SECTION 5: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PARTICULATE MATTER This section with the environmental effects of particulate matter We begin by recapitulating some basic information regarding particulate matter composition and then define the scope of this review The main environmental effects of PM are expected to be those from acid deposition, impaired visibility, and ozone Reduction of fine PM levels quantifiably improves visibility and reduces ozone levels, but the effects on levels of acid deposition are unclear Paradoxically, the effects of acid deposition are the most well-studied In addition, the effects of acid deposition are widespread, affecting urban area, rural landscapes and natural ecosystems, while problems associated with visibility and ozone are more likely to be localized The difficulty in assessing the economic costs and benefits to the environment of reducing particulate matter concentrations lies in the uncertainty of dose-response pathways as well as the difficulty of assigning economic value to ecological systems, services and processes 5.1 Introduction The history of air quality management includes many examples of society’s responses to pollution During the Middle Ages in London the ever-present cloud of dust and soot and its effects on human health led to prohibition on coal burning During the Industrial Revolution, air pollution was generally considered a municipal problem rather than a public health issue and was managed on a local level, which continued well into the 20th century The emergence of air pollution as a public health issue in the 1950s led to the development of federally funded research programs, culminating in the Clean Air Act and establishment of the EPA in 1970 Around the world, countries were developing institutional responses to combat the air pollution threat to human health The effect of air pollution on ecology, however, was not yet considered a serious issue Having been first documented in England at the end of the 19th century, acid rain and its ecological effects became regional issues in northwestern Europe and in the northeastern United States in the late 1960s The mounting anecdotal evidence of its harmful effects on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems launched acid rain as perhaps the first air pollution threat to the environment to the environment to receive international attention Before we continue, we would like to define two basic terms In the literature, there is often some confusion over the use and meaning of environmental versus ecological effects Generally, environment refers to all aspects of one’s surroundings, both living and non-living Ecological effects are strictly limited to living organisms and the interactions between them In this section, we use environment to include urban landscapes as well as agricultural, rural and natural areas Our discussion of ecological effects refers only to “natural areas”, e.g nonurban, non- agricultural systems As reviewed in Section 1, there are two major categories of particulate matter (PM), PM10 and PM2.5 Particulate matter is composed of a mixture of particles directly emitted into the air and 5-1 particles formed in the air from the chemical transformation of gaseous pollutants (secondary particles) The principle types of directly emitted particles are soil-related particles and organic and elemental carbon particles from the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass materials Secondary particles are primarily ammonium sulfate and nitrate formed in the air from gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) reacting with ammonia (NH3) (EPA, 1997a) In eastern urban areas, almost 50% of ambient PM2.5 levels can be composed of sulfate, and another 10 to 15% of nitrate Soil-related particles make up only 5% of ambient PM2.5 levels, with combustion-related particles making up the remaining 35% This is markedly different from the composition of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in other areas of the continental US, where most PM2.5 comes from combustion-related sources The composition of PM10 (coarse particulate matter) in eastern urban areas differs from the composition of PM2.5 especially in the proportion of soil-related particles (31% of ambient measurements), with correspondingly lower proportions of PM10 from combustion-related activities (26%) and sulfate (34%) Like most environmental problems, the effects of particulate matter are complex In addition to the effects of the principle components (the already-mentioned directly emitted and secondary compounds) themselves, some compounds react with other particles to form reaction products with important effects One of these important reaction products is The very different chemical natures of the major components of PM2.5 have very different trophospheric ozone effects on the human environment We have identified the major effects of fine particulate matter as being changes in visibility, acid deposition, and ozone In the following sections, we consider each of those effects separately We begin by reviewing the contribution of fine PM to each of the effects, and then discuss those effects for urban, agricultural and ecological systems Since the effects of acid deposition are the most acute and well-studied, we concentrate a large part of this section to its effects in natural ecosystems, focussing on New Jersey’s most sensitive and unique ecosystems, freshwater, estuarine and coastal waterways, and the Pine Barrens 5.2 Acid Deposition The fine particulate matter and acid deposition issues are closely linked in the eastern United States Both share the same dominance of large sulfate fraction in the chemical composition of collected Samples Sulfates are a significant component of fine particles in the East and have been directly linked to ecosystem damage Both direct emissions of particulate matter and secon- dary particle formation caused by oxidation of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and aerosol or- ganic carbon species contribute to overall levels of airborne particles In urban environments this greatly affects many construction materials and paints, while its effects in agricultural and natu- ral ecosystems range from reduced productivity to disruption of nutrient cycles to the massive summer fish kills of Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound observed through the last two dec- ades 5.2.1 Urban environment: materials The deposition of airborne particles on the surface of building materials and culturally important articles can cause damage and soiling, thus reducing the life usefulness and aesthetic appeal of 5-2 such structures (National Research Council, 1979) Furthermore, the presence of particles on surfaces may also exacerbate the physical and chemical degradation of materials that normally occur when these materials are exposed to factors such as sun, wind, temperature fluctuations and moisture Beyond these effects, particles, whether suspended in the atmosphere, or already deposited on a surface, also adsorb or absorb acidic gases from other pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), thus serving as nucleation sites for these gases The deposition of “acidified” particles on a susceptible material surface is capable of accelerating chemical deg- radation of the material Therefore, concerns about effects of particles on materials are related both to impacts on aesthetic appeal and physical damage to material surfaces, both of which may have serious economic consequences Insufficient data are available regarding perceptions thresholds with respect to pollutant concentration, particle size, and chemical composition to de- termine the relative roles these factors play in contributing to materials damage This section briefly discusses the effects of particle exposure on the aesthetic appeal and physical damage to different types of building materials: metals, paints, stone and cement, and then sum- marizes these effects and their possible economic relevance For more detailed discussion of the effects of acid gases on materials, see the 1991 National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program report (Baedecker et al., 1991) Available information supports the fact that exposure to acid-forming aerosols promotes the corrosion of metals beyond the corrosion rates expected from exposure to natural environmental elements (see Box H) Metals undergo corrosion in the absence of pollutant exposure through a series of physical chemical and biological interactions involving moisture, temperature, oxygen and various types of biological agents In addition to these environmental factors, atmospheric pollutant exposure may accelerate the corrosion process The rate of corrosion is dependent on deposition rate and the nature of the pollutant, the variability in electrochemical reactions, the amount of moisture present, the presence and concentration of other surface electrolytes and the orientation of the metal surface Acid-forming aerosols have been found to limit the life expectancy of paints by causing discolorations, loss of gloss, and loss of thickness of the paint film layer Various building stones and cement products are damaged from exposure to acid-forming aerosols However, the extent of damage to building stones and cement products produced by pollutants, beyond that expected as part of the natural weathering process, is uncertain A significant detrimental effect of particle pollution is the soiling of painted surfaces and other building materials Soiling is defined as a degradation mechanism that can be remedied by cleaning or washing, and