generally too small for optical techniques of mineral determination and until scanning electron microscopes and X-ray diffraction analysis techniques were developed little was known about the constituents of these sediments Definitions of terms in mudrocks Silt is defined as the grain size of material between and 62 microns in diameter This size range is subdivided into coarse, medium, fine and very fine The coarser grains of silt are just visible to the naked eye or with a hand lens Finer silt is most readily distinguished from clay by touch, as it will feel ‘gritty’ if a small amount is ground between teeth, whereas clay feels smooth Clay is a textural term to define the finest grade of clastic sedimentary particles, those less than microns in diameter Individual particles are not discernible to the naked eye and can only just be resolved with a high power optical microscope Clay minerals Clay minerals are a group of phyllosilicate minerals that are the main constituents of clay-sized particles Clay minerals commonly form as breakdown products of feldspars and other silicate minerals They are phyllosilicates with a layered crystal structure similar to that of micas and compositionally they are aluminosilicates The crystal layers are made up of silica with aluminium and magnesium ions, with oxygen atoms linking the sheets -Kaolinite - montmorillonite - illite - Chlorite TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Histogram, frequency distribution and cumulative frequency curves of grain size distribution data Note that the grain size decreases from left to right TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Nilai median = 1.3 TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS The shapes of clasts, their degree of sorting and the proportions of clasts and matrix are all aspects of the texture of the material The fragments that make up a sedimentary rock are called clasts They may range in size from silt through sand to gravel (granules, pebbles, cobbles and boulders) A distinction is usually made between the clasts and the matrix, the latter being finer-grained material that lies between the clasts Sorting is a description of the distribution of clast sizes present: a well-sorted sediment is composed of clasts that mainly fall in one class on the Wentworth scale (e.g medium sand); a poorly sorted deposit contains a wide range of clast sizes TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Kurtosis, a value that indicates whether the histogram has a sharp peak or a flat top Values from To Equal 0.41 0.67 very platykurtic 0.67 0.90 platykurtic 0.90 1.11 mesokurtic 1.10 1.50 Leptokurtic 1.50 3.00 very leptokurtic > 3.00 extremely leptokurtic TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Skewness of the distribution, an indicator of whether the grain-size histogram is symmetrical or is skewed to a higher percentage of coarser or finer material Values from To Mathematically: Graphically Skewed to the: +1.00 +0.30 Strongly positive skewed Very Negative phi values, coarse +0.30 +0.10 Positive skewed Negative phi values +0.10 - 0.10 Near symmetrical Symmetrical - 0.10 - 0.30 Negative skewed Positive phi values - 0.30 - 1.00 Strongly negative skewed Very Positive phi values, fine TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Clast roundness: During sediment transport the individual clasts will repeatedly come into contact with each other and stationary objects: sharp edges tend to be chipped off first, the abrasion smoothing the surface of the clast Clast sphericity: In describing individual clasts, the dimensions can be considered in terms of closeness to a sphere Roundness and sphericity estimate comparison chart (from Pettijohn et al 1987) TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS The grain-size distribution is determined to some extent by the processes of transport and distribution Glacial sediments are normally very poorly sorted, river sediments moderately sorted and both beach and aeolian deposits are typically well sorted Maturity of terrigenous clastic material The texture of sediment or sedimentary rock can be used to indicate something about the erosion, transport and depositional history Any sandstone that is classified as a wacke is considered to be texturally immature Arenites can be subdivided on the basis of the sorting and shape of the grains If sorting is moderate to poor the sediment is considered to be submature Well-sorted or very wellsorted sands are considered mature if the individual grains are angular to subrounded and supermature if rounded to well-rounded Maturity often increases downstream in a river and once the same sediment reaches a beach the high wave energy will further increase the maturity Maturity of terrigenous clastic material Flow diagram of the determination of the textural maturity of a terrigenous clastic sediment or sedimentary rock SEKIAN [...]... mineral grains in sands and sandstones A very large number of different minerals may occur in sands and in sandstones, and only the most common are described here; - Quartz - Feldspar - Mica - Heavy minerals - Miscellaneous minerals Other components of sands and sandstones - Lithic fragments - Biogenic particles - Authigenic minerals Matrix – Fine-grained material occurring between the sand grains is... - illite - Chlorite TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Histogram, frequency distribution and cumulative frequency curves of grain size distribution data Note that the grain size decreases from left to right TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Nilai median = 1.3 TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS The shapes of clasts,... Pettijohn et al 1987) TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS The grain-size distribution is determined to some extent by the processes of transport and distribution Glacial sediments are normally very poorly sorted, river sediments moderately sorted and both beach and aeolian deposits are typically well sorted Maturity of terrigenous clastic material The texture of sediment or... matrix Sandstone nomenclature and classification The Pettijohn sandstone classification combines textural criteria, the proportion of muddy matrix, with compositional criteria, the percentages of the three commonest components of sandstone: quartz, feldspar and lithic fragments The triangular plot has these three components as the end members to form a ‘Q, F, L’ triangle, which is commonly used in clastic. .. three components as the end members to form a ‘Q, F, L’ triangle, which is commonly used in clastic sedimentology The Pettijohn classification of sandstones, often referred to as a ‘Toblerone plot’ (Pettijohn 1975) CLAY, SILT AND MUDROCK Fine-grained terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks tend to receive less attention than any other group of deposits despite the fact that they are volumetrically the most... entirely of gravel-sized material Between the granules, pebbles, cobbles and boulders, finer sand and/or mud will often be present: this finer material between the large clasts is referred to as the matrix of the deposit A clast-supported conglomerate: the pebbles are all in contact with each other - sandy conglomerate - Muddy conglomerate - intraformational conglomerate - clast-supported (orthoconglomerate)... clast sizes TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Kurtosis, a value that indicates whether the histogram has a sharp peak or a flat top Values from To Equal 0.41 0.67 very platykurtic 0.67 0.90 platykurtic 0.90 1.11 mesokurtic 1.10 1.50 Leptokurtic 1.50 3.00 very leptokurtic > 3.00 extremely leptokurtic TEXTURES AND ANALYSIS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Skewness of... preferentially oriented and may stack up in a form known as imbrication SAND AND SANDSTONE Sand grains are formed by the breakdown of preexisting rocks by weathering and erosion, and from material that forms within the depositional environment The breakdown products fall into two categories: detrital mineral grains, eroded from pre-existing rocks, and sand- sized pieces of rock, or lithic fragments Grains that form... often increases downstream in a river and once the same sediment reaches a beach the high wave energy will further increase the maturity Maturity of terrigenous clastic material Flow diagram of the determination of the textural maturity of a terrigenous clastic sediment or sedimentary rock SEKIAN ... determination and until scanning electron microscopes and X-ray diffraction analysis techniques were developed little was known about the constituents of these sediments Definitions of terms in mudrocks Silt is defined as the grain size of material between 4 and 62 microns in diameter This size range is subdivided into coarse, medium, fine and very fine The coarser grains of silt are just visible to the naked

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