depending on the soiled surface, repainting Available data on pollution exposure indicates that particles can result in increased cleaning frequency of the exposed sur- face, and may reduce the life usefulness of the material soiled Data on the effects of particulate matter on other surfaces are not as well understood Several types of economic losses result from materials damage and soiling Financial or outofpocket losses include the reduction in service life of a material, decreased utility, substitution of a more expensive material, losses due to an inferior substitute, protection of susceptible materi- als, and additional required maintenance, including cleaning Economic losses from pollutant 5-3 exposure can be estimated using a damage function approach or using direct economic methods It is, however, difficult to estimate fully the financial losses because reliable information is not available on many economically important materials Another major problem is the inability to separate pollutant effects from natural weathering processes Attempts have been made to quan- tify the pollutants exposure levels at which materials damage and soiling have been perceived However, to date, insufficient data are available to advance our knowledge regarding perception thresholds with respect to pollutant concentrations, particle size and chemical composition 5-4 BOX H: THE EFFECT OF ACID DEPOSITION ON MATERIALS Iron, steel and steel alloys The rate of corrosion is related to the amount of SO2 in the atmosphere The rate of corrosion was also found to depend on the deposition rate of SO2 A separate study (Butlin et al., 1992a) showed that corrosion of steel samples under natural meteorological conditions was highly correlated with long-term SO2 concentrations and only minimally related to nitrogen oxides Stainless steels, incorporating chromium, molybdenum and nickel, are highly corro- sion resistant because of the protective properties of the oxide corrosive film Aluminum Aluminum is generally considered corrosion-resistant Copper and copper patinas A study in the New York area on the chemical composition of patinas concluded that longterm corrosion of copper was not controlled by deposition of pollutants, but rather, it was likely controlled by availability of copper to react with deposited pollutants (Graedel et al., 1987) The patina, that is mostly basic sulfate, is not readily dissolved by acids and thus provides significant protection for the substrate metal However, this patina can take as long as years to form and varies with meteorological conditions In bronze, as with many metals, dry deposition between rain events was concluded to dominate soluble corrosion For copper and copper alloys, though, if the patina color has The thetic effectsvalue, of dust Only limitedtheinformation available on the of effects particles alone on metals Barton aesandalone SO2 accelerates formation, isthen the presence SO2 of may be beneficial (1958) found that dust contributed to the early stages of metal corrosion The effect of dust was lessened as the rust layer was formed Other studies report that particles, by forming nuclei for the concentration of active ionic species, increase the corrosion rate of SO2 A laboratory study of the synergistic effects of different types of particles and SOx on the corrosion of aluminum, iron and zinc showed that four most aggressive species of particles were salt and salt/sand from marine and de-iced locations, ash from iron smelters, ash from municipal incinerators and coal mine dusts Paints Paints, opaque film coatings, are by far the dominant class of manmade materials exposed to air pollutants in both indoor and outdoor environments Paints are used as decorative coverings and protective coatings against environmental elements on a variety of finished including woods, metals, cement and asphalt Paints primarily consist of two components: the film forming component and the pigments Paints undergo natural weathering processes from exposure to envi- ronmental2-factors such as sunlight, moisture, fungi and varying temperatures Evidence exists that pollutants affect by and SO aerosols (PM) Unpigmented polymer large rangetoofwater permeabilities but polymers theSO durability of4paint (National Resources Council, 1979).films Painthave filmsa permeable are also susceptible to used in penetration paint formulations not generally form barriers to SO2 either in the gaseous state or in solution as sulfurous acid There appears to be little degradation to the polymer itself from SO2 at low concentrations A controlled exposure study was conducted to determine the effects of gaseous pollutants on four classes of exterior paints: oil-base house paint, vinyl- acrylic house paint, and vinyl and acrylic coatings for metals (Spence et al., 1975) SO2 and relative humidity markedly affect the erosion of oil-based house paint The presence of NO2 increased the weight of the paint film Blisters formed on acrylic latex house paint at high SO2 levels The vinyl and acrylic coating are resistant to SO2 In addition, the weathering of wood prior to painting decreases paint adhesion Automobile finishes Reports indicate that particles can cause damage to automobile finishes The formulation of the paint will affect the paint’s durability under exposure to varying environmental factors and pollution However, failure of the paint system results in the need for more frequent repainting and additional cost The New York area, which includes northeastern New Jersey, with California, has the highest costs associated with paint soiling Stone and cement In general, stone containing lime is especially susceptible to the effects of acid deposition There can be facilitating effects between different constituents of particulate matter For instance, marble in cemeteries in the Los Angeles basin showed that SO2 is more reactive with the calcium in marble under high NO2 conditions Soiling An additional, significant and detrimental effect of particle pollution is the soiling of man-made surfaces The black crust found in the protected areas of buildings is formed from a hard crust of gypsum mixed with dust, aerosols and carbonaceous particles Increased frequency of cleaning, washing or repainting over soiled surfaces becomes an economic burden and can reduce the life usefulness of the material soiled A study of repainting frequency and particulate concentration found that houses in Steubenville, OH, where PM concentrations average 235 µm per year, needed to be repainted every year Fairfax, VA, on the other hand, had a mean annual PM concentration of 60 µm/m3; the time between re- painting was generally years 5-5 5.2.2 Acid deposition and natural ecosystems in New Jersey New Jersey consists of 19% wetlands and 42% forest area Its five physiological regions (Figure 5-1) sustain a wildlife abundance and diversity that is exceeded only by a few states Within the course of a year over 430 bird species can be sighted, ranking the state species list as fourth in the nation, surpassed only by the much larger states of Texas, California, and Florida New Jer- sey has more than 75 mammal species and over 40 species of reptiles and amphibians Because of its latitude, the state has an extraordinary blend of northern and southern animal and plant species that reach their limit of the ranges here Because New Jersey is the fourth smallest and most densely populated state in the nation, many environmental problems surface and need to Today, airhere pollution is a major be solved first (Kane et al,global 1992).environmental problem In Europe about half the air pollution crosses borders and kills fish, trees and corrodes buildings and monuments Governments in Europe have responded to this problem by collaborating within the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Convention, as well as by taking measures within the European Commu- nity and at the national level (Levy, 1993) Central to the work plan is the idea to use critical loads as the basis of LRTAP protocols in order to manage transborder pollutants A critical load is defined as “a quantitative estimate of exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant harmful effects on specified sensitive elements of the environment not occur according to the present knowledge” Critical loads focus negotiators’ attention on scientific issues Using dose-response data on soils, vegetation and freshwaters, national focal centers are preparing critical load maps for sulfur nitrogen and total acidity Critical loads vary a great deal across Europe because ecological sensitivity is highly dependent on geology and weather conditions Therefore in order to determine the critical load, each country focuses on its most sensitive The deposition on idea sensitive can range from daysand to centuries Ecosystems eco- effects system.ofWe apply this to thereceptors ecosystems of New Jersey focus on what we think are are the most sensitive ecosystems in the state: aquatic ecosystems and the Pine Barrens complex systems that are simultaneously responding to a variety of inputs, such as climate, land- use patterns and other pollutants besides sulfur and nitrogen oxides These multiple stressors can result in chemical changes within the ecosystem, which can exhibit long lag times before mani- festing a response Therefore, in many effect areas, responses to current reductions will not be expected for many years Monitoring the changes in the effects areas over time will be necessary to determine whether the expected benefits are realized 5.2.3 Aquatic ecosystems The following section describes the basic chemical principles behind how acid deposition produces the observed effects in aquatic systems Due to the different chemical properties of fresh and salt water, the major observed effects of acid deposition in freshwater and saltwater systems are fairly different and are treated under separate subheadings 5-6 Figure 5-1 Physiographic Regions of New Jersey 5-7 If there is a change in the concentration of an anion contributed by acid deposition (e.g., sulfate or nitrate), then other anions and/or cation concentrations must also change, such that the total concentration of anions always equals the total concentration of cations in the surface water This is called the principle of electroneutrality, whereby positive and negative ions are found in equal amounts Thus, if acid deposition causes sulfate and nitrate concentrations to increase, then some or all of the following changes will also occur: • Bicarbonate anion decreases, which causes a reduction in acid neutralizing capacity • Base cations (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium) increase, which prevent or minimize acidification of drainage waters, but may deplete soil reserves and affect forest growth • Hydrogen cation increases (decrease pH), which can adversely affect aquatic biota • Aluminum cation increases which can negatively affect aquatic biota If a reduction in acid deposition causes sulfate and nitrate concentrations to decrease, the changes opposite to those enumerated above will also occur An increase in the concentration of base cations in drainage waters as a consequence of acid deposition has both positive and nega- tive connotations Removal of base cations from soils to balance sulfate or nitrate from acid deposition minimizes the extent of surface water acidification Over time, however, base cation reserves in the soils can become depleted if they are lost from the soils faster than they are sup- plied from atmospheric inputs and weathering This can delay acidification recovery (NAPAP, 1998) Although it is too early to detect specific changes in aquatic systems from emission reductions under Title IV, significant progress has been made since 1990 in refining understanding of the acidification process and quantifying dose-response relationships This information improves model forecasts of anticipated change in aquatic systems due to reduced emissions Particular areas include naturally occurring organic acidity, the depletion of base cation reserves from soils, nitrogen dynamics in forest and alpine ecosystems, interactions between acid deposition and land use, and the role of aluminum in fisheries response Rivers, streams and lakes The concentration of sulfate in surface waters has decreased in many lakes and streams over the past 10-20 years This decrease has been caused by reductions in emissions and subsequent decreases in atmospheric deposition of sulfur on a regional basis in the United States during that period In parts of the northeastern United States, approximate reductions of 15% in sulfate con- centrations of lakes and streams have been measured in recent years (NAPAP, 1998) Sulfate concentrations are expected to continue to decline in the Northeast Exactly how that will affect surface water acidity and biological recovery is uncertain and will require continued monitoring On the other hand, lakes in New England appear to show statistically significant recovery in acid-neutralizing capability as a result of sulfate reductions However, the majority of Adiron- dack lakes have remained fairly constant, while the sensitive Adirondack lakes continue to acid- ify (Bulger et al., 1998) 5-8 Concurrent changes in the concentrations of other chemical parameters have been generally less clear and less consistent than for sulfate and base cations There other parameters are more strongly influenced by factors other than atmospheric deposition Concentrations of key chemical parameters often vary per season by more than can be accounted for by acid deposition Seasonal variability is particularly problematic in determining long-term trends Continued monthly monitoring of different types of lakes and streams located in sensitive regions will provide much needed data on seasonal variability Adverse effects on fish populations and communities of chronically acidified streams comes from Shenandoah National Park (Virginia) Fish species richness, population density, condition factor, age distribution, size and bioassay survival were all reduced in streams with low acid- neutralizing capacity, as compared to those with intermediate and high acid neutralizing capa- bilities (Bulger et al., 1998) A study of 13 streams in the Adirondack and Catskill Mountains showed long-term adverse episodic effects on fish populations Streams with suitable chemistry during low flow, but low pH and high aluminum levels during high flow, had substantially lower numbers and biomass of brook trout than were found in nonacidic streams Streams having acidic episodes showed significant fish mortality A study of coastal plain streams indicated that larval mortality of river herring due to episodic acidification may be substantial during wet years, which exhibit more frequent and severe episodes Episodic acidification may also be relevant to certain kinds of lakes, depending on the magnitude and duration of the spring snowmelt period Rainbow trout are sensitive to acidification not because of acidity itself, but because of elevated aluminum con- centrations due to low pH levels (lower than 5.0) Aluminum accumulates on gills and disrupts gill ion transport and respiratory function (NAPAP, 1998) Estuaries and near-coastal waters It is now obvious that ammonium and nitrate deposition are central concerns to the health of coastal ecosystems Although these species are major contributors to acid deposition, their main environmental consequence is eutrophication of coastal waters The problem is not just deposition to the water bodies themselves, but the transport of airborne nitrogen species through surrounding watersheds, streams, ground water into the water bodies that become overenriched with nutrients Depending on the water body in question, atmospheric deposition is likely to Nitrogen is the limiting nutrientof forthe thetotal growth of algae in many estuaries and near-coastal sysaccount for as much as 30-40% nutrient loading received tems, rather than phosphorus, which typically limits algal growth in freshwater systems Chesa- peake Bay is the nation’s largest estuarine system, with a watershed of almost 64,000 square miles, encompassing one-sixth of the Eastern Seaboard The Bay has an important fish and shell- fish industry and serves as a nursery for marine commercial and sport fish There has been con- siderable research and monitoring on the effects of nitrogen and phosphorus loading to Chesa- peake Bay New Jersey’s southern shore borders Delaware Bay, which has experienced many problems similar to those of the Chesapeake Changes in atmospheric nitrogen deposition can have significant impacts on aquatic biology Excess nitrogen entering the Bay produces algal blooms that block sunlight needed for submerged aquatic grasses, and the decomposition of ex- cess algae depletes life-sustaining oxygen needed by invertebrates inhabiting bottom waters The best estimates of atmospheric nitrogen loads to Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries along the 5-9 Atlantic and gulf Coasts range from 10% to 45% of the total nitrogen inputs from all sources Additional research is needed to quantify the current effects and the expected benefits from re- ducing nitrogen deposition on estuary systems 5.2.4 New Jersey Pine Barrens The Pine Barrens of New Jersey are unique and of global interest The Pine Barrens region, or Pinelands, is a large, mostly forested region that harbors many unique plant and animal species Ecologically, it consists of some 2000 to 2250 square miles of generally flat, sandy, acidic, and sterile soils which constitute a major part of the Outer Coastal Plain section of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in New Jersey (Boyd, 1991) For a detailed description of this ecosystem see For- man (1979) In addition to agriculture, some of the principle uses of the Pine Barrens are recrea- tional: camping, canoeing, hiking and hunting Another important use is valuable scientific re- search The possible impacts of acid deposition on the vegetation of the Pine Barrens, and upon plant and animal life in its streams are currently under study by the Division of Pinelands Research at Rutgers University The nature and source of acid rain is changing the type of acidity in Pine Barrens streams from organic to mineral This is shown by increased levels of sulfate in the water and decreased concentrations of dissolved organic matter The acidity characteristic of soils in the Pine Barrens is created when decaying vegetation produces an organic acid that washes down through and is absorbed by sandy soils These organic acids leach out aluminum found in Pine- land soils, making it harmless in Pine Barren waters However, the sulfuric acids in acid rain not bond with aluminum, so this mineral is washed, in its pure form, into streams (Morgan, 1984) It is concluded that the pollution caused by these increased sulfates, nitrates, and alumi- num may be toxic to aquatic life, but long-term effects of this pollution are unknown at this time (Section 5.4.3.1 discusses the toxic effects of aluminum on fish in freshwater streams) Acid deposition has also been shown to increase levels of mercury and nitrate in pine needles and other vegetation Animals eating this vegetation will tend to concentrate those toxic compounds in their body tissues, possibly increasing mortality While the physiological pathways for increased plant adsorption of these toxins are well-known, the mechanism by which they accumu- late in animals and the effects on morbidity and mortality have not been rigorously demonstrated and await further scientific evidence Significant impacts of acid deposition on forest health have not been detected in the southern pine and pine-hardwood region, to which the New Jersey Pine Barrens are similar However, acid deposition is a major contributor to the depletion of base cations in many poorly buffered soils supporting southern pines and will, most likely, over the long term (decades), impede pro- ductivity Short-term positive effects on growth are expected for some nitrogen-deficient soils, while negative effects are expected to be limited to the most acidic, base-depleted soils A synthesis of studies that originated as part of a NAPAP to evaluate the sensitivity of southern pines to acid deposition and ozone has now been completed In chamber studies, saplings of the three principle commercial pine species (loblolly, shortleaf, and slash pine) were exposed to simulated acid rainfall and ozone Maximum annual growth reductions in saplings due to due to ambient ozone were quite small (2-5%), but the yield could be significantly reduced over the longer time frames Growth rates of saplings typically responded positively to ambient levels 5-10 acid rainfall However, longer-term exposures are expected to have cumulative negative effects on soil nutrition While these impacts will most likely have negative long-term consequences, the inputs of atmospheric sources of nitrogen to many soils with low nitrogen reserves should have small cumulative positive effects on productivity for as long as decades (NAPAP, 1998) 5.2.5 Trends in acid deposition Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) requires the reduction of acid rain precursors—namely, emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) from electric utilities Emissions of SO2 in the United States have decreased significantly since the enactment of Title IV of the Clean Air Act, from 26 million tons per year in 1980 to18 million tons in 1995 Most, if not all, of those reductions in SO2 emissions have come from reductions in the emis- sions of Phase I utilities, especially electric utilities Seasonal trends in fineparticulate sulfur show increases for the summer months and slight decreases during the winter in Great Smokey Mountains and Shenandoah National Parks from 1982 to 1994 Total Sulfur Ambient Air Con- centrations from 1989 to 1995 have decreased an average of 30% (NAPAP, 1998) While annual mean pH of precipitation in New Jersey continues to be very low (4.3), the total annual deposi- tion of sulfate ions (kg/ha) is below the threshold considered to be detrimental to natural ecosys- tems (20 kg/ha) Analysis of the 1995 wet deposition monitoring data demonstrates that the 1995 reduction in SO2 emissions in the Midwestern and northeastern United States resulted in a substantial reduc- tion of the acidity and sulfate concentration of precipitation in those regions Unlike sulfate and hydrogen ions, nitrate concentrations in 1995 were greater than estimated concentrations at most of the sites in the eastern and western regions of the country This is not unexpected, since im- plementation of Title IV NOx reductions only began in January 1996 In 1995, dry deposition rates of sulfur at State College, Pennsylvania, decreased to their lowest rates since 1986 Deposition rates of nitrogen have slowly increased Current capabilities for un- derstanding the processes controlling dry deposition are still exploratory Work conducted in the United States on dry deposition of SO2 indicates that the historic evaluation of dry deposition of gaseous sulfur may underestimate actual rates, perhaps as much as 15-20%, depending on the site 5-11 5.3 Visibility The National Research Council’s Committee on Haze in National Parks and Wilderness Areas said, “Visibility is the degree to which the atmosphere is transparent to visible light.” Section 169A of the 1977 Clean Air Act (CAA) Amendments (42 U.S.C 7491) and the 1979 Report to Congress (U.S Environmental Protection Agency, 1979) define visibility impairment as a re- duction in visual range and atmospheric discoloration Equating visibility to the visual range is consistent with historical visibility measurements at airports, where human observers recorded the greatest distance at which one of a number of pre-selected Visibility maybealso be defined as the clarity (transparency) and color fidelity of the targets could perceived atmosphere Transparency can be quantified by the contrast transmittance of the atmosphere This definition of visibility is consistent with both (1) the historical records based on human observation of the perceptibility of targets, which include both the longest duration and most widespread records now available, and (2) the definition of visibility recommended by the National Research Coun- cil 5.3.1 Air pollution and visibility Air pollution can also alter the colors of the atmosphere and the perceived colors of objects viewed through the atmosphere A complete quantification of visibility should include a measure of the color changes caused by the atmosphere Such measures have been included in plume visibility models, but there is no consensus on the best parameter to quantify color changes caused by air pollution from many sources The perception of color depends on illumination and setting For example, when there is a brilliant sunset, a white picket fence will appear to be white, but will be distinctly yellow in a photo- graph A nitrogen dioxide-containing plume appears to be yellow against a blue sky even when a photograph or spectral measurement shows that the plume is blue, but less blue than the sur- rounding sky The eye correctly perceives that a yellow gas is present in the plume These prop- erties of human vision have been explored elsewhere (EPA, 1997d) One way to measure the effect of particulate matter on visibility is to measure the light scattering efficiency of particles The higher the light scattering efficiency, the less light from any given object reaches an observer’s eyes, decreasing visibility The light-scattering efficiency differs considerably for fine and coarse particles, ranging from 2.4 to 3.1 m2/g for fine particles and 0.2 to 0.4 m2/g for coarse particles (EPA, 1997f) Larger light-scattering efficiencies for fine parti- cles have been observed when significant numbers of the particles are in the 0.5 to 1.0 µm size range The great majority of light absorption by particles is caused by elemental carbon Deter- minations of the mass-specific light-absorption emission of elemental carbon give values in the range of to 10 m2/g Great reductions in visibility occur when water condenses to form fog or clouds Water is also present in all ambient particles, even on relatively clear days The increase in the amount of water in particle phase that occurs at high relative humidity (RH) has a signifi- cant effect on visibility Light-scattering efficiency of fine particles also increase with high RH, and ammonium sulfate particles are an aerosol component that contributes to the absorption of 5-12 water at high RH Thus, fine particles cause more visibility problems than coarse particles, and on hot, humid days exasperate conditions that lower visibility Particulate sulfate found in the atmosphere by the conversion of SO2 is responsible for 4065% of the haze in the eastern United States, based on a combination of measurements and calculations Nitrates contribute 6-14% of the haze on an annual average basis, with much lower contri- butions in summer (less than 5%) than in winter (almost 30%) Nitrate concentrations in urban areas are generally higher than in surrounding rural areas as a result of the influence of urban Economic studies have estimated values for two types of visibility effects potentially related to transportation sources particulate matter and NOx: (1) use and non-use values for preventing the types of plumes caused by power plant emissions, visible from recreation areas in the southwestern United States; and (2) use values of local residents for reducing or preventing increases in urban haze in several dif- ferent locations In the eastern United States, the accepted value for natural visibility is between 60 and 80 miles From to 12% of visibility reduction in these states comes from natural vegetation; 60 to 70% of anthropogenically-induced visibility impairment is estimated to come from sulfates, while car- bon-based compounds contribute roughly 20% In urban areas, nitrates are thought to be more important than in rural areas (Anon, 1994) While visibility is lower during the summer months, the relative contribution of different particle species does not vary with season In the long-term, mean visibility has steadily decreased in the eastern states for all seasons since 1970 Visibility during the summer months is significantly affected, with mean visibility less than 10 miles for all states east of the Mississippi (Anon, 1994) 5.3.2 Haze in protected natural areas In August 1977, Congress amended the Clean Air Act (CAA) to establish as a national goal “the prevention of any future and remedying of any existing impairment of visibility in mandatory Class I Federal areas, which impairment results from man-made air pollution” (Title I Part C Section 169A; 42 U.S.C 7491) Class I areas include many national parks and wilderness areas, including Brigantine Federal Wildlife Refuge in Southern New Jersey The mandate to protect visibility in national parks and wilderness areas led to the development of the Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE), a cooperative visibility monitoring network managed and operated by federal land management agencies, the U.S EPA and State air quality organizations In National Park Service (NPS) studies during the summers of 1983, 1984, and 1985, visitors at Grand Canyon, Mesa Verde, Mount Rainier, Great Smoky Mountains, and Everglades National Parks were given a list of park features and asked how important each one was to their recreational experience At each of the five parks, "clean, clear air" was ranked among the top features For example, 82 percent of the 638 respondents at Grand Canyon rated "clean, clear air" as "very important" or "extremely important" to their recreational experience 5-13 The Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission is currently conducting a comprehensive study on the economic impact of visibility impairment on national parks and wilderness areas and the cost of controls Several studies have estimates on-site values for preventing an air- pollution plume visible from recreation areas in the southwestern United States The estimated on-site use values for the prevention or elimination of the plume ranged from $3 to $6 (1989 dollars) per day per visitor-party at the park A potential problem common to all studies is the use of daily entrance fees as a payment vehicle That people notice changes in visibility conditions, and that visibility conditions affect the wellbeing of individuals, has been verified in scenic and visual air quality rating studies, through ob- servation that individuals spend less time at scenic vistas on days with lower visibility and through use of attitudinal surveys (Ross, 1988; EPA, 1997f) In New Jersey, this probably affects revenue from tourism, especially for sites such as Barnegut Lighthouse in Cape May County and Liberty Island State Park in Jersey City Edwin B Forsythe Federal Wildlife Refuge (FWR), formerly known as the Brigantine FWR, is one of few IMPROVE sites in the eastern United States and the only such site in New Jersey Unfortunately, visibility data from the monitors is not currently available New Jersey’s Depart- ment of Environmental Protection does take smoke shade information, which shows that visibil- ity problems are concentrated in the northeast of the state (Figure 5-2) However, the correlation of this data with fine particulate matter levels is unclear Section 4.6, Effects and Benefits, pres- ents trends observed in the eastern United States and relates them to CAAA effects 5.3.3 Urban haze Interest in protecting visibility in urban areas has a long history and is strong in today’s society Smoke in European cities, especially London, has been a concern for centuries Many of the modern advances in the understanding of fine particles were made during the 1969 Pasadena Smog Experiment (Whitby et al., 1992) The continuing interest in urban visibility is indicated in the list of short-term intensive visibility and aerosol studies summarized by the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP) Report on Visibility (Trijonis et al., 1991) Visibil- ity, while an important aesthetic aspect of urban environments, could be an important factor in air traffic problems A study based on answers to direct willingness to pay questions in Eastern cities (Chicago, Atlanta, Boston, Washington, D.C., Miami and Cincinnati) showed that households were willing to pay $8 to $51 (average $18) a month for 14% average improvement in visibility alone (Tolley et al., 1986) 5-14 Figure 5-2 State of New Jersey Average Smoke Shade, 1996 5-15 5.3 Ozone At ground level, ozone is created by a chemical reaction between oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight Ozone is a gas that forms in the atmosphere when atoms of oxygen are combined (O3) Ozone has the same chemical structure whether it occurs high above the earth or at ground level and can be "good" or "bad," depending on its location in the atmosphere Ozone occurs in two layers of the atmosphere The layer surrounding the earth’s surface is the troposphere Here, ground level or "bad" ozone is an air pollutant that damages human health, vegetation, and many common materials It is a key ingredient of urban smog The troposphere extends to a level about 10 miles up, where it meets the second layer, the stratosphere The stratospheric or "good" ozone layer extends upward from about 10 to 30 miles and protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays (UV-B) Motor vehicle exhaust and industrial emissions, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC, also known as ozone precursors, and significant compo- nents of fine PM Strong sunlight and hot weather cause ground-level ozone to form in harmful concentrations in the air Many urban areas tend to have high levels of ground-level ozone, but other areas are also subject to high ozone levels as winds carry NOx emissions hundreds of miles away from their original sources Ozone concentrations can vary from year to year Changing weather patterns (especially the number of hot, sunny days), periods of air stagnation, and other factors that contribute to ozone formation make long-term predictions difficult 5.4.1 Effects of ozone on ecosystems Ground-level ozone interferes with the ability of plants to produce and store food, so that growth, reproduction and overall plant health are compromised By weakening sensitive vegetation, ozone makes plants more susceptible to disease, pests, and environmental stresses Groundlevel ozone has been shown to reduce agricultural yields for many economically important crops (e.g., soybeans, kidney beans, wheat, and cotton) In the United States, this is worth an estimated 500 million dollars in reduced crop yield each year The effects of ground-level ozone on long-lived species such as trees are believed to add up over many years so that whole forests or ecosystems can be affected For example, ozone can adversely impact ecological functions such as water movement, mineral nutrient cycling, and habitats for various animal and plant species Ground- level ozone can kill or damage leaves so that they fall off the plants too soon or become spotted or brown These effects can significantly decrease the natural beauty of an area, such as in na- tional parks and recreation areas 5-16 5.4.2 Trends in ozone Between 1980 and 1997, between and 60 days per year have exceed the ozone limit New Jersey, although that number of days has decreased steadily in that time period This is largely due to ozone-related summertime nitrogen oxide controls Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds are the primary precursors of trophospheric ozone As a result of oxidation reactions in the atmosphere, these compounds form ozone These same oxidation reactions convert sulfur oxides and nitrogen dioxides to their sulfate and nitrate forms, leading to acid deposition Research contributing to the understanding of ozone chemistry, transport and fate will be critical in interpreting the results of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide controls to reduce acid deposition It will be important to know how controls of these compounds have interacted to produce beneficial results in environmentally sensitive regions, and to be able to distinguish between their relative contributions Trophospheric ozone and acid deposition both have nitrogen oxides in common Understanding their sources and sinks will be important in resolving those issues An important question to address in the future will be the degree to which ozone-related nitrogen-oxide controls also mitigate acid deposition and coastal eutrophication problems 5.5 Effects and benefits Economic methods for valuing the effects of pollution on marketed goods and services have been available for many years The ability to estimate benefits for these effects is limited by the avail- ability of economic and scientific data In contrast, methods for estimating the nonmarket values and passive-use values have only recently become widely used and accepted Market goods and services in this case include agriculture and commercial forests and materials Non-market goods and services are those associated with aquatic and forest recreation and visi- bility By nonuse values we mean ecosystem health and cultural resources 5.5.1 A general overview The 1998 NAPAP Biennial Report to Congress analyzes benefits associated with each sector and the expected effects of further reductions to each sector In general, quantifiable benefits are relatively large in the areas of health and visibility The main problem in both materials and cul- tural resources valuation is the lack of a complete information in all areas: an inventory of af- fected assets, economic lives of assets, change in associated human behavioral responses to dam- age Ecosystem changes associated with Title IV reductions in emissions cannot yet be deter- mined The science-to-economics links for fishing, boating and swimming are not yet well- developed, but are better for the northeastern United States than in the rest of the country There is ample evidence of the effects of sulfur, nitrogen and ozone on forests A key concern is the decline of forest resources However, the link between primary pollutants and the effects that people may care about most, such as foliage intensity and range, is not established A variety of confounding factors, such as drought and introduced pests, has made it difficult for forest re5-17 searchers to quantify the relationship between air pollution levels and forest decline Susceptibility to these factors may well be associated with forest health Of all air pollutants, ambient ozone is likely to cause the most significant crop damage Dose-response functions for ozone are avail- able for most major agronomic crops and some specialty crops NOx reductions are believed to decrease the creation of ozone and damage to agriculture (NAPAP, 1998) As a result of emission reduction, potentially significant benefits may be achieved in the areas of visibility and materials As preliminary evidence discussed earlier indicates, reasonable estimates of benefits to materials and cultural resources are not available With regard to visibility, in one study standard visual range with and without Title IV was compared to assess the economic benefits of improvements in visibility Drawing on several previous survey studies to value changes in visibility, substantial monetary benefits were obtained for residential areas in 31 east- ern states and for national parks in the southeastern United States Benefits to this region were estimated to be $3.4 billion (1994 dollars) in 2010, or about $377 per ton of SO2 emission reduc- tion Alternative scenarios predict median visibility benefits for improvements at $118 to $224 per ton of SO2 reduction Visibility changes vary in a nonlinear fashion with emission changes, resulting in the variation in benefits per ton Benefits at residential sites were found to be of sub- stantial magnitude Reasonable estimates of potential ecosystem (non-use) benefits are not available at this time Ecosystem health benefits are expected to be large in part because they encompass broad changes that affect many environmental end points, perhaps to a small degree, but that taken together could alter large-scale systems Aquatic and terrestrial effects are likely to have significant benefits through non-use values, but uncertainties around those values remain the largest 5.5.2 Effects for New Jersey What these figures mean for New Jersey? In this section we have reviewed the basic mechanisms of how problems associated with fine particulate matter have complex effects in the natural environment, differentiating between the urban areas of northeastern and central-west New Jersey, and rural areas, especially southern New Jersey The major effects of air pollution are not just limited to the effects of primary particles, but also to secondary products of airborne compounds that form particulate matter As we have stressed throughout the section, the very different chemical natures of the components of PM2.5 mean that their effects in natural systems also differ greatly We identify three major effects of particulate matter: • acid deposition • changes in visibility • ozone We also stress that the lack of scientific information and long-term data (which is in the process of being collected) makes it extremely difficult to make exact predictions and economic arguments regarding the effects of particulate matter, and on the possible effects of changing their regulation standards However, just to highlight the possible magnitude of these impacts, it may be useful to consider the industries that are affected by the effects of particulate matter 5-18 Increased visibility is the most well-understood and predictable effect of changing particulate matter standards Changes in visibility have been hypothesized to affect airport operations Based on a study conducted by the U.S EPA (1985), the percentage of the visibility impairment inci- dents sufficient to affect air traffic activity might be attributable in part to man-made air pollut- ants (possibly to 12% in the summer for the eastern United States) Lowered visibility was seen to lower the amount of time and the amount of money that tourists spend in the Grand Canyon This result probably similar at some New Jersey tourist destinations, for instance, Liberty State Park in Jersey City Jersey City is also the site in New Jersey with the highest average annual Coefficient of Haze Liberty State Park is one of the most visited tourist sites in New Jersey Since New Jersey Smoke Shade measures (Coefficient of Haze) are not comparable to the Grand Canyon “deciview” units of visibility, we cannot directly attribute economic benefits to increasTourism in New Jersey is worth slightly more than $25 billion dollars annually New Jersey is ing visibility at these sites a well-known birding site, being a major stop on the eastern seaboard migration route, especially for seabirds and neotropical migrants (among which include several endangered species) This sector of tourism would be affected severely by ecosystem degradation, due to acid deposition and ozone damage We have shown that acid deposition affects materials, increasing mainte- nance and replacement costs Ecosystem degradation would also affect the agriculture and fisheries sectors New Jersey is home to some of the largest commercial and recreational fishing ports on the Eastern Coast In 1995, New Jersey commercial fisherman harvested over 177 million pounds of fish and seafood valued at over $96 million The state’s fledgling aquaculture industry contributed an additional farmgate value of $4 million It is estimated that the commercial and seafood industries contrib- uted approximately $624 million to the economy of the Garden State in 1995 with an additional $762.2 million generated by the recreational fishing industry Signs of decline already exist, and show signs of improvement with stringent monitoring and clean-up efforts over the last 40 years After dramatic crashes in fish populations in the early 80s, the Delaware River and Estuary has shown increases in the abundance of several major fisheries in recent years, including striped bass, weakfish, and American Shad However, even these current levels for fish abundances are still significantly lower than those a century ago, some times as much as two orders of magnitude in the case of the Atlantic sturgeon Cash receipts from farms totaled $773 million in New Jersey in 1997 The largest part of this figure comes from the nursery/greenhouse/sod industry ($257 million), followed by vegetables ($169 million) Other important sectors were equine ($115 million), fruit ($86 million), field crops ($60 million), dairy ($42 million) and poultry and eggs ($36 million) While an estimate of agricultural losses due to air pollution and fine particulate matter is impossible at this time, we might begin by looking at the effects of ozone on agricultural production The effects of ozone on production are well documented for many agricultural crops Since the precursors to ozone are the same particles that contribute to particulate matter, we feel that this may provide a good estimate for the order of magnitude for agricultural losses due to air pollution Agriculture in the United States produced a little over $86 billion in agricultural crops alone in 1997 Ozone dam- age is estimated to cause losses of $500 million to agricultural crops alone, which works out to 5-19 0.5% of agricultural crop production Assuming that ozone decreased the production of only agricultural field crops and not vegetables, fruits and nuts, or any other agricultural and farm prod- uct, and extrapolating from national figures for agricultural losses, this implies a loss of a $350 thousand per year If this were to include all principal crops then losses for New Jersey could be on the order of $1.6 million per annum All of the above estimates are upper bounds on the pos- sible economic effects of particulate matter However, as we have seen above, the effects of par- ticulate matter in ecosystems are not simple relationships, and biological and ecological path- ways often magnify and accumulate pollutants and their effects such that results are only observ- able after long time delays The following paragraphs address this concern In order to examine the question of “threshold” effects in ecosystems and the possible effects of the new fine PM standards, we outline the possible effects of reduced nitrogen and sulfur depo- sition in surface water, soils and forests (NAPAP, 1998) Since biological responses to changes in acid-base chemistry are along a continuum, there is not a single value or set of chemical concentrations that represent a threshold for significant adverse biological effects We therefore Adverse ecological are any injury (i.e.ofloss of chemical have a difficult taskeffects in determining the level acceptable risk.or physical quality or viability) to any ecological or ecosystem component, up to and including at the regional level, over both long and short terms Using this working definition we are interested in looking at a doseresponse relationship along a continuum of ecological effects The main question of interest therefore is: as the dose of air pollution (specifically sulfur and nitrogen emissions and its subsequent formation of acid deposition) is reduced, how aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems respond? We know that both nitrogen and sulfur deposition are important contributors to chronic and episodic acidification of surface waters Further reductions in nitrogen as well as sulfur deposition may be necessary to fully protect targeted sensitive systems The literature search for this project has shown us that there is still much research to be done if we are to protect sensitive ecosystems appropriately It is this lack of knowledge that has limited the EPA’s ability to recommend specific deposition standards The Nitrogen Bounding Study (Van Sickle & Church, 1995) illustrates the modeled results of scenarios of potential future nitrogen and sulfur deposition rates and different watershed nitrogen retention conditions and their combined effects on surface water chemistry at regional scales The main results suggest that sulfur deposition is likely to remain the primary acidification problem in the most sensitive areas of eastern North America Additionally sulfur and nitrogen are projected to have approximately equal roles in surface water acidification For most areas where current or near-term needs for additional controls are projected, and where watershed nitrogen saturation is not likely imminent, the greatest potential benefits will come primarily from control of sulfur emissions and deposition In regions where nitrogen deposition is now or would likely become a more direct cause of chronically acidic conditions in sensitive waters, with po5-20 tential effects of sulfur and nitrogen deposition becoming approximately equal and directly addi- tive, further limits on nitrogen deposition could produce a twofold impact by both reducing acid deposition rates and lengthening average times to watershed nitrogen saturation Scientific uncertainties regarding varying regional rates and differences in processes affecting watershed assimilation of acid-forming sulfur and nitrogen compounds preclude quantifying the reduction in deposition of either chemical below which there would be no significant adverse impact Available information indicates that additional decreases in deposition would reduce re- gional proportions of chronically acidic surface waters or proportions of surface water most sen- sitive to episodic effects The magnitude of these potential benefits to each group of surface wa- ters varies considerably by region Deposition reductions could benefit 20% or more of the acidic or sensitive waters However, even a few percentage points may mean that many lakes or miles of stream reaches are benefiting The acid-base chemistry of the soils and the water draining forest soils will depend on the characteristics and sensitivity of the soils A recent study has shown that New Jersey’s soils have a high probability of experiencing a delayed or future response to acidic deposition (Turner et al., 1986) In general, decreasing the input of sulfur and nitrogen from deposition will decrease sul- fate and nitrate levels in soils and soil water The timing of this decrease in soil and soil water sulfate depends on the amount of sulfur stored Soils high in sulfur will most likely experience a slower decrease in soil water sulfate, as the soil slowly releases stored sulfur For nitrogen, the timing of the decrease will depend on the amount of nitrogen stored and the growth needs of the forest A forest that has high demand for nitrogen, relative to the nitrogen storage and through- put, will experience smaller decreases in nitrogen in soil water in response to decreased nitrogen deposition compared to a forest that has a low demand for nitrogen A forest’s need for nitrogen is strongly dependent upon the age of the forest Thus, young actively growing forests are far less likely to experience nitrogen saturation than older stands that have reached the steady-state equilibrium 5.6 Conclusions The main components of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) are soil-related particles, sulfur oxides (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) These components can combine in a variety of ways that noticeably affect urban, agricultural and natural systems We discuss the effects of acid deposition, reduced visibility and ozone in urban environments, on ag- riculture, and on what we consider to be New Jersey’s most sensitive ecosystems: aquatic systems and the Pine Barrens Table 5-1 lists the contribution of the components of fine PM to these secondary effects Sulfates and nitrates in the atmosphere nucleate around fine dust particles or react with other compounds to form secondary fine PM They can be washed out of the atmos- phere by rain (wet acid deposition), or directly deposited (dry acid deposition) onto buildings, trees or whatever else intercepts these particles Reduced visibility is caused by the physical scattering of light by PM in the atmosphere Fine PM scatters light more efficiently than coarse PM, and is a major cause of the haze that characterizes summertime urban areas and that reduces visibility at important national monuments like Grand Canyon National Park and Liberty Island State Park Ozone is formed as a product of reactions between nitrates and volatile organic com- pounds, also components of fine PM To the extent that regulations lower ambient levels of fine 5-21 PM, they also lower the formation of secondary products and reduce the problems associated with acid deposition, reduced visibility and ground-level ozone formation Table 5-1: Contributions of PM2.5 particles to environmental effects Particle type Contributes to soil reduced visibility organic carbon compounds ozone reduced visibility sulfates acid deposition reduced visibility nitrates acid deposition ozone Table 5-2 summarizes the major environmental and ecological effects of acid deposition, reduced visibility and ozone, the possible economic ramifications of those effects and the sectors that would be most likely impacted by changes in ambient fine PM levels Acid deposition is the most widespread problem, that affects urban areas as much as natural ecosystems Its effects are also among the most well-studied In urban areas acid deposition contributes to corrosion of building materials, increasing maintenance and repair costs For instance, repainting frequency for houses in Virginia increased from once every four years in areas of low acid deposition to once every one or two years for areas with high acid deposition Acid deposition contributes to nitrification and eutrophication of surface waters High levels of nitrates in water are toxic to animals and humans, lower levels affect drinking water quality and can change the dynamics and composition of aquatic plant communities by encouraging the growth of “weedy” species Ac- celerated plant growth and death overloads the bottom communities responsible for decomposi- tion, depletes oxygen levels and can cause deaths that cascade up the food chain, resulting in the massive fishkills observed in the last two decades throughout the Northeastern United States These same conditions cause beach closings and can be expected to significantly affect recrea- tional activities Acidic conditions can increase the concentrations of certain heavy metals such as aluminum, nickel, cadmium and mercury in runoff which ends up in streams This can poison fish and shellfish that are important in human consumption In terrestrial systems, acid deposi- tion, especially of nitrates, can interrupt nutrient cycling It can also increase plant uptake of heavy metals and nitrates, which in turn increases the morbidity and possibly mortality of ani- mals eating them 5-22 Table 5-2 Environmental and ecological consequences of acid deposition, reduced visibility and ozone, and their economic and social ramifications Problem and scope Acid deposition (Urban, widespread) Economic/social ramifications Consequences Damage to materials (Freshwater and coastal waters) Nitrification and eutrophication of surface waters Increased runoff of toxic minerals (Terrestrial ecosystems) Changes in nutrient cycling Reduced visibility (Local) Increased maintenance and repair costs Increased fishkills Many or all Foul odors and unpalatable tastes in drinking water Drinking Water Increased morbidity and mortality of wildlife and livestock Loss of ecosystem services, Loss of sensitive species like aluminum buffering from ecosystem Reduced visibility Decreased income from tourism Increased risk of air traffic accidents Ozone Reduced visibility (Local) Decreased productivity of plants Toxicity to animals Sectors affected Decreased income from tourism to parks and reserves Lowered agricultural productivity Increased morbidity and mortality ofeffects wildlifeon noticeable Fisheries Agriculture Recreation Recreation Industry Recreation Agriculture Reductions in fine PM levels can be expected to have visibility and ozone However, the effects on acid deposition are unclear Because the causes of acid deposition are multiple and complex, and because responses and reactions of ecosystems can take years and decades to register, we not know what the effects of reducing fine PM will be on levels of acid deposition, nor what the effects of reducing acid deposition would mean for terrestrial eco- systems such as the Pine Barrens For aquatic systems, the reduction of acid deposition is an im- portant step in reducing the causes of nitrification and eutrophication of surface waters How- ever, without concurrent reductions in other sources of nitrates and other pollutants, few notice- able short-term improvements in aquatic system health would be expected 5-23 REFERENCES FOR SECTION Anonymous, 1994 Visibility Protection National Park Service Air Quality Division Visibility Research Program (http://www.aqd.nps.gov/ard/vis/visprot.html) Baedecker P A., E.O Edney, P J Moran, T.C Simpson & R S Williams 1991 “Effects of acidic deposition on materials” in Irvine, P M., ed Acidic Deposition: State of Science and Technology, Vol III: Terrestrial, Materials, Health and Visibility Effects Washington DC: the US National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (State of Science and Technology Report No 19) Barton, K 1958 “The Influence of Dust on Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals” Werkst Korros 8/9:547-549 Boyd H.P 1991 A Field Guide to the Pine Barrens of New Jersey New Jersey: Plexus Publishing, Inc Bulgur, A., J Cosby and R Webb 1998 Acid Rain: current and projected status of colwater fish communities in the Southeastern US in the context of continued acid deposition June, 1998 For Trout Unlimited Butlin, R N., A T Coote, M Devenish, I S Hughes, C M Hutchens, J G Irwin, G O Lloyd, S W Massey, A H Webb, T J S Yates 1992 “Preliminary Results from the Analysis of Metal Samples from the National Materi- als Exposure Program (NMEP)” in Atmos Environ Part B: 199-206 Ecological Society of America 1997 Newsletter December, 1997 URL: http://esa.sdsc.edu/News56.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.), 1998 “Environmental Effects of Acid Rain.” URL: http://www.epa.gov/docs/acidrain/effects.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) 1998 "Ozone: Good Up High, Bad Nearby" May 20, 1998 URL: http://www.epa.gov/oar/oaqps/gooduphigh Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.), 1997a "PM2.5 Composition and Sources" June 16, 1997 URL: http://www.epa/gov:80/ttnfaca1/nrdirs/pie_txt.pdf Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.), 1997b "Risk Impact Assessment Report for the Particulate Matter and Ozone National Ambient Air Quality Standards and Proposed Regional Haze Rule" June 17, 1997 URL: http://ttnwww.rtpnc.epa.gov/naaqsfin/ria.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) 1997c "Health and Environmental Effects of Ground-Level Ozone" July 17, 1997 URL: http://ttnwww.rtpnc.epa.gov/naaqsfin/o3health.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) 1997d “Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter” September 22, 1997 URL: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/partmatt.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) 1985 Developing Long-term Strategies for Regional Haze: Findings and Recommendations of the Visibility Task Force Research Triangle Park, NC Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) 1979 “Protecting visibility: an EPA report to Congress Research Triangle Park, NC: Office of Air Quality and Planning Standards” EPA Report no EPA-450/5-79-008 Available from: NTIS, Springfield, VA; PB80-220320 Forman T 1979 The Pine Barrens of New Jersey: An Ecological Mosaic In: Pine Barrens Ecosystems and Landscape Ed Forman T.T New York: Academic Press Graedel, T E., K Nassau and J P Franey 1987 “Copper patinas formed in the atmosphere—I Introduction” Cor- ros Sci 27: 639-657 5-24 Husar, R., J Husar and S Falke 1995 Fine Particle Maps Derived from Regional PM2.5 and Visibility Data Center for Air Pollution Impact and Trend Analysis (CAPITA) Levy, M A 1993 European Acid Rain: The Power of Tote-Board Diplomacy In: Institution for the Earth Eds: Haas P.M., Keohane R.O & Levy M.A Massachusetts: The MIT Press Kane, P.F., Rosselet D.A & Anderson K 1992 New Jersey Audubon Society’s Bridges to the Natural World New Jersey: New Jersey Audubon Society Martinez-Ramirez, S and G E Thompson 1998 “Dry and Wet ‘Deposition’ Studies of the Degradation of Cement Mortars” Mater Construc 48: 15-31 Morgan M 1984: “Acidification of Headwater Streams in New Jersey Pinelands: A re-evaluation.” Limnol Oceanogr., 29, 1259-66 National Acid Precipitation Assessment Project 1998 NAPAP Biennial Report to Congress: an integrated assessment May, 1998 Silver Springs, MD URL: http://www.nnic.noaa.gov/CENR/NAPAP/NAPAP_96.htm National Park Service 1998 "Air Quality and Deposition Monitoring" URL: http://www.nature.nps.gov/ard/gas/index.htm National Research Council 1979 Airborne Particles Baltimore, MD: University Park Press Robichaud B and Buell M.F 1973 Vegetation of New Jersey New Jersey: Rutgers University Press Ross, D 1988 “Effects of Visual Air Quality on Visitor Experience.” Chapter in Air Quality in National Parks: A Summary of Findings from the National Park Service Air Quality Research and Monitoring Program Natural Resources Report 88-1 URL: http://www.aqd.nps.gov/ard/vis/visitexp.html Spence, J W., F H Haynie and J B Upham 1975 “Effects of Gaseous Pollutants on Paints: A Chamber Study” J Paint Technology 47: 57-63 Tolley, G A., A Randall, G Blumquist, R Fabian, G Fishelson, A Frankel, J Hoehn, R Krumm, E Mensah and T Smith 1986 Establishing and Valuing the Effects of Improved Visibility in the Eastern United States Washing- ton, D C.: U.S Environmental Protection Agency Trijonis, J C., W C Malm, M Pitchford and W H White 1991 “Visibility: Existing and Historical Conditions — Causes and Effects” in Irving, P M., ed Acidic Deposition: State of Science and Technology, Volume III: Terres- trial, Materials, Health and Visibility Effects Washington, D C.: The US National Precipitation Assessment Pro- gram (State of Science and Technology Report no.24) Turner, R S., R J Olson and C.C Brant 1986 “Areas having Soil Charateristics that may indicate Sensitivity to Acidic Deposition under alternative Forest Damage Hypotheses” ORNL/TM-9917 Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN Van der Straaten, J 1998 “Is Economic Value the Same as Ecological Value?” VII International Congress of Ecology INTECOL, Firenze July 19-25, 1998 Van Sickle, J., and M R Church 1995 “Methods for Estimating the Relative Effects of Sulfur and Nitrogen Deposition on Surface Water Chemistry.” U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D C EPA/600/RWernstahl, K M 1998.” Design and Evaluation of Accelerated Tests for the Prediction of the Services Life of 95/172 Automotive Coatings” Jocca-surf Coat Int 80: 560 Whitby, K T., R B Husar and B Y H Liu 1972 “The Aerosol Size Distribution of Los Angeles Smog.” J Colloid Interface Sci 39: 177-204 5-25 [...]... arguments regarding the effects of particulate matter, and on the possible effects of changing their regulation standards However, just to highlight the possible magnitude of these impacts, it may be useful to consider the industries that are affected by the effects of particulate matter 5-18 Increased visibility is the most well-understood and predictable effect of changing particulate matter standards Changes... associated with fine particulate matter have complex effects in the natural environment, differentiating between the urban areas of northeastern and central-west New Jersey, and rural areas, especially southern New Jersey The major effects of air pollution are not just limited to the effects of primary particles, but also to secondary products of airborne compounds that form particulate matter As we have... figures for agricultural losses, this implies a loss of a $350 thousand per year If this were to include all principal crops then losses for New Jersey could be on the order of $1.6 million per annum All of the above estimates are upper bounds on the pos- sible economic effects of particulate matter However, as we have seen above, the effects of par- ticulate matter in ecosystems are not simple relationships,... ($36 million) While an estimate of agricultural losses due to air pollution and fine particulate matter is impossible at this time, we might begin by looking at the effects of ozone on agricultural production The effects of ozone on production are well documented for many agricultural crops Since the precursors to ozone are the same particles that contribute to particulate matter, we feel that this may... throughout the section, the very different chemical natures of the components of PM2.5 mean that their effects in natural systems also differ greatly We identify three major effects of particulate matter: • acid deposition • changes in visibility • ozone We also stress that the lack of scientific information and long-term data (which is in the process of being collected) makes it extremely difficult to make... the effects of reducing fine PM will be on levels of acid deposition, nor what the effects of reducing acid deposition would mean for terrestrial eco- systems such as the Pine Barrens For aquatic systems, the reduction of acid deposition is an im- portant step in reducing the causes of nitrification and eutrophication of surface waters How- ever, without concurrent reductions in other sources of nitrates... and biological and ecological path- ways often magnify and accumulate pollutants and their effects such that results are only observ- able after long time delays The following paragraphs address this concern In order to examine the question of “threshold” effects in ecosystems and the possible effects of the new fine PM standards, we outline the possible effects of reduced nitrogen and sulfur depo- sition... rural areas as a result of the influence of urban Economic studies have estimated values for two types of visibility effects potentially related to transportation sources particulate matter and NOx: (1) use and non-use values for preventing the types of plumes caused by power plant emissions, visible from recreation areas in the southwestern United States; and (2) use values of local residents for reducing... “Preliminary Results from the Analysis of Metal Samples from the National Materi- als Exposure Program (NMEP)” in Atmos Environ Part B: 199-206 Ecological Society of America 1997 Newsletter December, 1997 URL: http://esa.sdsc.edu/News56.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.), 1998 Environmental Effects of Acid Rain.” URL: http://www.epa.gov/docs/acidrain /effects. htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.)... "Health and Environmental Effects of Ground-Level Ozone" July 17, 1997 URL: http://ttnwww.rtpnc.epa.gov/naaqsfin/o3health.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) 1997d “Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter September 22, 1997 URL: http://www.epa.gov/ncea/partmatt.htm Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) 1985 Developing Long-term Strategies for Regional Haze: Findings and Recommendations of the